Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:I:International Journal of Educational Management:Vol11.Issue4.1997:

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Wing Ming Che ung and Yin Che o ng Che ng The strate gie s fo r imple me nting multile ve l se lf-manage me nt in sc ho o ls

Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 4 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 5 9 –1 6 9

p r oceed s t o t h e st a ffin g a n d d ir ect in g s t a ge. St a ffin g in clu d es t h e r ecr u it m en t a n d in d u c-t ion of n ew s c-t a ff a s w ell a s p r ofes sion a l d evelop m en t of a ll st a ff for com p et en ce in a ch iev -in g t h e a ss ign ed t a s k s. T h e sch ool a t t h is s t a ge a ls o focu ses on d ele ga t in g r es p on s ib ilit ies ilit o s ilit a ff, m oilit iva ilit in g s ilit a ff ilit ow a r d s ou ilit -p u t t in g q u a lit y wor k , cor d in a t in g a n d -p r o-v id in g d ir ect ion s t o s t a ff. Aft er t h e a b oo-ve s t a ges, t h e sch ool a s a w h ole im p lem en t s p la n n ed p r ogr a m m es. Du r in g a n d a ft er im p lem en t a t ion , t h e p er for m a n ce of t h e s ch ool a s a w h ole is eva lu a t ed a n d m on it or ed w it h it s es t a blis h ed r e p or t in g a n d eva lu a t ion s y s t em a s w ell a s t h e r ew a r d s y st em for it s t a s k / p r ogr a m m e gr ou p s. T h e in for m a t ion ob t a in ed is va lu a ble for t h e sch ool t o m ove for w a r d t o s t a r t t h e en v ir on m en t a l a n a ly sis s t a ge of t h e n ext self-m a n a gem en t cycle. In t h is w ay, t h e cycle of s elf-m a n a gem en t a t s ch ool level con t in u es.

T h e a b ove cyclic s elf-m a n a gem en t p r ocess a llow s t h e s ch ool a s a w h ole t o b e aw a r e of t h e ch a n gin g ch a llen ges, t o r ea d ju st it s sch ool m is s ion , p olicies a n d a ct ion p la n s t o t h es e n ew ch a llen ges. In t h is w ay, self-r en ew a l a n d lea r n in g occu r a s a r es u lt of t h e sch ool’s a d a p t a b ilit y t o t h e ever ch a n gin g ext er n a l a n d in t er n a l en v ir on m en t .

Self-management at the group level In t h e 1990s, t h e wor k wor ld lea n s t ow a r d s p a r t icip a t ive m a n a gem en t t h r ou gh t h e in t r o-d u ct ion of self-m a n a gin g wor k t ea m s by em p ow er in g s t a ffs w h ich elicit s com m it m en t a n d wor k in it ia t ive of em p loyees. T h u s, t h is s elf-m a n a gem en t of st a ff is es sen t ia lly r eq u ir ed for t op q u a lit y ou t p u t of or ga n iza -t ion s in gen er a l a n d s ch ools in p a r -t icu la r. A wor k gr ou p m ay b e con sid er ed a s a s m a ll or ga n iza t ion in t h e s ch ool. Ba s ed on t h is, t h e con ce p t ion of self-m a n a gem en t a t t h e s ch ool level m igh t b e ext en d ed t o t h e gr ou p level. Wit h in t h e ava ila ble a u t on om y a n d b ou n d -a r ies in t h e sch ool, s elf-m -a n -a gem en t p r ocess a t t h e gr ou p level m ay a lso in clu d e en v ir on -m en t a l a n a ly sis, p la n n in g a n d s t r u ct u r in g, s t a ffin g a n d d ir ect in g, im p lem en t in g, a n d m on it or in g a n d eva lu a t in g. P r a ct is in g t h e s elf-m a n a gem en t cycle, gr ou p s ca n b e aw a r e of t h e ever ch a n gin g in t er n a l a n d ext er n a l ch a llen ges, d evelop gr ou p m em b er s t o fa ce a n d m a n a ge t h ese ch a llen ges, a n d a ch ieve t h e

gr ou p a n d sch ool goa ls. In t h is cycle, gr ou p s a r e s elf-ed u ca t in g a n d self-r en ew in g.

Self-management at the individual level A self-m a n a gin g gr ou p w it h ou t self-m a n a g-in g g-in d iv id u a ls w ill n ot fu n ct ion effect ively. A self-m a n a gem en t p r ocess t h a t fa cilit a t es t h e in d iv id u a l t o b e r es p on sive t o ext er n a l ch a llen ges a n d en a bles in d iv id u a l con t in u ou s self-lea r n in g is im p or t a n t . T h e a b ove p r e-sen t ed self-m a n a gem en t p r oces s a t t h e gr ou p a n d s ch ool levels w it h a p p r op r ia t e m od ifi ca t ion s m ay ser ve t h is p u r p ose. T h u s, it is con ce p t u a lized t h a t w it h in t h e ava ila ble a u t on -om y a n d b ou n d a r ies, t h e in d iv id u a l st a ff wor k t h r ou gh t h eir self-m a n a gem en t p r ocess in clu d in g en v ir on m en t a l a n a ly sis, p la n n in g a n d a ffilia t in g, d evelop in g a n d d ir ect in g, a n d m on it or in g a n d eva lu a t in g, a s follow s. At t h e in it ia l st a ge, t h e st a ff a s in d iv id u a ls r efl ect on t h eir in t er n a l a n d ext er n a l en v ir on m en t . In t er n a lly, t h ey r efl ect on t h eir p er son a l a t t r ibu t es in t er m s of st r en gt h s, w ea k n esses, op p or t u n it ies a n d t h r ea t s a s m em b er s in t h e gr ou p a n d sch ool. E xt er n a lly, t h ey r efl ect on t h eir r ela t ion sh ip w it h ot h er m em b er s, st u d en t s’ a b ilit y a n d p a r en t a l exp ect a t ion s, com -p et it ion a n d co-o-p er a t ion w it h collea gu es, et c. T h en , b a sed on t h e r es u lt s of en v ir on m en t a l a n a ly sis, t h ey for m u la t e t h eir ow n d ir ect ion s a n d cou r ses of a ct ion (e.g. t h e st y le of t ea ch -in g) t o a ccom p lish t h e a ssign ed t a s k s w it h -in t h e ava ila ble a u t on om y a n d a lloca t ed r es ou r ces. T h eir a ct ion goa ls a n d p la n s sh ou ld b e con sist en t w it h t h e gr ou p a n d sch ool goa ls. T h ey a ls o es t a blish good a ffilia t ion a n d r ela t ion sh ip w it h collea gu es, st u d en t s, p a r en t s a n d m em b er s of t h e com m u -n it y. F u r t h er m or e, t h ey i-n vest t h eir effor t i-n d evelop in g t h eir p r ofession a l com p et en ce t h r ou gh fr eq u en t a t t en d a n ce a t p r ofession a l en r ich m en t p r ogr a m m es a n d exch a n ges w it h collea gu es. T h ey d ir ect t h em selves t o t h e p la n n ed goa ls a n d a ct iv it ies by p r op er a lloca -t ion of p er son a l r esou r ces, su ch a s -t im e a n d a t t en t ion . In t h e im p lem en t in g s t a ge, t h ey r efi n e t h eir a ct u a l p er for m a n ce in im p le-m en t in g t h e p r ogr a le-m le-m e t h r ou gh fr eq u en t r eh ea r sa ls, self-r ew a r d a n d self-p u n ish m en t . T h ey m on it or a n d eva lu a t e t h eir

p er for m a n ce t h r ou gh self-ob s er va t ion in a ccor d a n ce t o t h eir s et p er for m a n ce st a n d a r d s. T h ey t h en u se t h e r esu lt s of selfeva lu -a t ion t o in it i-a t e t h eir n ext self-m -a n -a gem en t cycle. T h r ou gh con t in u ou s s elf-m a n a gem en t a n d lea r n in g, t ea ch er s b ecom e m or e fl exible, a d a p t a ble a n d effect ive in a ch iev in g t h eir a ssign m en t s.

Wit h m u t u a lly con sis t en t s elf-m a n a gem en t p r a ct ices a t t h e in d iv id u a l, gr ou p a n d sch ool levels, t h e sch ool a s a w h ole b ecom es a “… Pra ctisin g th e self-m a n a gem en t cycle, g r ou p s ca n b e a w a re of

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lea r n in g or ga n iza t ion t h a t ca n con t in u ou s ly d evelop in d iffer en t a sp ect s, a d a p t t o t h e ch a n gin g en v ir on m en t a n d m eet t h e in t er n a l a n d ext er n a l n eed s a n d ch a llen ges.

Strategies for launching multilevel

self-management in schools

To t a ck le t h e d ifficu lt ies of im p lem en t in g sch ool-b a s ed m a n a gem en t in it ia t ives, w e n eed t o s ee it a s a ch a n ge in it ia t ive t o sh ift a sch ool fr om t h e t r a d it ion a l s ch ool m a n a ge-m en t t o s elf-ge-m a n a gege-m en t a t t h e s ch ool, gr ou p a n d t ea ch er levels. Accor d in g t o t h e con ce p t s of Lew in (1952), Sch er m er h or n et a l. (1982), N g a n d Ch en g (1991) a n d Ch en g (1996), s ch ool ch a n ge w ill b e s u ccess fu l if w e a r e ca r efu l in wor k in g t h r ou gh t h r ee st a ges of t h e ch a n ge

p r ocess : u n fr ee zin g st a ge, ch a n gin g st a ge a n d r ein for cin g s t a ge. T h u s, in or d er t o la u n ch sch ool-b a sed m a n a gem en t effect ively, w e sh ou ld in vest ou r effor t in m a n a gin g t h ese t h r ee st a ges, a s sh ow n in Ta ble I (Ch en g, 1996).

The unfreezing stage: preparation for multilevel self-management

T h e u n fr ee zin g st a ge a im s t o p r e p a r e a b et t er sit u a t ion for la u n ch in g self-m a n a gem en t in sch ools. Du e t o t h e in cr ea sin g p r essu r es fr om in t er n a l a n d ext er n a l s ch ool en v ir on m en t s, a sch ool n eed s t o m a k e ch a n ges a n d a d a p t t o t h ese ch a llen ges for it s s u r v iva l a n d lon g-t er m d evelop m en g-t . Bu g-t , u n for g-t u n a g-t ely, sch ool m em b er s a r e oft en bu r d en ed w it h d a ily wor k -loa d s a n d a r e u sed t o t h e exist in g p r a ct ices a n d p r oced u r es. T h ey m ay n ot b e aw a r e of t h e

Table I

The stage s o f intro duc ing c hange fro m traditio nal manage me nt to multile ve l se lf-manage me nt in sc ho o ls

Unfreezing stage Changing stage Reinforcing stage

• Identify, establish and public ize • Implement self-management • Identify the overt and hidden the need for multilevel self- ac c ording to the framework advantages of the c hange to

management self-management

• Plan goals and polic ies for the • Pay attention to the timing of • Identify the adverse effec ts and c hange to self-management launc hing self-management at eliminate them

different levels

• Analyse the forc e field and develop • The self-management c yc le • Estimate all types of c osts for c hange strategies duration may vary ac ross levels the c hange

• Inc rease driving forc es • Not only tec hnologic al c hanges in • Assess the effec tiveness of the management/ teac hing/ learning c hange to self-management but also c ultural c hanges

• Minimize restraining forc es • Change the affec tive, behavioural • Make rec ommendations for and c ognitive aspec ts of the future ac tions

involved ac tors at the individual/ group/ sc hool levels

• Prepare the nec essary psyc hologic al • Make modific ations on the (i.e. c ognitive and affec tive) and tec hnologic al c hanges tec hnic al readiness of those involved

through staff development

• Prepare the nec essary resourc es • Monitor the c hange proc ess and • Institutionalize the suc c essful for the c hange to self-management ensure the progress towards the tec hnologic al c hanges

self-management goals

• To c larify the emergent • Internalize the suc c essful psyc hologic al and tec hnic al c ultural c hanges

unc ertainties and reduc e their potential damages to the c hange

• To learn new ideas and tec hniques • Clarify the unc ertainties and and develop new goals frustrations due to unsuc c essful

experienc es and enc ourage c ontinuous learning

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im p a ct fr om t h ese in t er n a l a n d ext er n a l ch a llen ges a n d t h ey m ay ign or e t h e n eed for s elf-m a n a gem en t a t t h e s ch ool level, gr ou p level or in d iv id u a l level. T h er efor e, in t h e u n fr ee zin g st a ge, t h e a gen t of im p lem en t in g a s ch ool self-m a n a gem en t p r oject (SSM P a gen t ) s h ou ld h elp t h e s ch ool m em b er s t o id en t ify a n d u n d er st a n d t h e n eed for a ch a n ge t o t h e s elf-m a n a gem en t m od e a n d t h en est a blis h t h is n eed in t h e s ch ool p la n or p r ogr a m m e p la n s for a ct ion . In or d er t o cr ea t e a b et t er a t m os p h er e for t h e ch a n ge, p u blicizin g t h e n eed for s u ch a ch a n ge t o a ll in volved m em -b er s is n eces sa r y (Ch en g, 1996).

T h e im p lem en t a t ion a gen t sh ou ld a n a ly se t h e for ce fi eld t o ch a n ge a n d d evelop s t r a t e-gies t o in cr ea se t h e p ot en t ia l d r iv in g for ces a n d m in im ize t h e p ot en t ia l r es t r a in in g for ces. At t h is st a ge, t h e m a jor s t r a t e gy is t h a t t h e a gen t sh ou ld h elp t h ose in volved m em b er s t o h ave t h e n ecess a r y p s ych ologica l (i.e. cogn it ive a n d a ffect ive) r ea d in es s a n d t ech n ica l r ea d in es s t h r ou gh st a ff d evelop m en t a ct iv it ies. In ot h er wor d s, sch ool m em -b er s s h ou ld -b e w ell p r e p a r ed t o u n d er st a n d

t h e n a t u r e a n d m ea n in g of m u lt ilevel self-m a n a geself-m en t , b e w illin g a n d coself-m self-m it t ed t o it a n d h ave t h e n ecessa r y com p et en ce t o im p le-m en t it . At t h e sa le-m e t ile-m e, t h e a gen t sh ou ld p r e p a r e t h e n eces sa r y r esou r ces for t h e ch a n ge.

Som e of t h e m a jor ch a r a ct er ist ics of a ffec-t ive a n d cogn iffec-t ive r ea d in ess a r e given in Ta bles II t o IV a n d t h ese ca n b e u sed t o d ir ect t h e u n fr ee zin g a ct ion s. Som e exa m p les of p ossible a ct iv it ies or a ct ion s for bu ild in g u p r ea d in ess for la u n ch in g self-m a n a gem en t a t t h e sch ool, gr ou p a n d in d iv id u a l levels a r e a lso p r ov id ed in t h es e t a bles.

Obv iou sly, t h er e a r e t h r ee levels of u n fr ee z-in g, su ch a s z-in d iv id u a l t ea ch er s, gr ou p s a n d t h e sch ool a s a w h ole. In gen er a l, p r ior it y sh ou ld b e given t o “u n fr ee ze” t ea ch er s fi r st . H ow ever, ea ch sch ool m ay h ave it s ow n u n fr ee zin g p r ior it y d e p en d in g on it s ow n r ea d in ess con d it ion s. Rea d in ess a ss essm en t a t a m u lt ilevel sh ou ld b e n ecessa r y b efor e a n y u n fr ee zin g wor k ca n b e d on e. T h e a ssess-m en t r esu lt s w ill p r ov id e a clea r er p ict u r e for t h e sch ool t o set it s “u n fr ee zin g” p r ior it y. In

Table II

Unfre e zing stage : pre paratio n fo r sc ho o l le ve l se lf-manage me nt

Affective preparation Cognitive preparation Guidelines and examples Sc hool mangers are willing to: Sc hool managers and other The SSMP agent:

delegate authority to the sc hool members realize: reports on appropriate oc c asions sc hool princ ipal and other the need to prac tise sc hool (e.g. sc hool management c ommittee members of the sc hool self-management in meeting meeting, speec h days, sc hool/ teac her

listen, with the princ ipal the c hallenges ahead c onsultative meeting) the suc c essful to teac hers’ and parents’ that teac hers’ and parent’ s experienc e of teac hers’ and parents’ views and involve them in partic ipation c an improve the involvement in making sc hool the dec ision-making quality of sc hool polic ies and func tioning and polic y making

proc ess as far as possible benefit the ac tual invites teac her and parent representatives

Sc hool members are willing to: implementation of polic ies to serve on the sc hool management share their work experienc e the need to allow teac hers and c ommittee and other c ommittees with a view to evaluating parents to get ac c ess to related to the sc hool’ s routine running the performanc e of the information for dec ision making; organizes seminars and talks to bring sc hool as a whole handle different views; to have up the awareness level of sc hool

The sc hool’ s senior management

more time allowanc e for polic ies managers and other sc hool members

is willing to:

formulation regarding the need of prac tising

self-develop teac hers strategic ally Sc hool members hold a shared

management in sc hool as an effec tive

provide support and guide- sc hool mission

means to enhanc e sc hool effec tiveness

lines to sc hool members for Sc hool leaders are c ompetent c reates opportunities for sc hool members c ompletion of the sc hool in leading sc hool members to to visit other sc hools whic h have plans perform SWOT analysis; already prac tised self-management

strategic planning;and sc hool c reates opportunities for sc hool members evaluation to have an open disc ourse on their own

vision of the sc hool with a view to devel-oping a c ommonly shared sc hool mission

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som e ca s es, t h e en for cem en t of p r a ct ices a t a h igh er level, e.g. t h e s ch ool level, m ay in d u ce a n “u n fr ee zin g” effect a t t h e low er level, e.g. t h e t ea ch er level. For exa m p le, t h e effor t t o d evelop a com m on ly s h a r ed sch ool m is sion a t t h e s ch ool level m ay in ev it a bly cr ea t e a s en se of ow n er s h ip in t ea ch er s. T h u s, t ea ch er s m ay p r ob a bly h ave a h igh er d e gr ee of a cce p t a n ce of m or e r esp on s ib ilit y a n d com m it m en t . In t h is w ay, t h e level of r ea d in es s for p r a ct isin g t ea ch er level s elf-m a n a gem en t is a ls o in cr ea s ed .

The changing stage: practising multilevel self-management cycles

Aft er t h e u n fr ee zin g st a ge, t h e p la n n ed s elf-m a n a geelf-m en t a ct iv it ies ca n b e ielf-m p leelf-m en t ed a ccor d in g t o t h e a b ove m u lt ilevel fr a m ewor k p r op os ed by Ch eu n g a n d Ch en g (1996a ). It m ay n ot b e n ecess a r y t o im p lem en t selfm a n -a gem en t -a t -a ll levels -a t t h e s -a m e t im e. T h e t im in g for fa cilit a t in g a p a r t icu la r level’s s elf-m a n a geelf-m en t s h ou ld b e t a k en ca u t iou sly. T h e r ea d in es s of ea ch level s h ou ld b e a ss es sed fi r st . T h e SSMP a gen t sh ou ld n ot b e gin t o fa cilit a t e s elf-m a n a gem en t a t a p a r t icu la r

level if t h e cor r es p on d in g r ea d in ess is n ot r ea ch ed .

Mu t u a l in fl u en ce exist s a m on g t h e self-m a n a geself-m en t p r a ct ices a t t h e sch ool, gr ou p a n d t ea ch er levels. T h u s, w h en p r a ct isin g m u lt ilevel self-m a n a gem en t in a s ch ool, ca r e sh ou ld b e t a k en t o en su r e a s fa r a s p ossible t h e h igh est d e gr ee of con s ist en cy in selfm a n a geselfm en t p r a ct ices a selfm on g t h e t h r ee lev -els. T h e h igh er t h e d e gr ee of con sist en cy, t h e gr ea t er t h e s y n er gy d er ived fr om t h e p r a c-t ices. Also, a self-m a n a gem en c-t cu lc-t u r e m ay b e cu lt iva t ed m or e ea sily for s ch ool m em b er s w h o p er sist en t ly p r a ct ise self-m a n a gem en t a n d en ga ge in con t in u ou s self-lea r n in g a n d r en ew a l.

In gen er a l, t h e wor k gr ou p s m ay a lso h ave sim ila r p a t t er n s of m a n a gem en t cycle d u r a -t ion fr om a few m on -t h s -t o on e a ca d em ic yea r, d e p en d in g la r gely on t h eir gr ou p p la n s. Bu t for self-m a n a gem en t a t a sch ool, t h e cycle d u r a t ion m ay la s t fr om on e t o t h r ee a ca d em ic yea r s. Com p a r a t ively, t h e self-m a n a gem en t cycles for in d iv id u a l t ea ch er s m ay b e sh or t er, r a n gin g fr om a few w eek s t o a few m on t h s or on e a ca d em ic yea r b eca u se t h eir t a sk s wou ld Table III

Unfre e zing stage : pre paratio n fo r gro up le ve l se lf-manage me nt

Affective preparation Cognitive preparation Guidelines and examples

The sc hool princ ipal is willing Group leaders and group members The sc hool princ ipal holds meetings with to delegate authority to work realize: work groups to delineate the respon-groups the need for the work groups to sibilities and authority of the group

Group leaders are willing to have self-management prac tic es through disc ussing the group’ s terms of involve group members in the c onsistent to that of the sc hool referenc e

dec ision-making proc ess as far teac hers’ partic ipation in dec ision The SSMP agent:

as possible making c an improve the quality organizes seminars, talks and

Group members are willing to: of work plans and benefit the workshops to build up teams share their work experienc e ac tual implementation of plans c reates opportunities for work groups work with a view to evaluate the need to allow members to get to disc uss their self-management the performanc e of the group ac c ess to information for prac tic es with c orresponding work as a whole dec ision making; handle groups in other sc hools; and for group

work in teams, and supporting different views; to have more leaders to share their groups’ self-eac h other in work time allowanc e for work plan management prac tic es

learn from eac h other

formulation _{organizes professional development}

help and support

Group members hold a shared programmes for group leaders on SWOT

inexperienc ed members

sc hool mission and work analysis, strategic planning and group’ s direc tions of the group self-evaluation

Group leaders are c ompetent in The group leaders c reate opportunities for leading group members to perform group members to have an open disc ourse SWOT analysis; strategic planning; on their perc eived work direc tions of and group’ s self-evaluation the group with a view to develop a

c ommonly shared work direc tion

The group sets up:

an information flow system for group members’ easy ac c ess

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b e s m a ller t h a n t h ose of gr ou p s or t h e s ch ool. In s u m , t h e d u r a t ion of s elf-m a n a gem en t cycles va r ies a m on g in d iv id u a l t ea ch er s, gr ou p s a n d sch ools.

In t h e p r ocess of im p lem en t a t ion , t h er e s h ou ld b e n ot on ly t ech n ologica l ch a n ges in m a n a gem en t , t ea ch in g a n d lea r n in g bu t a lso cu lt u r a l ch a n ges in va lu es a n d b eliefs a b ou t s ch ool p r ocess es. T h e a ffect ive, b eh av iou r a l a n d cogn it ive a s p ect s of sch ool m a n a ger s, t h e p r in cip a l, a d m in ist r a t or s, t ea ch er s a n d even p a r en t s, if n ecess a r y, a r e cor r es p on d in gly ch a n ged a ccor d in g t o t h e n eed s of t h e m u lt ilevel s elfm a n a gem en t fr a m ewor k . M on it or -in g t h e im p lem en t a t ion p r ocess is n eces sa r y t o en s u r e t h e p r ogr ess t ow a r d s t h e p la n n ed goa ls of s elf-m a n a gem en t . In t h e p r ocess, t h e im p lem en t a t ion a gen t oft en n eed s t o cla r ify t h e em er gen t p s ych ologica l a n d t ech n ica l u n cer t a in t ies a n d r ed u ce t h eir p ot en t ia l d a m a ges t o t h e ch a n ge. An d , t h e in volved a ct or s som et im es n eed t o lea r n n ew id ea s a n d t ech n iq u es a n d d evelop n ew goa ls in t h e p r oces s, if n ecess a r y Ch en g, 1996).

The reinforcing stage: reinforcing multilevel self-management practices Aft er t h e ch a n gin g st a ge, t h e im p lem en t a t ion a gen t w ill t r y t o r efr ee ze t h e p os it ive ou t

com es of t h e ch a n ge. T h e p u r p ose of t h e r ein for cin g st a ge is t o m a xim ize a ll t h e a dva n -t a ges ga in ed fr om -t h e ch a n ge -t o m u l-t ilevel self-m a n a gem en t a n d p er p et u a t e t h e p osit ive effect s for a lon ger p er iod . Of cou r se, in t h is st a ge, elim in a t in g t h e p ot en t ia l sid e effect s is a lso im p or t a n t . Accor d in g t o Ch en g (1996), t h is st a ge m ay gen er a lly in clu d e t h e follow -in g im p or t a n t t a sk s:

• Id en t ify a n d con fi r m a ll t h e im p or t a n t , over t a n d h id d en , p la n n ed a n d u n in t en d ed a dva n t a ges gen er a t ed fr om t h e la u n ch in g self-m a n a gem en t .

• Id en t ify a ll t h e im p or t a n t over t a n d h id d en a dver se effect s on d iffer en t a sp ect s of t h e sch ool or m em b er s a n d elim in a t e t h em a s soon a s p ossible.

• E st im a t e a ll t y p es of m on et a r y a n d n on -m on et a r y cos t s for t h e i-m p le-m en t a t ion of self-m a n a gem en t .

• Asses s t h e effect iven ess of t h e ch a n ge by com p a r in g t h e a ch ievem en t s w it h t h e p la n n ed goa ls a n d com p a r in g t h e ga in ed a dva n t a ges w it h t h e d is a dva n t a ges a n d t h e cost s.

• P r op ose r ecom m en d a t ion s for fu r t h er a ct ion s a ccor d in g t o t h e a b ove eva lu a t ion a n d a n a ly sis.

Table IV

Unfre e zing stage : pre paratio n fo r te ac he r le ve l se lf-manage me nt

Affective preparation Cognitive preparation Guidelines and examples Teac hers are willing to: Teac hers realize: The SSMP agent:

ac c ept new responsibility the need for them to have self- organizes seminars, talks and workshops and delegated power that management prac tic es to stress the importanc e of prac tising self-c omes with self-management c onsistent to that of their managment in fac ing the c hallenges ahead;

self-manage their own work group and the sc hool build up teac hers’ self-management

reflec t on their own that effec tive self-management

c ompetenc e

performanc e, relationship prac tic e will help them fac e the c reates opportunities, suc h as soc ial with signific ant others in c hallenges ahead func tions and professional experienc e work the importanc e to set up personal sharing, for teac hers to build up a mutual

evaluate their own work goals and related

support network

performanc e against set performanc e standards organizes formal and informal meetings and standards that they are working within the sessions for teac hers to share their

establish a good affiliation delegated power and

expertise and experienc e in topic s related

with signific ant others in responsibilities

to teac hing, self-management of personal

work the importanc e of c ontinuous

resourc es, and professional development

develop themselves learning from signific ant others may help teac hers to form strategic study c ontinously to meet the in work

groups for professional development of

c hallenges ahead they are c ompetent at

self-teac hers with the sc hool goals as guiding

management skills like strategic

posts

planning, performanc e standard c reates opportunites for teac hers to voic e setting, time and resourc e their views of sc hool and group management management, c onstruc tive in a way that they feel satisfied with thinking, self-reward and c reates opportunities for teac hers to meet punishment parents and fac ilitate teac her-parent

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op p or t u n it ies a n d t h r ea t s ) a n a ly sis or d evel-op m en t p la n n in g. T h e su cces sfu l fa cilit a t ive s u p p or t s k ill oft en r eq u ir es a lot of r es ou r ce in p u t . T h e a ssocia t ed cos t s m ay b e h igh . H ow ever, it p r ov id es ver y d ir ect s u p p or t t o t h e p a r t ies con cer n ed a n d b en efi t s t h e s m oot h la u n ch in g of s elf-m a n a gem en t .

T h e u s e of em ot ion a l s u p p or t is esp ecia lly u sefu l t o s ch ool m em b er s w h o h ave d evelop ed n e ga t ive feelin gs t ow a r d s t h e in t r od u ct ion of m u lt ilevel s elf-m a n a gem en t in s ch ool. It ca n s et t le d ow n t h e em ot ion a l fr u s t r a t ion of

t ea ch er s d u e t o t h e ch a n ge. It ca n a lso r ein -for ce good wor k . If u sed effect ively, t ea ch er s m ay b e p a cifi ed a n d a p osit ive a t t it u d e t ow a r d s t h e self-m a n a gem en t in it ia t ive m ay b e r est or ed . On e a dva n t a ge of t h is sk ill is t h a t n ot m u ch r esou r ce is r eq u ir ed . Con cr et e exa m p les of u sin g t h e sk ill a r e p len t y. For exa m p les, t h e SSMP a gen t m ay en cou r a ge t ea ch er s by p r a isin g t h eir good p r a ct ices, com for t in g a n d sh ow in g con cer n t o t h ose w h o h ave d evelop ed n e ga t ive feelin gs. Of cou r se, it is d ifficu lt t o u se t h is s k ill sy st em a t -Table V

Po ssible wo rk fo r the re info rc ing stage

Level of

self-management Guidelines and examples

School level Establish appropriate mec hanisms and struc ture to strengthen c ommunic ation among work self-management groups; and to evaluate the effec tiveness of shared dec ision making in sc hool polic ies

Reinforc e and reassure the possible positive experienc e of teac hers’ involvement in shared dec ision making, e.g. emphasize win-win situations between groups; ac hievement of sc hool plans; the sc hool’ s flexibility and responsiveness in handling c risis; etc .

Identify areas for improvement and develop strategies for solving diffic ulties and c onflic ts between groups

Organize sharing sessions for teac hers and sc hool managers to reinforc e the positive experienc e and formulate future plans

Assist the teac her and parent representatives who serve on the sc hool management c ommittee to report bac k their positive experienc e to other teac her and parents’ organizations respec tively Improve the mode of elec tion of teac her and parent representatives in the sc hool management c ommittee

Group level Establish appropriate mec hanisms to strengthen information flow among group members; and self-management to evaluate the effec tiveness of shared dec ision making in group plans

Reinforc e and reassure the positive experienc e of group members’ involvement in shared dec ision making, e.g. emphasize win-win situations between members; ac hievement of set goals; effec tive use of resourc es; fruitful and mutual learning among members; establishment of a good group reputation; and the group’ s ability to response and adapt to unexpec ted events Identify areas for improvement and develop strategies for solving diffic ulties and c onflic ts within the group

Organize sessions for group members to share their positive experienc e with teac hers in other groups. Hopefully, this arrangement will provide opportunities for learning from other groups and new insights may be gained for formulation of future plans

Teacher level The SSMP agent helps teac hers to evaluate and reinforc e positive experienc e of teac hers’ self-management effec tiveness in ac hieving their personal work goals, spec ific ally in terms of ac hievement of

the self set performanc e standards. This is a good way for refreezing individual teac hers’ self-management prac tic es, yet is very time c onsuming

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ica lly a n d t h e t im e s p en t m ay n ot b e effect ive in s olv in g t h e p r oblem s. M or eover, t h e SSM P a gen t n eed s t o b e ver y sen s it ive t o t h e p os si-ble n e ga t ive feelin gs gen er a t ed in s ch ool m em b er s.

P r ov id in g in cen t ives is a lso a n im p or t a n t sk ill t h a t gives t a ilor m a d e in cen t ives t o con -cer n ed p a r t ies a ccor d in g t o t h eir n eed s. For exa m p le, t h e SSMP a gen t m ay m a k e t ea ch er s u n d er s t a n d t h a t t h e p r a ct ice of s elf-m a n a ge-m en t in t h e sch ool a t ge-m u lt ilevels cou ld em p ow er t ea ch er s w it h in s t r u ct ion a l a u t on -om y, p r ov id e t h em w it h ch a n ces t o b e in volved in t h e for m u la t ion of s ch ool a n d gr ou p p la n s ; a n d fa cilit a t e t h em t o m a n a ge t h eir wor k effect ively. As a r es u lt , t h eir wor k , es p ecia lly t h eir cla s sr oom t ea ch in g w ill b en e-fi t a n d b e r ew a r d in g. T h is t y p e of

“s econ d a r y ” in cen t ive is good for d r iv in g sch ool m em b er s t o t r ea su r e t h eir selfm a n a gem en t p r a ct ices a t t h e t h r ee levels. H ow ever, t h e p r ov ision of s om e k in d s of in cen -t ives lik e r ed u c-t ion in -t ea ch in g loa d a n d p r o-m ot ion p r os p ect s o-m ay in cu r ver y h igh cos t s t o t h e s ch ool a n d wor k gr ou p s, a n d cr ea t e u n exp ect ed r ea ct ion fr om ot h er in t er es t p a r -t ies. An o-t h er lim i-t a -t ion of -t h is sk ill is -t h a -t sch ool m em b er s m ay r ely on in cen t ives b efor e effect ive im p lem en t a t ion of t h e p la n s.

Wh en t h er e is a n u r gen t n eed t o im p lem en t t h e s elf-m a n a gem en t p la n , or t h e u se of ot h er sk ills, it w ill in cu r h igh cost s su ch a s t im e a n d r es ou r ces ; t h e u s e of m a n ip u la t ion a n d co-op t a t ion w ill t h en b e som ew h a t effect ive. For exa m p le, a p p oin t a n in fl u en t ia l t ea ch er t o t h e lea d er of t h e s ch ool self-m a n a gem en t p r oject or a lien a t e t h ose a ga in st t h e self-m a n a geself-m en t in it ia t ive. It s h ou ld b e n ot ed

t h a t if n ot u sed t a ct fu lly a n d a d eq u a t ely, t h is sk ill w ill r u in t h e a lr ea dy est a blish ed good a n d h a r m on iou s wor k in g r ela t ion sh ip a m on g sch ool m em b er s a n d wor k gr ou p s. It w ill a lso r ed u ce t h e in it ia t ive of t ea ch er s. T h u s, it m ay im p ose a cer t a in d e gr ee of n e ga t ive in fl u en ce on t h e im p lem en t a t ion of fu t u r e p la n s.

Sim ila r t o t h e sk ill of m a n ip u la t ion a n d co-op t a t ion , coer cion ca n a lso elicit ver y fa st im p lem en t a t ion of a ch a n ge p la n . Wh en t h e wor k is r ela t ed t o t h e im m ed ia t e in t er est s of t h e sch ool, p a r en t s or st u d en t s a n d a n u r gen t a ct ion is r eq u ir ed in or d er t o r ed u ce t h e a sso-cia t ed t h r ea t s, t h e u se of t h is sk ill m ay b e con sid er ed . Sin ce t h e n a t u r e of m u lt ilevel self-m a n a gem en t a im s t o en cou r a ge h u m a n in it ia t ive a n d fa cilit a t e con t in u ou s lea r n in g a n d d evelop m en t , t h e u se of t h is s k ill is in gen er a l n ot so a p p r op r ia t e t o im p lem en t in g self-m a n a gem en t .

In or d er t o u se t h ese seven sk ills effect ively, w e n eed t o u n d er st a n d h ow t h eir u se m ay elicit d iffer en t d e gr ees of r ea ct ion in sch ool m em b er s. T h ese seven sk ills m ay b e a r r a n ged in a h ier a r ch y in t er m s of t h e t y p es of

ch a n ges t h ey m ay in d u ce in t ea ch er s, a s sh ow n in F igu r e 1. T h e u s e of d iffer en t sk ills w ill elicit d iffer en t ch a n ges, r a n gin g fr om t h e m ost over t b eh av iou r a l ch a n ges t o d ee p level cogn it ive a n d a ffect ive ch a n ges. For exa m p le, t h e u se of “ed u ca t ion a n d com m u n ica t ion ” or “p a r t icip a t ion in p la n n in g” m ay in d u ce d ee p level cogn it ive a n d a ffect ive ch a n ges, w h ile t h e u se of “coer cion ” a n d “m a n ip u la t ion a n d co-op t a t ion ” m ay elicit over t b eh av iou r of t ea ch er s on ly. As d iscu ssed a b ove, t h e em p h a -sis of self-m a n a gem en t is on h u m a n in it ia t ive a n d con t in u ou s d evelop m en t of t ea ch er s, gr ou p s a n d t h e w h ole sch ool. T h er efor e, t h e u se of sk ills sh ou ld t en d t o b e t h ose a t t h e h igh level, in clu d in g “ed u ca t ion a n d com m u -n ica t io-n ”, “p a r t icip a t io-n a -n d i-n volvem e-n t ” a n d “fa cilit a t ive su p p or t ” w h ich ca n h elp sch ool m em b er s t o a ch ieve t h e n ecessa r y a ffect ive a n d cogn it ive ch a n ges in a d d it ion t o t h e b eh av iou r a l ch a n ges.

Conclusion

T h e p r a ct ice of t h e p r es en t ed st r a t e gies t oget h er w it h t h e a p p r op r ia t e sk ills is essen -t ia l for -t h e sch ool -t o ga in -t h e r eq u ir ed v i-t a li-t y t o r ed u ce r es ist a n ce, in d u ce r ea d in ess a n d r ein for ce su ccesses in t h e la u n ch in g of self-m a n a geself-m en t in it ia t ives a t self-m u lt ilevels.

H ow ever, m er ely p r a ct isin g t h em w it h ou t a com p r eh en sive d evelop m en t a l p la n , t h e sch ool a s a w h ole m ay n ot b e a ble t o in vest it s en er gy a n d effor t in a focu sed a n d con sist en t w ay. T h u s, t h e a dva n t a ges of p r a ct isin g self-m a n a geself-m en t self-m ay n ot b e d er ived a s exp ect ed . Figure 1

Hie rac hy o f skills fo r launc hing se lf-manage me nt

Education and communication

Participation and involvement

Facilitative support

Emotional support

Provide incentives

Manipulation and co-optation

Coercion

Deep level cognitive and affective changes

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T h e for m u la t ion of a com p r eh en sive d evelop -m en t a l p la n for la u n ch in g a s elf--m a n a ge-m en t in it ia t ive in a s ch ool sh ou ld b e b a sed on t h e a b ove p r op os ed s t r a t e gies a n d sk ills. In a d d i-t ion , i-t h e follow in g con sid er a i-t ion s m ay b e u sefu l.

Befor e la u n ch in g t h e s elf-m a n a gem en t in it ia t ives, t h e SSMP a gen t sh ou ld a s sess t h e r ea d in es s of t h e sch ool a s a w h ole, wor k gr ou p s a n d t ea ch er s in p r a ct is in g selfm a n -a gem en t . Wit h t h is in for m -a t ion , t h e SSM P a gen t w ill t h en for m u la t e a s er ies of u n fr ee z-in g a ct iv it ies for t h e t h r ee levels of k ey a ct or s b efor e m ov in g t o t h e ch a n gin g st a ge. In gen -er a l, it is b en efi cia l t o st a r t t h e u n fr ee zin g wor k a t t h e t ea ch er level fi r st . How ever, t h e m ove w ill gr ea t ly d e p en d on t h e r ea d in es s of t h e t ea ch er s. F igu r e 2 illu st r a t es t h e s t r a t e-gies for la u n ch in g s elf-m a n a gem en t in it ia t ive w it h u n fr ee zin g wor k d on e fi r st a t t h e t ea ch er level, t h en a t t h e gr ou p level a n d fi n a lly a t t h e s ch ool level.

In ot h er ca s es, w h en t h e t ea ch er s h ave a lr ea dy a cq u ir ed a cer t a in level of r ea d in es s,

t h e u n fr ee zin g effor t m ay st a r t off a t b ot h t h e t ea ch er a n d gr ou p levels a n d t h en a t t h e sch ool level. F igu r e 3 illu st r a t es t h is exa m p le. In su m , t h er e is n o on e u n iver sa l st r a t e gy for la u n ch in g self-m a n a gem en t in it ia t ives. Sch ools s h ou ld d evelop t h eir ow n d evelop -m en t a l p la n s a ccor d in g t o t h eir u n iq u e con d i-t ion s.

Im p lem en t in g m u lt ilevel s elf-m a n a gem en t in a sch ool is a ch a n ge in it ia t ive t h a t r eq u ir es a h u ge a m ou n t of effor t fr om sch ool m em -b er s. If la u n ch ed ca s u a lly, s ch ools m ay oft en exp ect n e ga t ive a n d u n r ew a r d in g r esu lt s. T h e p r esen t p a p er a t t em p t s t o p r ov id e com p r e-h en sive st r a t e gies for la u n ce-h in g s elf-m a n a ge-m en t in sch ools by t a k in g t h e a dva n t a ges of t h e con ce p t ion of Ch eu n g a n d Ch en g (1996a ). It is h op ed t h a t t h e p r op osed id ea s a n d st r a t e-gies m ay p r ov id e in sigh t s for p r a ct it ion er s t o d evelop t h eir p la n s t o im p lem en t m u lt ilevel self-m a n a gem en t in s ch ools m or e effect ively in eit h er loca l or in t er n a t ion a l con t ext s.

References and further reading

Ar n ot t , M ., Bu llock , A. a n d T h om a s, H . (1992), T h e

Im p a ct of L oca l M a n a gem en t on S ch ools: A S ou rce B ook , Sch ool of E d u ca t ion , T h e Un iver

-s it y of Bir m in gh a m .

Br ow n , D.J . (1990), Decen tra liz a tion a n d S ch

ool-b a sed M a n a gem en t, F a lm er P r ess, Lon d on .

Ca ldw ell, B.J . (1994), “In t er n a t ion a l p er sp ect ives on t h e im p a ct of sch ool-b a sed m a n a gem en t ”, p a p er d eliver ed a t t h e Ch in ese Un iver s it y of H on g Kon g in t h e p u blic lect u r e in t h e Wei Lu n v is it in g p r ofessor sh ip of B.J . Ca ldw ell on 12 Decem b er 1994.

Ca ldw ell, B.J . a n d Sp in k s, J .M. (1992), L ea d in g th e

S elf-M a n a gin g S ch ool, F a lm er P r ess, Lon d on .

Ch en g, Y.C. a n d N g, K.H . (1995), “Sch ool or ga n iza -t ion ch a n ge: -t h eor y, s-t r a -t e gy a n d -t ech n ology ”, (in Ch in ese), E d u ca tion J ou r n a l, Ch in es e Un iver s it y of H on g Kon g, Vol. 19 N o. 2, p p. 133-44.

Ch en g, Y.C. a n d Ta m , W.M. (1994), “Sch ool-b a sed t ea ch er d evelop m en t : a d evelop m en t a l m a t r ix con ce p t ion ” (in Ch in es e), E d u ca tion J ou r n a l,

CUH K , Vol. 22 N o. 2, p p. 221-36.

Ch en g, Y.C. (1992), “A p r elim in a r y st u dy of sch ool m a n a gem en t in it ia t ive: r esp on ses t o in d u c-t ion a n d im p lem en c-t a c-t ion of m a n a gem en c-t r efor m s ”, E d u ca tion a l R esea rch J ou r n a l, Vol. 7, p p. 21-32

Ch en g, Y.C. (1993), “T h e t h eor y a n d ch a r a ct er is t ics of s ch oolb a sed m a n a gem en t ”, In ter n a

-tion a l J ou r n a l of E d u ca -tion a l M a n a gem en t,

Vol. 7 N o. 6, p p. 6-17.

Ch en g, Y.C. (1996), S ch ool E ffectiv en ess a n d S ch

oolB a sed M a n a gem en t: A M ech a n ism for Dev elop -m en t, F a l-m er P r ess, Lon d on .

Ch eu n g, W.M. a n d Ch en g, Y.C. (1996a ), “A m u lt i-level fr a m ewor k for self-m a n a gem en t in s ch ool”, In ter n a tion a l J ou r n a l of E d u ca tion a l

M a n a gem en t, Vol. 10 N o. 1, p p. 17-29. Sc ho o l le ve l o f se lf manage me nt

Unfre e zing Changing Re fre e zing

Gro up le ve l o f se lf manage me nt

Individual le ve l o f se lf manage me nt

Unfre e zing Changing Re fre e zing Le ve l o f se lf manage me nt

Imple me ntatio n time frame Sc ho o l le ve l o f se lf manage me nt

Gro up le ve l o f se lf manage me nt

Individual le ve l o f se lf manage me nt

Unfre e zing Changing Re fre e zing Le ve l o f se lf manage me nt

Imple me ntatio n time frame

Figure 3

Strate gie s fo r launc hing multile ve l sc ho o l se lf-manage me nt: illustrative e xample 2

Figure 2

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Ch eu n g, W.M. a n d Ch en g, Y.C. (1996b ), “Tea ch er self-m a n a gem en t : im p lica t ion s for t ea ch er t r a in in g”, p a p er p r esen t ed a t t h e E u r op ea n Con fer en ce on E d u ca t ion a l Res ea r ch , Un iver -sit y of Sev ille, Sp a in on 25-28 Se p t em b er 1996. Ch eu n g, W.M. a n d Ch en g, Y.C. (1996c), “T h e

in st r u m en t a t ion for r es ea r ch on t ea ch er s elf-m a n a geelf-m en t ”, p a p er p r es en t ed a t t h e 13t h An n u a l Con fer en ce of t h e H on g Kon g E d u ca t ion a l Resea r ch Associa t ion on 1617 N ovem -b er 1996.

Ch eu n g, W.M., Ch en g, Y.C. a n d Ta m , W.M . (1995), “P a r en t a l in volvem en t in s ch ool ed u ca t ion : t h eor y, p r a ct ice a n d m a n a gem en t ”, (in Ch i-n ese), T h e J ou r i-n a l of Pr im a r y E d u ca tioi-n , Vol. 5 N o. 2, p p. 57-66.

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