THE FUNCTIONS, POSITIONS AND MEANINGS
OF FOR AND TO PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES
IN JEANETTE WINTERSON’S SEXING THE CHERRY
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra
in English Letters
By
MAYA ELFRIDA SIANIPAR
Student Number: 034214126
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS
FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA 2007
A Sarjana Sastra Undergraduate Thesis
THE FUNCTIONS, POSITIONS AND MEANINGS OF FOR AND TO PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES IN JEANETTE WINTERSON’S SEXING THE CHERRY
A Sarjana Sastra Undergraduate Thesis
THE FUNCTIONS, POSITIONS AND MEANINGS OF FOR AND TO PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES IN JEANETTE WINTERSON’S SEXING THE CHERRY
By
MAYA ELFRIDA SIANIPAR
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The first thing to say is that I am very thankful and grateful, and that I praise my Greatest God, Jesus Christ for blessing me all the time especially when I feel so exhausted of writing this thesis.
Moreover, I owe so much gratitude to many people in the effort of finishing this thesis. Certainly, the gratitude is given to Dr. Fr. B. Alip, M. Pd., M. A., my advisor, who has guided me in this thesis writing process. Afterward, I
would like to thank my co-advisor, J. Harris H.Setiajid, S.S., M.Hum., who had read and checked this thesis carefully.
I would like to express the deep gratitude as well as the high respect to my beloved family. The special credit goes to my wise and intelligent father, P. P. Sianipar, S. H., my lovely mother, B. Sitinjak, my only one sister, Elisabeth
Sianipar, and my brothers, Richo Sianipar and Willy Sianipar. You are all the
best in my life. I believe that you always pray for my success. Thank you very much!
I would like also to express thanks to all my friends in Sanata Dharma University, especially “Angkatan 2003” class D, Ike, Cisil, Yacko-Stella, Dean-Simin, Abiet, Tio, Clara, Sondang, and Agnes. “Thank you for the smile and
laugh you gave to me”. For my five closest friends, Aning, Deny, Merry, Mitha,
and Nining, who are always there when I need to be accompanied, thank you,
friends!
I also thank Witman Gultom, who has helped me in writing the analysis of my thesis. I also will not forget to thank all crews of TDB Yogyakarta for the sweet moments we already had. I hope we will always be in contact wherever we are. Finally, for all people I cannot mention here who always support me, thank you very much.
TABLE OF CONTENTS as used in prepositional phrases ………. 44
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION ………. 54
BIBLIOGRAPHY ……….. 56
APPENDICES ……… 58
A. Prepositional Phrases with for and their contexts ... 58
B. Prepositional Phrases with to and their contexts ……….. 62
ABSTRACT
MAYA ELFRIDA SIANIPAR. The Functions, Positions and Meanings of for
and to Prepositional Phrases in Jeanette Winterson’s Sexing the Cherry.
Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma University, 2007
The prepositions are one of word classes which are commonly used in English. There are more than 100 prepositions in English, some of which seem equal, for examples the prepositions for and to. Both prepositions, in fact, are not really equal. They might have differences in functions, positions, and meanings. The differences between the prepositions which seem equal, for and to, in functions, positions, and meanings are the reasons why the writer has chosen both prepositions as the topic of this thesis, especially the prepositions for and to which show time, place, and movement. The source of the data is a novel written by Jeanette Winterson, Sexing the Cherry. The theories used in this analysis are the theories of prepositions, phrases, and clauses.
There are three problems that are going to be answered in this thesis; they are the functions of prepositional phrases with for and to, the positions of prepositional phrases with for and to and the meaning of the prepositions for and to contained in the prepositional phrases as used in the novel Sexing the Cherry.
The data are the phrases and clauses which have the prepositions for and to in the novel Sexing the Cherry taken randomly. The data collection and the data analysis took place simultaneously; first, the data were collected, by signing the samples to be taken, the prepositional phrases with for and to, and then classified the data by considering the circumstances around both prepositions in order to find out the prepositional phrases which show time, place, and movement. Then they are analyzed to find the functions, the positions of the prepositional phrases with for and to, and also to find the meanings of each preposition.
After doing the steps in the method of the study, the writer found that prepositional phrases with for can function as an adjunct and a post modifier of a noun phrase, while prepositional phrases with to can function as an adjunct, a post modifier of a noun phrase, a complementation of a verb, and as a complementation of an adjective. The positions can be owned by both prepositions are in initial, medial and final (end) position. The meanings of preposition for which show time are duration or the length of the time, occasion, and target; to show place, preposition for can mean target, position, and distance. The preposition to which shows time can indicate the time (before an exact hour on the clock), continuity, and target; to introduce place, this preposition can mean positions, target, and distance. Moreover, to show movement, preposition to means from starting point to destination.
ABSTRAK
MAYA ELFRIDA SIANIPAR. The Functions, Positions and Meanings of for
and to Prepositional Phrases in Jeanette Winterson’s Sexing the Cherry.
Yogyakarta: Jurusan Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Sanata Dharma, 2007.
Kata depan merupakan salah satu kelompok kata yang sering digunakan dalam bahasa Inggris. Terdapat lebih dari 100 kata depan dalam bahasa Inggris, dan beberapa diantaranya terlihat sama, sebagai contoh adalah kata depan for dan to. Kedua kata depan tersebut pada kenyataanya tidak benar-benar sama. Kedua kata depan tersebut berbeda dalam fungsi, posisi, dan arti. Perbedaan antara kata depan yang terlihat sama, for dan to, dalam fungsi, posisi, dan arti inilah yang menjadi alasan penulis memilih kata depan for dan to sebagai topik skripsi ini, khususnya yang digunakan sebagai penunjuk waktu, tempat, dan perpindahan. Sumber data yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah novel karya Jeanette Winterson, Sexing the Cherry. Teori-teori yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini antara lain: teori kata depan, teori frasa dan teori klausa.
Terdapat tiga masalah yang akan dibahas dalam skripsi ini, yaitu: fungsi dari frasa yang mengandung kata depan for dan to, posisi frasa yang mengandung kata depan for dan to, dan arti masing masing kata depan dalam frasa yang terdapat dalam novel Sexing the Cherry.
Data yang digunakan adalah frasa dan klausa yang mengandung kata depan for dan to di dalam novel Sexing the Cherry. Pengumpulan dan penelitian data dilakukan secara serentak; langkah pertama dilakukan dengan mengumpulkan data dengan cara memberi tanda data yang akan diteliti, frasa dengan kata depan for dan to, dan kemudian data dikelompokkan dengan cara menganalisis lingkungan disekitar kata depan tersebut untuk memperoleh kata depan yang digunakan untuk menunjukkan waktu, tempat, dan perpindahan. Kemudian frasa yang mengandung kedua kata depan tersebut dianalisis untuk mendapatkan fungsi, posisi frasa yang mengandung kata depan for dan to, dan arti masing-msing kata depan.
Penulis menemukan bahwa frasa dengan kata depan for dapat berfungsi sebagai sebuah keterangan dan frasa yang menerangkan sebuah frasa kata benda; sedangkan frasa dengan kata depan to dapat berfungsi sebagai keterangan, frasa yang menerangkan sebuah frasa kata benda, pelengkap kata sifat, dan juga sebagai pelengkap sebuah kata kerja. Posisi yang dapat ditempati kedua kata depan tersebut adalah posisi awal, tengah, dan akhir. Arti kata depan for yang menunjukkan waktu adalah durasi atau lamanya waktu, saat dan target waktu; yang menunjukkan tempat, memiliki arti tempat tujuan, posisi dan jarak. Kata depan to yang menunjukkan waktu memiliki arti menunjukkan jam (sebelum angka yang menunjukkan jam), terus menerus, dan target waktu; yang menunjukkan tempat memiliki arti posisi, tempat tujuan, dan jarak. Kata depan to yang menunjukkan perpindahan memiliki arti perpindahan dari tempat asal menuju tujuan.
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. Background of the Study
Prepositions are a group of words (for examples: at, in, on, from, to, for, out of, on behalf of, etc.) that are used before a noun or pronoun to show, for examples: place, position, time or method; for instances: after school, before the class (Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, 1995). Here is the example:
(1) The teacher in my speaking class comes from Australia.
According to Collins Cobuild English Guides, Prepositions (1991), there are more than 100 prepositions in English. From those 100 prepositions, the most frequent prepositions that are used in sentences are the prepositions to, of, and in.
Most sentences that people produce contain at least one preposition; indeed, three out of the ten most frequent words of English are prepositions: of, to, and in (1991: vi).
Moreover, from the quoting sentence, we can see that an English sentence may have more than one preposition. For example:
(2) Liz had invited the whole group to her house for coffee (Collins Cobuild English Guides, Prepositions, 1991: 33).
From the 100 prepositions, there are only two prepositions that are going to be analyzed here; they are the prepositions for and to which show time, place, and movement. The prepositions for and to which show time, place, and
movement are chosen for this analysis because they seem like having the same functions, meanings, and position.
The preposition to in certain context can be changed into the preposition for, or vice versa. For instances:
(3) I bring it for you. (4) I bring it to you.
In those sentences above, the function, the meaning, and the position of the prepositions to and for are similar, both to and for are used in the same condition, preceded by the correct verb and they have meaning to express the intended goal or target. However in some cases, prepositions for and to may not always be used in the same condition, because they can have different functions and positions which might change the meaning. For examples:
(5) We stayed there for three months. (6) *We stayed there to three months.
The sentence (6) is not correct because the preposition to cannot have the same form with preposition for when they are used for showing time.
The functions and the positions of prepositional phrases with for and to when they are used in a clause and also the meanings of the prepositions for and to contain in the prepositional phrases will be the discussions of this analysis. The prepositional phrases analyzed here are the prepositional phrases contained in a novel entitled Sexing the Cherry (Jeanette Winterson, 1989). Specifically, as stated before, the prepositional phrases taken from the novel as the data are the ones which show time, place, and movement.
The novel Sexing the Cherry is used in this analysis because this novel is one of the popular English novels and it is published widely. This analysis is made in order to help the English learners to understand the functions and the positions of prepositional phrases with for and to and also the meanings of both prepositions used in the prepositional phrases by using data taken from the novel written by Jeanette Winterson, Sexing the Cherry, so that they do not make the simple mistake anymore.
It is called simple because people sometimes think that prepositions, including to and for, are just very small parts of English language that will not change everything. Whereas, those very small parts of English language can influence the meanings which can make the understanding of the readers or the hearers become disturbed.
B. Problem Formulation
1. What functions do the prepositional phrases with for and to have in Sexing the Cherry?
2. What are the positions of prepositional phrases with for and to in the novel?
3. What are the meanings of the prepositions for and to containing in the prepositional phrases as used in the novel?
C. Objectives of the study
According to the problem formulation stated before, there are three objectives of this analysis. The first objective is to identify the functions of the prepositional phrases with for and to when they are used in clauses. This will help the English learners understand the functions of prepositional phrases in a clause.
After knowing the functions of the prepositional phrases in clauses, the writer tries to identify the positions of the prepositional phrases in clauses because some prepositional phrases with the same preposition might have different positions.
The last objective is to find the meanings of the prepositions for and to contained in the prepositional phrases. The prepositions for and to that are used in this analysis are the prepositions which show time, places, and movement.
D. Definition of Terms
According to Marckwardt (1948: 263), a preposition is a word showing the relationship of its object and some other words in the sentences. Another definition of preposition is a word that shows a relationship between a noun or pronoun and other words in the sentence (Troyka, 1987: 710). Here is the example:
(7) Much of New York City’s famous skyline was built by Mohawk Indians (Troyka, 1987: 150).
A prepositional phrase is a phrase consists of a preposition followed by a prepositional complement which is characteristically a noun phrase or a wh-clause or V-ing clause (Quirk et al, 1973: 143). For examples (1973: 143):
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
In this part, we are going to have the review of the related studies which is about the review of the similar topic(s), the review of related theory that will be used in solving the problems of this analysis, and also the theoretical framework which is about the way to use the theories which are stated in the review of related theories to solve the problems.
A. Review of Related Studies
Review of the studies is the review of the previous researches about the similar analysis. The first similar topic is found in the thesis written by C. Yola Ika Dinalia, a student of English Language Education study program of Sanata Dharma University, graduated in 1999. The title of her thesis is Subject Matter Prepositional Phrases as Post-modifiers in Titles of Books and Journal Articles.
The prepositions discussed in the analysis are about, of, and on. She chooses those prepositions because they follow or are followed by various kinds of word (nouns, pronouns, verbs or adjectives).
There are certain prepositions which are difficult to learn. They include prepositions referring to subject matter, e.g. about, of, on, over, etc. (Why? Because) those prepositions follow or are followed by various kind of words (nouns, pronouns, verbs or adjectives) (1999: 4).
In this thesis Yola tries to answer two questions, they are: (1) What is the pattern of the applications of the prepositions about, of, and on referring the
subject matter as modifiers? and (2) What are the heads which can be post-modified by the prepositions about, of, and on in prepositional phrases referring to subject matter (1999: 7).The theories used in this thesis are the theories of preposition, post-modifier, and post-modification by the prepositional phrases.
After analyzing the data, the writer concludes that: (1) The pattern which underlined the application of prepositional about, of and on in prepositional phrases referring to subject matter as post-modifiers on titles is particular words (Noun) + prepositions; (2) There are three categorizations that show the relationship between the heads and the prepositions, they are one head-one preposition, one head-either of or on, and one head-about, of, on; (3) The most explicit preposition from those three prepositions is about, while on is relatively explicit, and of is the least explicit; and the last is (4) Compared with the other prepositions, the occurrence of the head being post-modified by preposition on is the most frequent (1999: 73-6).
Another study about the similar topic, relating with the prepositions, is an article written by Amy Patterson based on the analysis of David Kemmerer, an assistant professor of psychological sciences and linguistics at Purdue’s College of Liberal Arts. The topic of the analysis is thinking of Prepositions Turns Brain ‘on’ in Different Ways (2005). The article is about the relation between the use of prepositions and someone’s ability of thinking.
study is the first cognitive neuroscience study to investigate brain regions for spatial and temporal relations, those involving time, used in language.
David Kemmerer gives the examples of the use of preposition at to describe time and location. A person might think that if someone’s knowledge of the word at to describe location is impaired, then his or her ability in using the same preposition to describe time will be disrupted, but David Kemmerer found that the words implying time are processed independently.
After looking at the studies above, we can see that the writer has different topic to be analyzed in this thesis. The writer concerns with the functions and positions of prepositional phrases with for and to, and also the meanings of the prepositions, not about the prepositions about, of, and on, neither about the relation between the use of prepositions and someone’s ability of thinking.
B. Review of Related Theories
The theories that are going to be used in this analysis are the theories of prepositions, phrases, and clauses. Those theories are used in this discussion because the functions and the positions of prepositional phrases and also the meanings of the preposition to and for in the novel Sexing the Cherry cover the theories of prepositions, phrases, and clauses.
the prepositions and the prepositional phrases for and to in the novel Sexing the Cherry.
1. Prepositions
The definition of prepositions is stated by Thomson and Martinet in their book entitled A Practical English Grammar.
Prepositions are words normally placed before the nouns or pronouns. Prepositions can also be followed by verbs but, except after but and except, the verb must be in the gerund form: They succeeded in escaping (1980: 91).
A Comprehensive Grammar written by Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum, and Jan Svartvik (1985: 657) says that a preposition expresses a relation between two entities, one is represented by the prepositional complement and the other by another part of the sentence; for example:
(11) We were looking at his awful paintings.
a. The form of preposition
Based on a book entitled A Comprehensive Grammar (Quirk et al, 1985: 665-70), there are two forms of prepositions; they are simple and complex prepositions.
i. Simple prepositions
for, to, since, through, etc, and polysyllabic prepositions, such as: about, before, during, except, throughout, etc (1985: 665-67).
ii. Complex prepositions
As stated before, complex prepositions are prepositions that consist of more than one word. They may be subdivided into two-word sequences and three-word sequences (Quirk et al, 1985: 669).
The first word of the two-word sequences, which usually is relatively stressed, is an adverb, adjective, or conjunction, and the second word is a simple preposition (usually for, from, of, to, or with), for examples (1985: 669):
(12) We had to leave early because of the bad weather. (13) I sat next to an old lady on the train.
Moreover, the three-word sequences have a certain pattern; Prep1 + Noun + Prep 2. Here are the examples (1985: 670):
(14) In terms of money, her loss was small.
(15) In line with latest trend of fashion, many dress designers have been sacrificing elegance to audacity.
b. Prepositional Phrases
i. Preposition and prepositional complement
A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition followed by a prepositional complement, which is characteristically either a noun phrase or a clause in nominal function (Quirk et al, 1972: 299), for examples:
(16) We can know the truth from what he said.
ii. That- clause and infinitive clauses
That- clauses and infinitive clauses do not occur as prepositional complement although they frequently have a nominal function in other respects. In the examples below we can see the alternation between the presence and absence of a preposition (1972: 299):
(17) They persuaded him of the need for more troops. (18) They persuaded him of how many troops they need. (19) They persuaded him that they needed more troops. (20) They persuaded him to send for more troops.
The alternations given above show that the prepositions which follow certain verbs and adjectives is omitted before a that- clause or infinitive clause.
iii. Postposed prepositions
Normally, a preposition must be followed by its complement, but there are some circumstances in which this does not happen because the complement has to take the first position in the clause, or else is absent through ellipsis (Quirk et al, 1972: 300), for examples:
(21) Which house did you leave it at?
(23) She was sought after by all the leading impresarios of the day. (24) He’s impossible to work with.
(25) He’s worth listening to.
From the examples above we can see that the most frequent position of prepositions is in the final position of the clause which in the past it was criticized as contrary to ‘a good grammar’.
The thought against such postposed prepositions remains in formal English, which offers (for relative and direct or indirect questions) the alternative of an initial preposition (Quirk et al, 1972: 300):
(26) It was a situation from which no escape was possible.
However, this position sometimes considered as awkward form in formal English and indeed in some cases the postposed preposition has no preposed alternative (1972: 300).
c. Syntactic function of prepositional phrases
In general terms, a preposition expresses a relation between two entities; one is represented by the prepositional complement and the other by another part of the sentence.
In the most general terms, a preposition expresses a relation between two entities, one being that represented by the prepositional complement, the other by another part of the sentence. The prepositional complement is characteristically a noun phrase, a nominal wh-clause, or a nominal –ing clause (Quirk et al, 1985: 657).
i. Postmodifier in a noun phrase
Prepositional phrase is by far the commonest type of post modification in English (Quirk, 1972: 883). The postmodifying phrase normally follows the elements it postmodifies directly. In this case, the preposition becomes the postmodifying phrase and the noun phrase becomes the element that is modified.
(27) The people on the bus were singing (1972: 304)
ii. Adverbial
Prepositional phrases can also have function as an adverbial. There are four types of adverbial that can be the functions of the prepositional phrases; they are:
a. Adjunct, whenever it is affected by clausal processes as negation and
interrogation. Adjunct can be known by seeing the characteristics. First, it cannot appear initially in a negative declarative clause. Second, it can be the focus of question or of clause negation. The function of an adjunct is to relate the sentence as a whole (Quirk, 1985: 657). Moreover, adjunct can normally be evoked as the response to a where, when, how long, how often, and for how long questions (Quirk, 1972: 474, 483, 486), for example (Quirk, 1985: 657):
(28) In the afternoon, we went to Boston.
b. Subjunct, can be distinguished from an adjunct in terms of the feature.
(29) From personal point of view, I find this is a good solution to the problem.
c. Disjunct, the same as a subjunct, a disjunct also can be distinguished
from an adjunct in term of the feature. A disjunct is not affected by clausal processes. It can appear initially in a negative declarative clause and cannot be the focus of a question or of a clause negation (Quirk, 1985: 657). In the function, a disjunct is related to the speaker’s or writer’s attitude or comment to the statement he is making (Close, 1975: 296). For instance (Quirk, 1985: 657)
(30) She did, in all fairness, try to phone the police.
d. Conjunct, similar with a subjunct and a disjunct, a conjunct is also
grammatically different from an adjunct in terms of feature. The function is to conjoin independent units rather than to contribute information to a single integrated unit (Quirk, 1985, 633). A conjunct is used to introduce a new sentence in a series and linking it logically with what has been said before (Close, 1975: 297). Please look at the example taken from A Grammar of Contemporary English (Quirk, 1972: 304) below:
(31) On the other hand, he made no attempt to help the victim or apprehend he attacker.
iii. Complementation
prepositional complement (Quirk, 1985: 657). As stated above, the function of prepositional phrases as complementation can be divided into:
a. Complementation of a verb; the elements of a clause structure for the
complementation of the verb are important in the use of particular verb. Therefore, the sentence is incomplete if one of the elements is omitted (Quirk, 1972: 344), for instance (1972: 304):
(32) We were looking at his awful paintings. b. Complementation of an adjective;
Adjective often forms a lexical unit with a following preposition. The lexical bond is strongest with adjectives for which, in a given sense, the complementation is obligatory; for examples: sorry for, close to, fond of, etc (Greenbaum, 1990: 359). For example (Quirk, 1985: 657):
(33) I’m sorry for his parents.
b. Prepositional meaning
In the book written by Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech and Jan Svartvik (1972: 306), it is stated that from various types of relational meaning, those of place and time are the most prominent and easy to identify. Here are the meanings of the prepositions that form the prepositional phrases as stated in the book of Quirk et al, A Grammar of Contemporary English (1972: 306-333).
i. Prepositional phrases expressing the relations place
(to), on (to), etc.
b. The prepositions used to express the negative positions are: away from, out of, off, etc.
c. Prepositions used to describe the dimensional ascribed, subjectively speaking, to the location denoted by the prepositional complement are: at, on, in, etc.
d. The prepositions that may express the relative position of two objects or groups of objects are: by, over, under, underneath, beneath, below, etc.
e. These prepositions can express relative destination; they are: by, over, under, etc.
f. Prepositions that can be used for expressing the idea of passage as well as destination are: by, over, under, through, past, across, etc.
g. For expressing movement with reference to a directional path, the prepositional that are usually used are: down, along, up, etc.
h. The static sense of orientation is expressed by using the prepositions: beyond, over, past, etc.
i. The prepositions which can also have a static resultative meaning indicating the state of having reached the destination are: over, out of. j. The pervasive meaning (static or emotional) can be expressed by using
ii. Prepositional phrases expressing the relations in time
a.. Prepositions used to express the meaning of ‘time when’ are: at, on, in, before, after, since, until, between, by and up to.
c. Some prepositions also can be used for expressing the duration of time, they are: for, in, etc.
iii. Prepositional phrase mainly as adjunct
a. Prepositions to express the material cause or the psychological cause (motive) for a happening are: because of, on account of, etc.
b. The purpose and intended destination can be expressed by the preposition: for
d. The prepositions which have meaning to express the recipient, goal, or target are: for, to, at.
e. The source and origin expressed by the use of prepositions: from.
iv. Prepositional phrase mainly as post modifier of noun phrase
a. The notion of having is generally expressed by: of, with, without. b. The meaning of manner can be expressed by using: with, in … with,
like.
c. Prepositions used for expressing the meaning by means of and the instrumental meaning are: by, with, without.
d. The instrument and agentive may be expressed by using the prepositions: with, by.
f. The meaning of in company with or together with can be expressed by using the preposition: with.
g. The idea of support, solidarity or movement in sympathy, and also opposition can be expressed by using the prepositions: for, with, against.
v. Prepositional phrase mainly as disjunct or conjunct
a. The prepositions used for expressing the general-purpose of concession are: in spite of, despite of, for all, with all, notwithstanding. b. The reference can be expressed by using the prepositions: with regard
to, with reference to, as to, as for.
c. The meaning of exception expressed by the use of prepositions: except for,with the exception of, apart from, but, bar,except, barring.
d. The negative condition expressed by using the preposition: but for.
vi. Prepositional phrase mainly as complementation of verb or adjective
a. The meaning of on the subject of and concerning expressed by the use of the prepositions: about, on.
b. To indicates the material and ingredient, the prepositions can be used are: with, of, out of.
c. The prepositions used to specifying the meaning of gradable and also to imply the standard are: at, for.
e. Positions of prepositional phrases
Quirk at al in A Grammar of Contemporary English (1972: 334-5) state that in most cases apart from adverbials, the syntactic function of a prepositional phrase virtually determines its position and as an adverbial, prepositional phrase is mobile. They also say that there are three major positions in the sentence as initial, medial and final (1972: 334-5).
For the adjunct, the most frequent position is the final position, such as after the verb and complement, but it is also common to be put in initial position, especially with phrases of time, for examples (Quirk, 1972: 334):
(34) I saw him again on Friday. (35) On Friday, I saw him again.
The initial position is usual for phrases having a close connection with the verb, e.g. phrases of destination following a verb of motion; for instance (Quirk, 1972: 334):
(36) Into the room he strode.
The prepositional phrases often appear in the initial position in order to avoid ed-focus, or to avoid ambiguity, or to avoid a clustering of adjuncts at end position, though it is not usually possible to isolate anyone reason (Quirk, 1972: 477).
Here are the examples of the prepositional phrases whose function as adjuncts that appear in the initial position (1972: 477):
Disjunct and adjunct are usually placed before the subject (initial), but they might also be put in the final, for examples (1972: 477):
(39) In my opinion, the wrong decision was made. (40) The wrong decision was made, in my opinion.
The medial position for adverbial prepositional phrases in general is the least usual.
The medial position for adverbial prepositional phrases in general is the least usual; it is likely to be used only with short phrases, or where factors such as focus and the complexity of the sentence make the other positions undesirable or impossible (Quirk, 1972: 335).
Here are the examples:
(41) She could, of course, have phoned from the office.
(42) They arrived at a village from which the inhabitants, for fear of enemy reprisals, had fled in panic.
The most acceptable medial positions, according to A Grammar of Contemporary English (1972: 335), are after the subject, after the operator, between the indirect and the direct object, between the object and the object complement. For instance,
(43) His sister at that time was studying medicine. (44) His sister was at that time studying medicine. (45) His sister became, in time, a qualified doctor.
2. Phrases
According to Francis Katamba in his book, Morphology (1993: 333), a phrase is a syntactic constituent whose head is a lexical category; for examples: a noun, adjective, verb, adverb or preposition. Phrases bring together heads and their modifiers (Miller, 2002: 1), for example:
(47) I cannot chase the large dog.
Dog in the example above is the head, and both the and large are its modifiers. A given head may have more than one modifier, and may have no modifier (2002: 1).
Modifiers can be divided into two classes, the obligatory modifiers, known as complements, and optional modifiers, known as adjuncts (Miller, 2002: 4) and attribute (Radford, 1988: 214). Complements always come closer to their head than attributes or adjuncts. Adjunct and attribute can be distinguished based on their positions; an adjunct is placed after the head, while an attribute is placed before the head (1988: 216). Here is the example:
(48) She is aFrench English teacher.
3. Clauses
Generally a clause is defined as a group of words that at least consist of a subject and a verb (John Haiman and Sandra A. Thompson, 1998: 3). There are two types of clause; they are the finite and nonfinite clause. The difference can be seen from the use of its verb. The finite clause uses the finite verb, and the nonfinite lacks of a finite verb (Aarts, 1997: 51).
According to Andrew Radford in his book Transformational Grammar (1988: 288), there are three types of nonfinite verb-forms in English; they are uninflected infinitive forms, gerund, and participle forms. A group of clauses is combined into a sentence.
Complex sentences consist of a main clause and one or more other clauses subordinate to it. The pre-eminent clause in a complex sentence is the main clause, and the other clauses are subject to certain limitations called as subordinate clauses (Miller, 2002: 63).
Subordinate clauses can be divided into complement clauses; that can modify verbs and nouns (49) and (50), relative clauses which modify nouns (51); and adverbial clauses (52) which modify the whole clauses (Miller, 2002: 63-5). Here are the examples as seen in Miller’s book:
(49) Elizabeth regretted that she had met Wickham.
(50) Fanny was delighted by the idea that she could subscribe to a library.
(51) The building that we liked is in Thornton Lacey.
The complement clauses are traditionally called noun clauses because they occur in slots in the main clause that can be occupied by ordinary noun phrases. A complement clause reflects the relationship between the clauses and the verb of the main clause (2002: 64). The adverbial clauses are classified into the clauses of reason, time, concession and manner or condition (Miller, 2002: 65).
The complement clauses are introduced by that, where, how, which, and etc.; the relative clauses are introduced by which, who, whom, whose and that; and in each type of adverbial clause has its particular initial word, although, because, since, might, so, unless, as, when, if and etc. (2002: 66).
C. Theoretical Framework
The problems that are formulated in this analysis are going to be answered by using the theories of prepositions, phrases, and clauses. These theories can be applied in this analysis because the prepositions for and to are two words that have to be placed with the other types of word.
The theories of prepositions, phrases, and clauses are used for answering the first problem. The writer analyzes the constructions which have for and to as prepositions, especially the ones which show time, place, and movement. Then the theories of phrases, and clauses are used in order to find the prepositional phrases where for and to are applied. After that the theory of prepositions used to find the functions of those prepositional phrases in a clause.
meaning of prepositions for and to when used in a prepositional phrases is answered by using the theory of the prepositional meaning and also by using some dictionaries in order to guide in finding the meanings.
The theory of prepositions is used very often in this study because the analysis concerns with the prepositions and prepositional phrases. The other theories, phrases and clauses, are also needed here because the prepositions for and to that will be analyzed are the prepositions which occur in prepositional phrases inside a clause.
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
A. The Object of The Study
The object of the study consists of the particular items that will be studied in this analysis. They are the studies on the functions and positions of the prepositional phrases which have prepositions for and to and also the study on meanings of both prepositions in the novel Sexing the Cherry written by Jeanette Winterson (1989). The prepositional phrases which have prepositions for and to showing time, place, and movement are the data for answering the problems in the problem formulation.
B. Approach of the Study
The approach of the study used in this analysis is the syntactic approach. Syntax can be defined as the study of the arrangement of words as the elements in a sentence to show their relationship one another (Guralnik, 1986: 1444). Another definition of syntax is also stated by Andrew Radford (1997: 272). Radford says that syntax is the study of how words are combined together to form phrases and sentences.
The syntactic approach is used here because the data taken from the novel Sexing the Cherry are in the form of phrases, clauses and sentences which have certain structure or grammar,. The certain structure or grammars of the data have a very close relation with the study of syntax.
C. Method of the Study
This part consists of the processes of collecting the data and the steps done for answering the problems. The data were taken as the result of a text analysis from the novel written by Jeanette Winterson, Sexing the Cherry.
1. Data Collection
The data collection was done in some steps. First the writer signed the sample to be taken, the prepositional phrases with for and to in the novel Sexing the Cherry. The data were taken from all pages of the novel.
From the data found, there are a lot of phrases and clauses which contain prepositions for and to, so that the writer tried to make the data more specific by choosing the constructions which contain prepositions for and to that show time, place, and movement. After that, the writer classified the data into the prepositional phrases used to show time, place, and movement, and then counted them.
2. Data Analysis
The prepositional phrases found from the data collection were analyzed. First, the writer analyzed the data to find their functions by considering the theory of prepositions about the syntactic functions of prepositional phrases stated in the preceding chapter. The result of the analysis above would be the answer of the first problem.
initial, medial, or final positions of the clauses, depending on the theory of prepositions.
CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS
In this part, there will be three discussions to answer the problems in problem formulation stated in the first chapter. The answers consist of the functions and the positions of the prepositional phrases with for and to, and the last is the meanings of the prepositions for and to in the novel Sexing the Cherry. The prepositions that are used in this analysis are the prepositions for and to which show time, place, and movement.
A. The functions of prepositional phrases with for and to in the novel
Sexing the Cherry
According to Randolph Quirk and Sidney Greenbaum, prepositional phrases may have functions as adverbial (adjunct, conjunct, subjunct, disjunct), post-modifier in a noun phrase, and complementation (complementation of a verb and an adjective). However, prepositional phrases with for and to which show time, place, and movement cannot have the whole functions mentioned above.
In the theory of prepositions about functions mentioned by Quirk, there is one function that does not really show the function; it is a post modifier of a noun phrase. This function is actually closer to the position of the prepositional phrases than to the function of the prepositional phrases. However this theory gives clearer explanation, especially about the functions of the prepositional phrases, than other theories, so that the writer decides to use the theory written by Quirk as the source
of the theory in finding the functions of the prepositional phrases.
There are three functions which are not owned by the prepositional phrases with for and to in the novel Sexing the Cherry. The functions are as a disjunct, a subjunct and a conjunct, so that the writer decides to make the table only based on the functions owned by the prepositional phrases with for and to in the novel Sexing the Cherry. The functions of both prepositional phrases will be mentioned in the following pages.
1. The functions of prepositional phrases with for
The functions of prepositional phrases with for will be given in the table of the data description below:
Table 1: The functions of prepositional phrases with for
complementation. Moreover, most of prepositional phrases with for have function as an adjunct.
a. Adjunct
Most of the prepositional phrases with for in the novel Sexing the Cherry have function as an adjunct. They can be categorized as adjuncts because they are important for the clauses where they are contained, although they will not change the meaning of the clause when they are omitted.
Moreover, they can also be the answers of the where questions (for the prepositional phrases with for which show place) and also the answers of the when and how long questions (for the prepositional phrases with for which show time); for examples:
(16) On arriving there for the first time I made friends with a family, and after dinner promised to call the next day (p. 43).
(32) For a moment she felt dizzy, lost her balance, but no, she’s home as always (p. 90).
(4) ‘For nowhere in that Holy Book is there anything to be said about the weight of an angel’ (p. 20).
(52) When Jordan and myself had each swallowed thirty-six oysters he told me must leave for London immediately to present the King with his rarest find (p. 148).
The prepositional phrases in the examples above can be categorized as adjuncts by using a similar way. As stated in the review of related theories, they are found by answering questions with certain question words. The italic phrasein example (16) and (1) can be categorized as adjuncts because they are the results of the how often question. They are the prepositional phrases with for which have function as adjuncts that show time, while the prepositional phrases in the examples (4) and (52) are the answers of the where question, since they indicate the place. The prepositional phrases with for in the example (32) can have function as an adjunct because it is the answer of the how long question, to indicate the time.
There is also a prepositional phrase with for, functions as an adjunct, whose preposition for is omitted; it is:
(56) I work (for) twelve, fifteen hours a day at what I’m good at and I’m getting tired of nosy people poking about in the private business of perfectly respectable companies (p. 158).
b. Post modifier of a noun phrase
Prepositional phrases which function as post modifier of a noun phrase, as stated in the second chapter, take the preposition as the post-modifying phrase and the noun phrase as the element that is modified. There is only one prepositional phrase with for whose function as a post modifier of a noun phrase; it is:
The prepositional phrase with for in the example given above is used to modify the noun phrase their dinner. The prepositional phrase with for in the example above can be categorized as a post modifier of a noun phrase because for the evening placed after the head their dinner.
2. The functions of prepositional phrases with to
The functions of prepositional phrases with to will be given in the form of table, as the following description of the data:
Complementation
Table 2: The functions of prepositional phrases with to
a. Adjunct
The same as the prepositional phrases with for, most of the prepositional phrases with to function as adjuncts (134 prepositional phrases from 158 prepositional phrases). The way to find the prepositional phrases with to which function as adjuncts is the same as the way to find the prepositional phrases with for which have the same function. Here are the examples:
(111) I had it in mind to go back to the museum and look at the skeleton of an extinct whale (p. 43).
(95) A young girl came to the window and, asking me if I were the sister she had prayed for, courteously invited me to bed with her, where I passed…(p. 31).
(70) As we descended through the clean air we saw, passing us by from time to time (p. 13).
The adjuncts in the examples (111) and (95) are found by answering the where question. They can be distinguished based on the verbs used before the prepositional phrases with to. The verbs used before most of the prepositional phrases with to which function as adjuncts are come and go.
b. Complementation of an adjective
The prepositional phrases with to in the following examples can be said as the complementation of adjectives because as written before, that an adjective often forms a lexical unit with a following preposition. The lexical bond is the strongest with adjectives for which, in a given sense, the complementation is obligatory; for examples:
(64) I put my head next to his head and looked where he looked and I saw deep blue waters against a pale shore and trees whose branches sang with green…(p. 6).
(75) The moon was still visible: it seemed to me that I was closer to the moon than to the ground (p. 16).
(109) There is a rock near to its source and I very often hide behind it at evening, singing songs of love and death and waiting for the sun to set (p. 42).
adjectives. They are close, near, and next. The adjective close is also used in the form of comparison (75).
c. Complementation of a verb
The prepositional phrases which have function as the complementation of verbs can be found by analyzing the prepositional phrases which are called, in this case, as the prepositional objects. The prepositional phrases with to which function as the complementation of verbs are usually used after certain verbs. In the novel Sexing the Cherry, there are only two prepositional phrases which have function as the complementation of verbs, for examples:
(60) I tried to find the path but all I found were hares with staring eyes, poised in the middle of the field and turned to stone (p. 1).
(170) But in my games with ships and plants I was trying to return to that memory, to release whatever it had begun in me (p. 113).
Those prepositional phrases which function as the complementation of verbs can be differentiated based on the verbs. They are used after the verbs turned and return.
d. Post modifier of a noun phrase
Prepositional phrases which function as post modifier of a noun phrase, as stated in the second chapter, take the preposition as the post-modifying phrase and the noun phrase as the element that is modified. Here are the examples:
(107) A man accosted me on our way to Wimbledon and asked me if I should like to see him (p. 40).
(139) At the doorway to the street he saw crowds of his followers, flouting the ban on their presence, too many for the guards to arrest but still unable to reach the courtroom (p. 74).
The prepositional phrase with to in (69) is categorized into the post modifier of a noun phrase because it modifies the noun phrase distance, and it also used to combine another prepositional phrase, the prepositional phrases with from (from … to …). The prepositional phrases with to in the examples (107) and (139) are also used to modify the preceding noun phrases, our way and the doorway.
B. The positions of prepositional phrases with for and to in the novel
Sexing the Cherry
Prepositional phrases, including the ones with for and to, can have three possible positions; they are initial, medial, and final (end) positions. The syntactic functions of the prepositional phrases for and to, sometimes determine the positions of the prepositional phrases in a clause. However, sometimes, the positions cannot be determined by the functions of the prepositional phrases.
1. The positions of prepositional phrases with for
The result of the analysis to find the positions of the prepositional phrases with for in the novel Sexing the Cherry can be seen clearly in the following table of the data description.
Final (end) Prepositional phrases Initial Medial
Sentence Clause
Total
Time 12 12 11 17 52
Place 2 1 2 1 6
Movement - - - -
-Total 14 13 13 18 58
Table 3: The positions of prepositional phrases with for
From the data description above, we can see that the most frequent position of prepositional phrases with for in the novel Sexing the Cherry is in the final position, 31 prepositional phrases from 58 data.
a. Initial Position
The initial position is rarely used for the prepositional phrases, including the prepositional phrases with for and to, especially those which show time, place, and movement.
(36) For the most part I can see only the most obvious detail, the present, my present (p. 102).
(17) For some years I did not hear from my sisters, and then be a strange eventuality, I discovered that we had all, in one way or another, parted from the glorious princes and were living scattered, according to our tastes (p. 48).
In (36), the initial prepositional phrases with for is used to show place, and in (17) is used to show time.
a. Medial Position
Medial position of a prepositional phrase is after the subject, after the operator, between the verb and complement or object, between indirect and direct object, or between the object and object complement.
The medial position, according to A Grammar of Contemporary English (1972: 334- 5), is the least usual to be used in English sentences. In the novel Sexing the Cherry, the prepositional phrases with for which show time and place in the medial positions have less number than the prepositional phrases with for in the initial positions. Here are the examples:
(31) The self is not contained in any moment or any place, but it is only in the intersection of moment and place that the self might, for a moment, be seen vanishing through a door, which disappears at once (p. 87).
(48) I have been alone for a long time, days and nights of time, so that time is no longer measured in the units I am used to but has mutinied and run wild (p. 143).
(54) They fiery circle surrounding her held all the clues she needed to recognize that life is for a moment contained in one shape then released into another (p. 152).
The position of prepositional phrases in (31) and (54) is after the operators might and is. In (47) and (48) the prepositional phrases are placed between the verbs and the objects.
c. Final (end) position
After the analysis done in this study, the writer concludes that the most frequent position taken by the prepositional phrases with for is in the final or the end position. The final position is divided into two parts; the final position of a clause and the final position of a sentence.
i. Final (end) position of a clause; for examples:
(13) I kept them closed for some five minutes and then, opening them to see what had happened, I saw that he had fainted dead away (p. 34).
(37) The city, being freed from the laws of gravity, began to drift upwards for some 200 miles, until it was out of the earth’s atmosphere (p. 109).
The final position of a clause in the novel Sexing the Cherry is mostly owned by the prepositional phrases with for which show time, except for example (37) which shows place. As we see in all examples above, they are usually placed before another clause in a complex sentence.
ii. Final (end) position of a sentence; for examples:
(46) They had a film show about life in the Navy and afterwards an old Admiral turned up and told us how he’d learned to iron his bell-bottom trousers with seven creases for the seven seas (p.134). (43) I saw the painting and tried to imagine what it would be like to
bring someone home for the first time (p. 127).
From the examples above, we know that the final position of a sentence is in the end position of a simple sentence or in the end of a final clause in a complex sentence. For the seven seas in (46) is a prepositional phrase with for in the final of a sentence which show place, while for the first time in (43) is to show time.
2. The positions of prepositional phrases with to
Final (end) Prepositional phrases Initial Medial
Sentence Clause Total
Time - 2 4 3 9
Place 3 43 40 48 134
Movement - 6 3 6 15
Total 3 52 47 56 158
Table 4: The positions of prepositional phrases with to
a. Initial Position
The initial position is rarely used for the prepositional phrases, including the prepositional phrases with to, especially the prepositional phrases which show time, place, and movement. In the novel Sexing the Cherry, there are only three prepositional phrases with to which are in the initial position; for examples:
(102) With my back to the window I asked her what it was that kept her here (p. 36).
(118) Coming with much difficulty to the top of a hill I looked across the widening valley and saw where the snow still patched the fields like sheets left out to dry (p. 53).
(199) On our back to London Jordan apologized to me for talking so little (p. 154).
b. Medial Position
As stated before, medial position of a prepositional phrase is after the subject, after the operator, between the verb and complement or object, between indirect and direct object, or between the object and object complement. For examples:
(101) The stone cylinder fell without relief to a platform of bitter rocks smashed by foaming waves (p. 36).
(121) We had been married a few years when a man came to the door selling brushes (p. 55).
(129) The smells were the same, the river was still filthy, the dredgers still bobbed about up to their necks in rubbish (p. 67).
The prepositional phrase in (101) is in the medial position since it is placed between the object and the object complement. The position of the prepositional phrase in (121) is also in medial position because it is between the verb and the complement, and because the position of the prepositional phrase in (129) is between the verb and the complement, it can also be categorized into the medial position.
c. Final Position
i. Final position of a clause; for examples:
(196) When she heard of the death of her husband (I was too ladylike to describe the circumstances themselves) she raised her hands to Heaven and thanked God for his mercy (p.148).
(208) In despair I went to the dog kennel and shook it with both hands until my neighbour poked her head out, cursing such oaths as should never be heard in female company (p. 162).
The same as the prepositional phrases with for which are in the final position of a clause, the prepositional phrases with to which have final position are the prepositional phrases with to that are placed in the end of a clause before another clause in a complex sentence.
ii. Final position of a sentence; for examples:
(110) So the number of buildings in the city is always constant but they are never in the same place from one day to the next (p. 43).
(99) Then I knew she must be having a game with me and I went and pulled her to the window (p. 35).
A prepositional phrase that is in the final position of a sentence is the prepositional phrase positioned in the final position of a simple sentence or in the final clause of a complex sentence.
(119) I wanted to run my finger from the cleft in her chin down the slope of her breasts and across the level plains of her stomach to where I knew she would be wet (p. 54).
(124) I went to where he was sleeping in another room and I asked him to leave (p. 59).
A nominal clause, according to Leech and Svartvik (1975: 248), has a function like a noun phrase. That is why the preposition to in the examples above can be followed by a nominal clause.
C. The meanings of prepositions for and to contained in prepositional
phrases as used in Sexing the Cherry
According to Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik in their book entitled A Grammar of Contemporary English, the meaning of the prepositions that form prepositional phrases are categorized into six parts. They are the meanings related with time, place, and also the meaning which are connected with the functions of the prepositional phrases, as an adjunct, a disjunct, a complementation of a verb, a complementation of an adjective, and as a post modifier of a noun phrase.
phrases, not based on the other elements of the clauses. The result of the data analysis can be seen in the following data description.
Prepositional Phrases For To Total
Length of the time (duration) 45 - 45
Indicating the time (before an exact hour on the clock)
Target, goal (destination/ direction) 3 118 121 Place
Distance 2 2 4
Movement From starting point (originator) to destination (recipient)
- 15 15
Total 58 158 216
Table 5: The meanings of preposition for and to
1. The meanings of the prepositions for
Prepositions for in the novel Sexing the Cherry,when they are used in the form of prepositional phrases, only have the two categories mentioned above, to show time and place. After analyzing the novel Sexing the Cherry, the writer did not find any prepositional phrases with for which shows movement.
a. Time
i. Length of the time (duration)
Almost all of prepositions for in the novel Sexing the Cherry to show time used for expressing the length of the time or duration. For examples:
(22) I saw him at night for a few hours, over our dinner, though he never ate much (p. 60).
(29) They ignored the call to prayer at five a.m., indeed they ignored it for so long that the old man hired to ring the bell died of heart failure (p. 81).
(45) The most popular hero for the following 200 years, he was ‘short of stature, of strong limb, round headed, brown hair, full bearded, his eyes round and large and clear’ (p. 132).
The preposition for in examples (22), (29), and (45) are used to indicate the length of the time when the activities happen.
ii. Occasion
Occasion is the meaning of preposition for when used in prepositional phrases which show particular time when something happens. Here are the examples:
(2) He lifted it up above his head, and the crowd, seeing it for the first time, roared and nudged each other and demanded to know what poor fool had been so reduced as to sell his vitality (p. 5).
iii. Target
The meaning of target is not only used to show place, but also time. This is to show the target of time when something is going to be done, or in other words, to indicate that something is intended to happen at a specified time; for examples: (18) The moment she leaped through the window, bringing their dinner
for the evening, the prince hit her over the head and threw her out again (p. 52).
(12) We file past every Sunday to humble ourselves and stay clean for another week (p. 32).
b. Place
There are few prepositional phrases with for which show place appear in the novel Sexing the Cherry. There are only six prepositional phrases with for which show place. The meanings of the preposition for are:
i. Target, goal, destination, or direction
This meaning shows the places that are going to be reached, for examples: (52) When Jordan and myself had each swallowed thirty-six oysters he
told me he must leave for London immediately to present the King with his rarest find (p. 148).
(36) For the most part I can see only the most obvious detail, the present, my present (p. 102).
ii. Distance
Here are the examples:
(46) They had a film show about life in the Navy and afterwards an old Admiral turned up and told us how he’d learned to iron his bell-bottom trousers with seven creases for the seven seas (p.134). (37) The city, being freed from the laws of gravity, began to drift
upwards for some 200 miles, until it was out of the earth’s atmosphere (p. 109).
iii. Position
There is only one prepositional phrase with for which shows place whose preposition has meaning to indicate the position of something. Here is the example:
(4) ‘For nowhere in that Holy Book is there anything to be said about the weight of an angel’ (p. 20).
2. The meanings of the preposition to
The preposition to is generally used to show place and movement, but there are also a few that shows time.
a. Time
There are three meanings that can be owned by this preposition to show time; they are:
i. Indicating the time (before an exact hour on the clock)
to here is used to show the specific time when something happens. Here is the example:
(59) It was night, about a quarter to twelve, the sky divided in halves, one cloudy, the other fair (p. 1).
ii. Continuity
Similar with prepositional phrases with for, the prepositional phrases with to which mean continuity is used to indicate the time when something happens again and again. In this part, the prepositional phrases with to are usually combined with the prepositional phrases with from (from … to ...). These are the examples:
(200) Jack said, ‘The trouble with you, Nicolas, is that you never think about your future, you just live from day to day’ (p. 156).
(204) Around the edges of the pit were numerous carts which were tipped in from time to time (p. 161).
iii. Target
Target in this part means the time when something is going to be done. There are only two prepositional phrases with to whose prepositions have the meaning of target; they are:
(149) … it’s the other distractions they crave, even more so now that the death of the King has put an end to the future as a place we already know (p. 91).
b. Place
There are three meanings owned by prepositions to which show place. The meaningsare:
i. Position
This meaning is used for showing the position of an object. Here are the examples:
(109) There is a rock near to its source and I very often hide behind it at evening, singing songs of love and death and waiting for the sun to set (p. 42).
(176) I have it by the viper next to my bed (p. 120).
(146) A young man on board an Admiralty salvage tug close to the mouth of the Thames goes on deck to look at the stars (p. 89). ii. Target, goal, destination, or direction
Prepositions to in the novel Sexing the Cherry have the meaning of target, destination, direction or goal as the most frequent meaning. Here are the examples:
