2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2.1 Culture
Culture refers to the dynamic totality of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional features which characterize a society or social group. It includes the art and letters, but also modes of life, the fundamental rights of the human being, value systems, traditions, heritage and beliefs developed over time and subject to change. Drama, Dance, Language and indigenous Art have conventionally been described as some of the subsectors of culture.
There are definitions stated by experts in culture :
1. Edward B. Taylor
Culture is a complex whole, that it contains the knowledge, belief, art, morals, laws, mores, and other capabilities acquired by man as a member of society. 2. M. Jacobs and B.J. Stern
Culture covers all forms of technology including social, ideological, religious, and arts and objects, all of which are social heritage.
3. Koentjaraningrat
Culture is a whole system of ideas, actions, and the work of human beings in order to become a society that human beings belong to learn.
4. Dr. K. Kupper
Culture is a system of ideas that guide and driver for the human in attitude and behavior, both individually and in groups.
5. William H. Haviland
Culture is a set of rules and norms that are shared by members of the public, which if carried out by its members will bear behavior deemed feasible and can be received by all communities.
6. Ki Hajar Dewantara
7. Francis Merill
Behavioral patterns are generated by social interaction
All behavior and all products produced by someone as a member of a community that is found through symbolic interaction.
8. Bounded et.al
Culture is something that is formed by the development and transmission of human beliefs through certain symbols, such as language symbols as a series of symbols that are used to divert the cultural beliefs among the members of a society. The messages about the culture, which is expected to be found in the media, government, religious institutions, educational systems and such. 9. Mitchell (Dictionary of Soriblogy)
Culture is the most overall looping action or human activity and human-generated products that have been popular in the community socially and not just in the genetikal switch.
10. Robert H. Lowie
Culture is everything in getting individuals from the community, including beliefs, customs, norms artistic, eating habits, skills obtained not from his own creativity but rather a legacy of the past which can be through formal or informal education.
symbols.‖ Culture, on such a view, is like a text—something that needs to be interpreted through the investigation of symbols.
13. Herskovits (1948, 17)
Culture is the man-made part of the environment. 14. Meade (1953, 22)
Culture is the total shared, learned behavior of a society or a subgroup.
2.2 Kissing
A kiss is the pressing of one‘s lips against another person or an object.
In some situations a kiss is a ritual, formal or symbolic gesture indicating devotion, respect, or sacrament. The word came from Old English cyssan (―to
kiss‖), in turn from coss (―a kiss‖).
Kissing started early in our evolution. Even Chimpanzees kiss after a fight. Scientists are not quite sure why we kiss; only that kissing may be an instinctual action. It could also be the result of learned behaviour. One theory is that kissing helps us sniff out desired qualities in a mate. When we smell the person we kiss, our pheromones communicate and exchange information.
The art of kissing in different cultures varies. Kissing has long been considered as an act of intimacy, closeness and familiarity. Kissing each cheek is a sign of friendship and welcome while kissing on the mouth signifies something deeper and more meaningful.
(Hall 1966: 1) Whereas kissing prehistorically might have originated in a mother feeding her infant by transferring chewed food from mouth to mouth, nowadays, it is a form of communication that is acknowledged in most cultures, in one form or another.
The data is in from studies around the globe, a smooch a day will definitely keep the doctor away! Kissing has head-to-toe health benefits. So tell
that cutie you have been yearning for to ―pucker up for good health,‖ because
1) Improves your mood
During a lip-lock the brain releases dopamine and which is responsible for feelings of desire and bonding, and serotonin that elevates your mood. The feelings and emotions stirred up, and molecules and chemicals released
throughout the body from a kiss can heal emotional ―boo boos.‖
2) Decreases STRESS
In the moments of a great kiss, the chaos of the outside world is quiet,
there‘s silence in the mind, and the body relaxes and releases stress away. A kiss
lowers stress by decreasing the body‘s cortisol levels also known as the stress
hormone. At the same time kissing stimulates the brain and creates a sense of peace and calmness by altering the body‘s oxytocin levels.
3) Keeps you skin toned
Kissing involves 34 facial muscles, and 112 postural muscles. The most important muscle involved in the peck is the orbicularis oris – as it puckers the lips.
4) Can prevent cavities
Throw in a little tongue and you may keep the dentist away. Kissing increases saliva production and this saliva washes away bacteria that can cause cavities, tooth decay, and plaque build-up.
5) Can Cure allergies
symptoms such as sneezing and watery eyes. Therefore, more kissing means less sneezing and histamine release.
6) Burns calories
As you lean in, your lips touch, and your heart skips a beat. Well maybe it
doesn‘t skip a beat, but it definitely beats faster. As the heart beats faster it
releases adrenaline, also known as epinephrine and other neurotransmitters in the blood. The boost in adrenaline increases your metabolism and helps burn calories.
A study by Dr. Alexander DeWees showed ―a passionate kiss, lasting about
twenty seconds can burn up to 2-3 calories per minute.‖ 7) Makes heart healthy
Kissing keeps your blood pressure & cholesterol level low. A study of cohabiting and married couples showed an increased frequency of kissing decreased stress, increased relationship satisfaction, and decreased cholesterol levels. Stress is a well-known risk factor for heart disease. Therefore kisses keep you heart healthy with a one two punch by lowering blood pressure and cholesterol levels and stabilizing the cardiovascular system.
8) Provides immunity against illness
Swapping spit means swapping germs and that is nature‘s natural
vaccination. Being exposed to others‘ germs your body makes antibodies against
allergies; exposure to these allergens (such as peanuts, shellfish) through a kiss can be deadly.
9) Relieves pain
After a long day do you have a little back pain? If so, take 2 kisses and skip the pain reliever. Kissing releases natural chemicals in the body called endorphins that can be more powerful than the narcotic morphine to relieve pain (without the constipation morphine causes).
10) Can add years to your life
Kissing your hunnie goodbye in the morning can increase HIS life by 5
years. It‘s true, studies have shown men live longer when they are married, and
kiss their spouse or partner goodbye in the morning. Sorry ladies, the same is not true for us. But a great kiss can curl your toes and leave you wanting more when he comes home.
The Origin of Kissing
The earliest literary evidence we have for kissing dates back to around
1500 B.C. from India‘s Vedic Sanskrit texts, the foundations of the Hindu
religion. There is no mention of the word ―kiss,‖ but we do find intriguing
references to ―licking,‖ and ―drinking moisture of the lips.‖ By the third century
A.D., the Vatsyayana Kamasutra (better known as the Kama Sutra), included an entire chapter lavishly describing ways of kissing a lover.
several kisses in greeting and supplication. More famously, the Old Testament (estimated to have been assembled during the 12 centuries before the birth of Christ) abounds with this gesture. For example, Jacob deceptively kisses his blind and ailing father while dressed as his twin brother Esau, stealing Isaac‘s blessing along with the power to rule. A more sensual kiss is described in the Song of
Solomon, which reads, ―Let him kiss me with the kisses of his mouth: For thy
love is better than wine.‖
From ancient Greece, we see kissing in Homer‘s epics, passed down
through oral tradition and finally recorded between the eighth and seventh centuries B.C. Odysseus is kissed by his slaves upon returning home and King
Priam kisses Achilles‘ hands to plead for the return of his deceased son‘s body.
Centuries later,The Histories by Herodotus, includes kissing among the Persians. Ethiopian kings were kissed on the foot and Numidian kings were considered too supreme to be kissed at all. Herodotus also reported that Egyptians would not kiss Greeks on their mouths because Greeks consumed their sacred animal, the cow.
With the rise of Christianity, the church grew increasingly concerned about kissing. However, St. Peter referred to the ―kiss of charity,‖ and St. Paul
wrote, ―Salute one another with a holy kiss.‖ Priests worried these instructions
might encourage carnal sin with the apparent blessing of the church, and some reacted by separating men and women in their congregations.
The Romans were pioneers of introducing the kiss to other parts of the world via military conquests.
Throughout the Middle Ages, kisses served as a demonstration of one‘s
social standing. A king‘s subjects would kiss his ring and robe, his hands, or even
the ground before him. Similarly, people pressed their lips to the pope‘s ring and
slipper. The kiss also served as a sign of trust between feudal lords and vassals. Knights kissed at jousting tournaments and would receive one from the person they protected as thanks for a year of service. During this period, many men did not know how to read and write, so a kiss was used as a legal way to seal
contracts. They drew an ―X‖ on the line and kissed it to make it legal, which has
carried over into the way we now write ―X‖ to symbolize a kiss today.
possess an innate desire to connect this way. As he surmised, kissing is rooted in our evolutionary past, but significantly influenced by unique social norms and customs.
2.1 Western
Western culture is a body of knowledge derived from reason. This foundation of reason has made possible a vast accumulation of understanding related to reality or nature, including human nature. This understanding is represented in several core ideals and values, which include individualism, happiness, rights, capitalism, science and technology.
Western culture can also be referred to as advanced culture; this is because its ideas and values promote the development and sustainment of advanced civilization. Western culture can also be referred to as advanced culture; this is because its ideas and values promote the development and sustainment of advanced civilization.
The Western World generally has higher standards of living than the Eastern World. Because the Americas were settled by Europeans, English, Spanish, and Portuguese dominate in the Americas.
Around the world, all Western nations are relatively similar in terms of language, most using the Latin alphabet. Greece is an exception with its own Greek alphabet, and Israel is a western nation using the Hebrew alphabet, Russia also has its own alphabet. Western nations have similar culture, traditions, religion (predominantly Christianity in most countries but also Atheism) and philosophies, and customs. The most cultural diversity in the West is in countries such as Italy, Germany and Russia. Russia was the first country of the West to implement communism, later replaced by a criminalized free market economy Plutocracy.
Brief History
Western culture began in Ancient Greece. There and in the Roman civilization it developed until the start of the Middle Ages when it largely vanished from Europe. During the Middle Ages, Western culture resided, instead, in the Arab / Persian world to a modest degree.
Then the rediscovery of Western culture in Europe in the Late Middle
Ages prompted the Renaissance. Western culture‘s continuing development then
Today, Western culture has at least some presence in nearly all nations of the world. It does not currently exist, however, anywhere in a perfect and complete form. Wherever Western culture exists, it is at least partially mixed— and often largely mixed—with non-Western culture.
Western culture currently dominates in many Western and Central European nations and several nations settled by Europeans and their descendants. Western culture also significantly exists in many Asian nations, such as Japan, South Korea, Taiwan and Singapore, and it is increasingly influential in India and China.
It has only a modest presence in most of the rest of Asia as well as Latin America and Eastern Europe. In much of both Africa and the Middle East, Western culture currently has little meaningful presence.Since Western culture is based on objective reality and universal human nature, it is open to everyone, transcending both geography and race.
In other words, Western culture is humanity‘s culture. Contrary to
conventional belief, one does not need to be Caucasian or of European descent to admire Western culture or, indeed, even help to build it. Any individual or society on earth can adopt it and thereby become Westernized.
These adopters of Western culture understand that truth is truth, ideals are ideals and values are values—and it does not matter from where such things come or who originally discovered or identified them. In other words, adopters of Western culture know, on some level, that culture is an intellectual matter, not an issue of geography or race—or, for that matter, an issue of ethnicity, language, class, national origin or gender.
Western Countries 1
United
Kingdom 12 Canada 23 Luxembourg
2 Austria 13 United States) 24 Norway
3 Belgium 14 Venezuela 25 Poland
4 Czech Republic 15 Argentina 26 Portugal
5 Denmark 16 Brazil 27 Russia
6 France 17 Chile 28 Romania
7 Greece 18 Colombia 29 Vatican
8 Hungary 19 Mexico 30 Slovenia
9 Ireland 20 Venezuela 31 Spain
10 Italy 21 Australia New Zealand 32 Sweden
11 Germany 22 Ukraine 33 Switzerland
2.2 Eastern
Eastern culture generally refers to the societal norms of countries in Far East Asia (including China, Japan, Vietnam, North Korea and South Korea) and the Indian subcontinent. Like the West, Eastern culture was heavily influenced by religion during its early development. In general, in Eastern culture there is less of a distinction between secular society and religious philosophy than there is in the West.
Eastern culture has developed many themes and traditions. Some important ones are:
Abrahamic religions (aka West Asian religions or Western religion)
Christianity — the majority of the modern world adheres to this faith although it isn't widely practiced in its native continent of Asia anymore and since the faith had spread to the Western World the notion of "Europe" and the "Western World" has been intimately connected with the concept of "Christianity and Christendom" many even attribute Christianity for being the link that created a unified European identity.
Islam — the majority of the world Muslim population have always lived in Asia, due to Islam spreading and becoming the dominant religion of these areas.
Brief History
The earliest civilizations in history were established in the region now known as the Middle East around 3500 BC by the Sumerians, in Mesopotamia (Iraq), widely regarded as the cradle of civilization. The Sumerians and the Akkadians (later known as Babylonians and Assyrians) all flourished in this region. In the course of the fourth millennium BC, city-states developed in southern Mesopotamia that were dominated by temples whose priests represented the cities' patron deities. The most prominent of the city-states was Sumer, which gave its language to the area and became the first great civilization of mankind. About 2340 BC, Sargon the Great (c. 2360–2305 BC) united the city-states in the south and founded the Akkadian dynasty, the world's first empire.
Soon after the Sumerian civilization began, the Nile valley of ancient Egypt was unified under the Pharaohs in the 4th millennium BC, and civilization quickly spread through the Fertile Crescent to the west coast of the Mediterranean Sea and throughout the Levant. The Elamites, Hittites, Amorites, Phoenicians, Israelites and others later built important states in this region.
Eastern Countries
1 AZERBAIJAN 16 MALDIVES 31 JAPAN
2 ARMENIA 17 MONGOLIA 32 JORDAN
3 BAHRAIN 18 NEPAL 33 KAZAKHSTAN
4 BANGLADESH 19 NORTH KOREA 34 KUWAIT
5 BHUTAN 20 OMAN 35 KYRGYZSTAN
6 BRUNEI 21 PAKISTAN 36 LAOS
7 BURMA 22 PHILIPPINES 37 LEBANON
8 CAMBODIA 23 QATAR 38 MALAYSIA
9 CHINA 24 SAUDI ARABIA 39 THAILAND
10 EAST TIMOR 25 SINGAPORE 40 TURKEY
11 INDIA 26 SOUTH KOREA 41 TURKMENISTAN
12 INDONESIA 27 SRI LANKA 42 UNITED ARAB EMIRATES
13 IRAN 28 SYRIA 43 UZBEKISTAN
14 IRAQ 29 TAIWAN 44 VIETNAM
