California Standards in This Section

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Paths to War

Guide to Reading

Section Preview

Nationalistic competition and ambitions on the part of Japan and Germany paved the way for the outbreak of World War II.

•Adolf Hitler’s theory of Aryan racial domination laid the foundation for aggressive expansion outside of Germany. (p. 536)

•The need for natural resources fueled the Japanese plan to seize other countries. (p. 539)

Content Vocabulary

demilitarized, appeasement, New Order, sanction

Academic Vocabulary

labor, achieve, conference, assume

People to Identify

Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini, Joseph Stalin, Chiang Kai-shek

Places to Locate

Rhineland, Sudetenland, Manchukuo

Reading Objectives

1. Describe the agreement reached at the Munich Conference.

2. Explain why Germany believed it needed more land.

Reading Strategy

Categorizing Information Create a chart like the one below listing examples of Japanese aggression and German aggres-sion prior to the outbreak of World War II.

California Standards in This Section

Reading this section will help you master these California History–Social Science standards.

10.7.3:

Analyze the rise, aggression, and human costs of totalitarian regimes (Fascist and Communist) in Germany, Italy, and the Soviet Union, noting especially their common and dissimilar traits.

10.8:

Students analyze the causes and consequences of World War II.

10.8.1:

Compare the German, Italian, and Japanese drives for empire in the 1930s, including the 1937 Rape of Nanking, other atrocities in China, and the Stalin-Hitler Pact of 1939.

10.8.2:

Understand the role of appeasement, noninter-vention (isolationism), and the domestic distrac-tions in Europe and the United States prior to the outbreak of World War II.

535 CHAPTER 11 World War II

Japanese Aggression German Aggression

✦1931

✦1932

✦1933

✦1934

✦1935

✦1936

✦1937

✦1938

✦1939

1931

Japanese forces invade Manchuria

1937

Japanese seize Chinese capital

1939 World War II begins 1938

Hitler annexes Austria 1936

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The German Path to War

Adolf Hitler’s theory of Aryan racial domina-tion laid the foundadomina-tion for aggressive expansion outside of Germany.

Reading Connection

Have you ever been forsaken by a friend? Read to find out how Czechoslovakia was abandoned by its Western allies.

World War II in Europe had its beginnings in the ideas of Adolf Hitler,the head of the Nazi Party and leader of Germany. He believed that Germans belonged to a so-called Aryan race that was superior to all other races and nationalities. Thus, Hitler felt that Germany was capable of building a great civi-lization. To do so, however, Germany needed more land to support a larger population. During the 1930s, Hitler became more aggressive, but no nation opposed him, even when he demanded a part of neighboring Czechoslovakia. One British politician, however, Winston Churchill, believed that Hitler’s actions could only lead to war.

As early as the 1920s, Hitler had indicated that a Nazi regime would find this land to the east—in the Soviet Union. Germany therefore must prepare for war with the Soviet Union. Once the Soviet Union had been conquered, Hitler planned to resettle it with German peasants. The Slavic peoples could be used

as slave laborto build the Third Reich, an “Aryan” racial state that Hitler thought would dominate Europe for a thousand years.

The First Steps

After World War I, the Treaty of Ver-sailles had limited Germany’s military power. As chancellor, Hitler, posing as a man of peace, stressed that Germany wished to revise the unfair provisions of the treaty by peaceful means. Germany, he said, only wanted its rightful place among the European states.

On March 9, 1935, however, Hitler announced the creation of a new air force. One week later, he began a military draft that would expand Germany’s army from 100,000 to 550,000 troops. These steps were in direct violation of the Treaty of Versailles.

France, Great Britain, and Italy condemned Ger-many’s actions and warned against future aggressive steps. In the midst of the Great Depression, however, these nations were distracted by their own internal problems and did nothing further.

Hitler believed the Western states would not use force to maintain the Treaty of Versailles. Hence, on March 7, 1936, he sent troops into the Rhineland.The Rhineland was part of Germany, but, according to the Treaty of Versailles, it was a demilitarizedarea. That is, Germany was not permitted to have weapons or fortifications there. France had the right to use force against any violation of the demilitarized Rhineland but would not act without British support.

Great Britain did not support the use of force against Germany, however. The British government viewed the occupation of German territory by German troops as a reasonable action by a dissatisfied power. The London Times _{noted that the Germans were only} “going into their own back garden.” Great Britain thus

In 1938, after France and Great Britain gave in to Hitler’s demands for territory in Czechoslovakia, Churchill gave a stern warning to the British House of Commons:

“

I will begin by saying what everybody would like to ignore or forget but which must neverthe-less be stated, namely, that we have sustained a total and unmitigated defeat. . . . And I will say this, that I believe the Czechs, left to themselves and told they were going to get no help from the Western Powers, would have been able to make better terms than they have got. . . . We are in the presence of a disaster of the first magnitude which has befallen Great Britain and France. . . . And do not suppose that this is the end. This is only the beginning of the reckoning.

”

Winston Churchill

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Union With Austria

By 1937, Germany was once more a “world power,” as Hitler proclaimed. He was convinced that neither France nor Great Britain would provide much opposition to his plans. In 1938, he decided to pursue one of his goals: Anschluss (ANSH•luhs), or union, with Austria, his native land. By threatening Austria with invasion, Hitler forced the Austrian chancellor to put Austrian Nazis in charge of the government. The new government promptly invited German troops to enter Austria and “help” in reinforcing law and order. One day later, on March 13, 1938, after his triumphal return to his native land, Hitler annexed Austria to Germany.

Demands and Appeasement

Hitler’s next objec-tive was the destruction of Czechoslovakia. On Sep-tember 15, 1938, he demanded that Germany be given the Sudetenland, an area in northwestern Czechoslovakia that was inhabited largely by Ger-mans. He expressed his willingness to risk “world war” to achieve his objective.

At a hastily arranged conference in Munich, British, French, German, and Italian representatives did not object to Hitler’s plans but instead reached an agreement that met virtually all of Hitler’s demands. German troops were allowed to occupy the Sudeten-land. Abandoned by their Western allies, the Czechs stood by helplessly.

The Munich Conference was the high point of West-ern appeasement of Hitler. When Neville Chamber-lain, the British prime minister, returned to Britain from Munich, he boasted that the agreement meant “peace for our time.” Hitler had promised Chamber-lain that he would make no more demands. Like many others, Chamberlain believed Hitler’s promises.

Great Britain and France React

In fact, Hitler was more convinced than ever that the Western democra-cies were weak and would not fight. Increasingly, Hitler was sure that he could not make a mistake, and he had by no means been satisfied at Munich.

In March 1939, Hitler invaded and took control of Bohemia and Moravia in western Czechoslovakia. In the eastern part of the country, Slovakia became a puppet state controlled by Nazi Germany. On the evening of March 15, 1939, Hitler triumphantly declared in Prague that he would be known as the greatest German of them all.

At last, the Western states reacted to the Nazi threat. Hitler’s aggression had made clear that his promises were worthless. When Hitler began to demand the Polish port of Danzig, Great Britain saw began to practice a policy of appeasement.This policy

was based on the belief that if European states satisfied the reasonable demands of unsatisfied powers, the unsatisfied powers would be content, and stability and peace would be achievedin Europe.

New Alliances

Meanwhile, Hitler gained new allies. Benito Mussolinihad long dreamed of creat-ing a new Roman Empire in the Mediterranean, and, in October 1935, Fascist Italy invaded Ethiopia. Angered by French and British opposition to his invasion, Mussolini welcomed Hitler’s support. He began to draw closer to the German dictator.

In 1936, both Germany and Italy sent troops to Spain to help General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War. In October 1936, Mussolini and Hitler made an agreement recognizing their common political and economic interests. One month later, Mussolini spoke of the new alliance between Italy and Germany, called the Rome-Berlin Axis. Also in November, Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact, promising a common front against communism.

This 1937 Italian illustration depicts Hitler and Mussolini. What ideology brought Hitler and Mussolini together?

History

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the danger and offered to protect Poland in the event of war. At the same time, both France and Britain realized that only the Soviet Union was powerful enough to help contain Nazi aggression. They began political and military negotiations with Joseph Stalin, the Soviet dictator.

Hitler and the Soviets

Meanwhile, Hitler pressed on in the belief that the West would not fight over Poland. He now feared, however, that the West and the Soviet Union might make an alliance. Such an alliance could mean a two-front war for Germany. To prevent this possibility, Hitler made his own agree-ment with Joseph Stalin.

On August 23, 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union signed the Nazi-Soviet Nonaggression Pact. In it, the two nations promised not to attack each other. As compensation for signing the pact, Hitler offered Stalin control of eastern Poland and the Baltic states. Because he expected to fight the Soviet Union any-way, it did not matter to Hitler what he promised— he was accustomed to breaking promises.

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LA ND SLOVAKIA EAST PRUSSIA POLAND LITHUANIA HUNGARY UNITED KINGDOM SWEDEN DENMARK ITALY YUGOSLAVIA ALBANIA GREECE BULGARIA ROMANIA SOVIET UNION LATVIA LIBYA MEMEL TERR. R H IN E L A N D Berlin Danzig Prague Munich Vienna Rome Warsaw Paris 500 kilometers 0 500 miles 0

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SO MA LIL AN D ITA LIA N Addis Ababa Germany, 1935

German occupation, 1936 German acquisitions, 1938–1939

Italy and possessions, 1935 Italian acquisitions, 1935–1939

German and Italian Expansion, 1935–1939

Germany and Italy expanded their territories in the years leading up to World War II.

1. Interpreting Maps Approximately how much territory did Germany annex between 1936 and 1939? How did Italy’s size in 1939 compare to its size in 1935?

2. Applying Geography Skills Use the information on the map to create a chart comparing German and Italian expansion. What geographic factors made it easier for Germany to expand more readily?

Hitler shocked the world when he announced the nonaggression pact. The treaty gave Hitler the free-dom to attack Poland. He told his generals, “Now Poland is in the position in which I wanted her. . . . I am only afraid that at the last moment some swine will submit to me a plan for mediation.”

Hitler need not have worried. On September 1, German forces invaded Poland. Two days later, Britain and France declared war on Germany.

Explaining Why were the Western allies willing to appease Hitler?

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The Japanese Path to War

The need for natural resources fueled the Japanese plan to seize other countries.

Reading Connection

Have you heard about possible oil shortages in the United States in the next 30 years? Read to learn about how the Japanese reacted when they needed certain natural resources in the 1930s.

In September 1931, Japanese soldiers had seized Manchuria, which had natural resources that Japan needed. To justify their seizure, Japan cited a Chinese attack on a Japanese railway near the city of Mukden. In fact, the “Mukden incident” had been carried out by Japanese soldiers disguised as Chinese.

World protests against the Japanese led the League of Nations to send investigators to Manchuria. When the investigators issued a report condemning the seizure, Japan withdrew from the League. Over the next several years, Japan strengthened its hold on Manchuria, which was renamed Manchukuo.Japan now began to expand into northern China.

By the mid-1930s, militants connected to the gov-ernment and the armed forces had gained control of Japanese politics. The United States refused to recog-nize the Japanese takeover of Manchuria but was unwilling to threaten force.

War with China

Chiang Kai-shektried to avoid a conflict with Japan so that he could deal with what he considered the greater threat from the Commu-nists. When clashes between Chinese and Japanese troops broke out, he appeased Japan by allowing it to govern areas in northern China. As Japan moved steadily southward, protests grew stronger in Chi-nese cities. In December 1936, Chiang ended his mil-itary efforts against the Communists and formed a united front against the Japanese. In July 1937, Chi-nese and JapaChi-nese forces clashed south of Beijing.

This 1937 incident eventually turned into a major conflict. The Japanese seized the Chinese capital of Nanjing in December. Chiang Kai-shek refused to surrender and moved his government upriver, first to Hankou, then to Chongqing.

The New Asian Order

Japanese military leaders had hoped to force Chiang to agree to join a New Order in East Asia, comprising Japan, Manchuria, and China. Japan would attempt to establish a new system of control in Asia with Japan guiding its Asian neighbors to prosperity. After all, who could

539

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an gHe

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JA PA

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Chongqing Hankou

Nanjing _Shanghai

Hong Kong U.K. Beijing

Yan-an

Guangzhou

Japanese Expansion,

1933–1941

Japanese territory, 1933 Japanese acquisitions to November 1941

Like Germany, Japan attempted to expand its territories prior to the beginning of the war.

1. Applying Geography Skills Pose and answer your own question about the territories Japan did not acquire but wanted to acquire.

better teach Asian societies how to modernize than the one Asian country that had already done it?

Part of Japan’s plan was to seize Soviet Siberia, with its rich resources. During the late 1930s, Japan began to cooperate with Nazi Germany. Japan

assumed that the two countries would ultimately launch a joint attack on the Soviet Union and divide Soviet resources between them.

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attack on China in the summer of 1937 had already aroused strong criticism. Nevertheless, in the sum-mer of 1940, Japan demanded the right to exploit eco-nomic resources in French Indochina.

The United States objected. It warned Japan that it would apply economic sanctions—restrictions intended to enforce international law—unless Japan withdrew to the borders of 1931. Japan badly needed the oil and scrap iron it was getting from the United States. If these resources were cut off, Japan would have to find them elsewhere.

Japan was now caught in a dilemma. To guarantee access to the raw materials it wanted in Southeast

Asia, Japan had to risk losing raw materials from the United States. Japan’s military leaders, guided by Hideki Tojo, decided to launch a surprise attack on U.S. and European colonies in Southeast Asia.

Explaining Why did Japan want to establish a New Order in East Asia?

Reading Check

Agreements Encouraging Hitler’s Aggression Leading to World War II

Checking for Understanding 1. Vocabulary Define: labor,

demilita-rized, appeasement, achieve, confer-ence, New Order, assume, sanction.

2. People Identify: Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini, Joseph Stalin, Chiang Kai-shek.

3. Places Locate: Rhineland, Sudetenland, Manchukuo.

Reviewing Big Ideas 4. Listthe reasons why Hitler’s pact with

Stalin was a key factor in forcing Britain and France to declare war on Germany.

Critical Thinking

5. Cause and Effect

In what sense was World War II a prod-uct of World War I?

6. Sequencing Information Create a chart like the one below listing in chronological order the agreements that emboldened Hitler in his aggres-sive expansion policies.

Analyzing Visuals

7. Analyzethe illustration on page 537 to determine what opinion the artist had about Italy’s alliance with Germany. What aspects of the illustration indicate that its creator and its publisher either did or did not support Hitler’s relation-ship with Mussolini and Italy?

CAHI 2

8. Persuasive Writing Imagine you are the editor of a British newspaper in 1938. Write an editorial that cap-tures the essence of your viewpoint on how war can be avoided.

CA10WA2.4a,c

Prime Minister Hideki Tojo (front center) is pictured with the Cabinet of Japan. Tojo had a military career before being appointed prime minister in October 1941. What do you think Tojo’s appointment repre-sented in terms of Japanese foreign policy?

History

For help with the concepts in this section of Glencoe World History—Modern Times,go to and click on Study Central.

wh.mt.glencoe.com

Study Central

HISTORY

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The Course of

World War II

Preview of Events

Guide to Reading

Section Preview

The devastation of the war was brought to an end by Allied perseverance, effective military operations, and Axis miscalculations.

•Germany used a “lightning war” to gain control of much of western and central Europe, but Britain was undefeated and German troops were stopped in Russia. (p. 542)

•The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor outraged Americans and led to the entry of the United States into the war. (p. 544)

•The Allied forces stopped the advance of the Germans and the Japanese. (p. 546)

•Allied victories forced Germany and Japan to surrender unconditionally. (p. 548)

Content Vocabulary

blitzkrieg, partisan

Academic Vocabulary

isolationism, neutrality, indefinite

People to Identify

Franklin D. Roosevelt, Douglas MacArthur, Winston Churchill, Harry S. Truman

Places to Locate

Stalingrad, Midway Island, Normandy, Hiroshima

Reading Objectives

1. Explain why the United States did not enter the war until 1941.

2. Identify the major events that helped end the war in Europe and Asia.

Reading Strategy

Cause and Effect _{Create a chart like the}

one below listing key events during World War II and their effect on the outcome of the war.

10.8.3:

Identify and locate the Allied and Axis powers on a map and discuss the major turning points of the war, the principal theaters of conflict, key strategic decisions, and the resulting war confer-ences and political resolutions, with emphasis on the importance of geographic factors.

10.8.4:

Describe the political, diplomatic, and military leaders during the war (e.g., Winston Churchill,

Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Emperor Hirohito, Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini, Joseph Stalin, Douglas MacArthur, Dwight Eisenhower).

10.8.6:

Discuss the human costs of war, with particular attention to the civilian and military losses in Russia, Germany, Britain, the United States, China, and Japan.

Event Effect

1940

Germans bomb British cities

1943

Germans defeated at Stalingrad

1942

Japanese defeated at the Battle of Midway Island

1944

Allied forces invade France on D-Day

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Europe at War

Germany used a “lightning war” to gain con-trol of much of western and central Europe, but Britain was undefeated and German troops were stopped in Russia.

Reading Connection

Have you ever been in the middle

of two people fighting, but you refused to take a side? Read how the United States remained neutral even though the British asked for its help.

Hitler stunned Europe with the speed and effi-ciency of the German attack on Poland. His innova-tive blitzkrieg, or “lightning war,” used armored columns, called panzer divisions, supported by air-planes. Each panzer division was a strike force of about 300 tanks with support forces. Hitler had com-mitted Germans to a life-or-death struggle.

The forces of the blitzkrieg broke quickly through Polish lines and encircled the bewildered Polish troops. Regular infantry units then moved in to hold the newly conquered territory. Within four weeks, Poland had surrendered. On September 28, 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union divided Poland.

Hitler’s Early Victories

After a winter of waiting (called the “phony war”), Hitler resumed the attack on April 9, 1940, with another blitzkrieg against Denmark

and Norway. One month later, on May 10, Germany launched an attack on the Netherlands, Belgium, and France. The main assault was through Luxembourg and the Ardennes (ahr•DEHN) Forest. German panzer divisions broke through weak French defen-sive positions there and raced across northern France.

French and British forces were taken by surprise when the Germans went around, instead of across, the Maginot Line—a series of concrete and steel for-tifications armed with heavy artillery along France’s border with Germany. The Germans’ action split the Allied armies, trapping French troops and the entire British army on the beaches of Dunkirk. Only by the heroic efforts of the Royal Navy and civilians in pri-vate boats did the British manage to evacuate 338,000 Allied troops. Most of them were British.

The French signed an armistice on June 22. German armies now occupied about three-fifths of France. An authoritarian regime under German control was set up over the remainder of the country to the south of the parts of France the Nazis occupied. It was known as Vichy France and was led by an aged French hero of World War I, Marshal Henri Pétain. Germany was now in control of western and central Europe, but Britain had still not been defeated. After Dunkirk, the British appealed to the United States for help.

No one described the sacrifices this struggle would demand better than Hitler himself. On September 1, 1939, after the attack on Poland began, Hitler addressed the German Reichstag with these words:

“

I do not want to be anything other than the first soldier of the German Reich. I have once more put on the uniform which was once most holy and precious to me. I shall only take it off after victory or I shall not live to see the end. . . . As a National Socialist and as a German soldier, I am going into this struggle strong in heart. My whole life has been nothing but a struggle for my people, for their revival, for Germany. . . . Just as I myself am ready to risk my life any time for my people and for Germany, so I demand the same of everyone else. But anyone who thinks that he can oppose this national commandment, whether directly or indirectly, will die! Traitors can expect death.

”

Hitler addresses the Reichstagon September 1, 1939.

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President Franklin D. Roosevelt denounced the aggressors, but the United States followed a strict pol-icy of isolationism. A series of neutrality acts, passed in the 1930s, pre-vented the United States from taking sides or becoming involved in any European wars. Many Americans felt that the United States had been drawn into World War I due to economic involve-ment in Europe, and they wanted to prevent a recur-rence. Roosevelt was con-vinced that the neutrality acts actually encouraged Axis aggression and wanted the acts repealed. They were gradually relaxed as the United States supplied food, ships, planes, and weapons to Britain.

The Battle of Britain

Hitler realized that an amphibious (land-sea) invasion of Great Britain could succeed only if Ger-many gained control of the

air over the island nation. At the beginning of August 1940, the Luftwaffe (LOOFT•vah•fuh)—the German air force—launched a major offensive. German planes bombed British air and naval bases, harbors, communication centers, and war industries.

The British fought back with determination. They were supported by an effective radar system that gave them early warning of attacks. Nevertheless, by the end of August, the British air force had suffered critical losses. In September, in retaliation for a British attack on Berlin, Hitler had the Luftwaffe begin massive bombing of British cities. Hitler hoped to break British morale. Instead, because military tar-gets were not being hit, the British were able to rebuild their air strength quickly. Soon, the British air force was inflicting major losses on Luftwaffe bombers. At the end of September, Hitler postponed the invasion of Britain indefinitely.

London buildings collapse as a result of nightly German bombing.

Attack on the Soviet Union

_{Although he had no}

desire for a two-front war, Hitler was convinced that Britain stayed in the war only because it expected Soviet support. If the Soviet Union was smashed, Britain’s last hope would be eliminated. Hitler was also convinced that the Soviet Union had a pitiful army and could be defeated quickly.

Hitler’s invasion of the Soviet Union was sched-uled for the spring of 1941, but the attack was delayed because of problems in the Balkans. Hitler had already gained the political cooperation of Hun-gary, Bulgaria, and Romania, but the failure of Mus-solini’s invasion of Greece in 1940 had exposed Hitler’s southern flank to British air bases in Greece. To secure his Balkan flank, Hitler seized both Greece and Yugoslavia in April.

Reassured, Hitler invaded the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941, believing it could be decisively defeated before the brutal winter weather set in. The

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lga R. Rh ine C as pia_n Se_a Sicily (July 1943) El Alamein (Oct.– Nov. 1942) Tobruk (April 1941) Tunis (May 1943) Anzio (Jan.–Mar. 1944) Monte Cassino (Jan.–May 1944) Stalingrad (Aug. 1942– Feb. 1943) Kursk (July 1943) Minsk (July 1944) Warsaw

(Aug. 1944–Jan. 1945) Leningrad

(Sept. 1941–Jan. 1944)

Berlin (Apr.– May 1945) North Africa Landings (Nov. 1942) Battle of Britain (July–Oct. 1940)

Normandy (June 1944)

Paris (Aug. 1944) Battle of the Bulge (Dec. 1944–Jan. 1945)

UNITED KINGDOM IRELAND FRANCE SPAIN PORTUGAL NETH. BELG. SWITZ. ITALY ALBANIA It. GREECE G E R M A N Y

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World War II in Europe and North Africa, 1939–1945

Axis Powers

Axis-controlled area, November 1942 Farthest Axis advance, December 1941 Vichy France and territories

Allied Powers

Allied-controlled area, November 1942

Neutral nations Major battle with date Major city severely damaged by bombing Air battle

Maginot Line

massive attack stretched out along a front some 1,800 miles (about 2,900 km). German troops advanced rapidly, capturing two million Russian soldiers. By November, one German army group had swept through Ukraine. A second army was besieging the city of Leningrad, while a third threatened Moscow, the Soviet capital.

An early winter and fierce Soviet resistance, how-ever, halted the German advance. Because of the planned spring date for the invasion, the Germans had no winter uniforms. For the first time in the war, German armies had been stopped. A counterattack in December 1941 by a Soviet army came as an ominous ending to the year for the Germans.

Evaluating In the spring of 1941, what caused Hitler to delay his invasion of the Soviet Union? Reading Check

Japan at War

The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor outraged Americans and led to the entry of the United States into the war.

Reading Connection

Do you think the terrorist attacks of 2001 unified or divided Americans? Read to find out how the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor affected American opinion about World War II.

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Heavy fighting took place in Europe and North Africa.

1. Interpreting Maps Name at least six major land bat-tles of the war in Europe. Which side, the Allies or the Axis Powers, was more aggressive at the beginning of the war? Summarize the changes in direction of this side’s offensives during the first three years of the war.

2. Applying Geography Skills Using information from all of the maps on pages 544 and 545, create an imagi-nary model of the war’s outcome had Hitler chosen not to invade the Soviet Union. Your model could take the form of a map, a chart, or a database and include such items as battles, offensives, and casualties.

Axis Offensives, 1939–1941

Allied Offensives, 1942–1945

Axis offensives, 1939 Axis offensives, 1940 Axis offensives, 1941

Allied offensives, 1942–1943 Allied offensives, 1944–1945

Soon after, Japanese forces invaded the Dutch East Indies and occupied a number of islands in the Pacific Ocean. In some cases, as on the Bataan Penin-sula and the island of Corregidor in the Philippines, resistance was fierce. By the spring of 1942, however, almost all of Southeast Asia and much of the western Pacific had fallen into Japanese hands.

A triumphant Japan now declared the creation of a community of nations. The name given to this new “community” was the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. The entire region would now be under Japa-nese direction.

Japan also announced its intention to liberate the colonial areas of Southeast Asia from Western colo-nial rule. For the moment, however, Japan needed the resources of the region for its war machine, and it

treated the countries under its rule as conquered lands.

Japanese leaders had hoped that their lightning strike at American bases would destroy the American fleet in the Pacific. The Roosevelt administration, they thought, would now accept Japanese domina-tion of the Pacific. Why did the Japanese predict such a reaction from the United States government? The answer is that in the eyes of many Japanese leaders, the American people were soft. Their prosperous and easy life had made them unable to fight.

The Japanese miscalculated. The attack on Pearl Harbor unified American opinion. Up to this time, many Americans wanted to remain neutral. Now they were ready to become involved in the war. The United States now joined with European nations and Nationalist China in a combined effort to defeat Japan.

This decision quickly brought a declaration of war against the United States from the Nazis. The Ger-man navy had been fighting an undeclared sea war with American ships helping the British. Now that Hitler’s ally Japan had attacked the United States, the long-expected war with America had come. Four days after the Pearl Harbor attack, Germany and the United States were at war. Another European conflict had turned into a global war.

Determining Why did the Japanese attack Pearl Harbor?

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546 CHAPTER 11 World War II September 1939

• Germany invades Poland

• Great Britain and France declare war on Germany

April 1940 • Blitzkrieg against

Denmark and Norway

May 1940 • Attacks against

Netherlands, Belgium, France

August 1940 • Air attack

against Britain

December 1941 • Japan attacks

Pearl Harbor, Philippines, and Dutch East Indies • United States

enters war

Spring 1942 • United States wins

battles of the Coral Sea and Midway

February 1943 • Germans surrender

at Stalingrad

June 1944 • Rome falls

to Allies • D-Day, June 6

May 1945 • Germany

surrenders

June 1940 • France

surrenders April 1941 • Greece and

Yugoslavia are captured

June 1941 • Hitler invades

Soviet Union

Spring 1942

• Japan controls most of Southeast Asia Fall 1942 • Germans attack

Stalingrad

• Britain and United States invade North Africa May 1943

• German and Italian troops surrender in French North Africa

July 1943 • Soviets defeat

Germans at Battle of Kursk August 1944 • Paris is

liberated

April 1945

• Soviets enter Berlin • Hitler and

Mussolini die

March 1945 • Germany is

invaded August 1945 • United States

drops atomic bombs on Japan • Japan surrenders

World War II: Attack and Counterattack

Axis attacks and victories Allied attacks and victories

1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946

The time line above traces the major events of World War II.

1. Identifying How much time elapsed from France’s defeat until Paris was liberated?

2. Cause and Effect What were the effects of three dramatic events in 1939, 1941, and 1945?

The Allies Advance

The Allied forces stopped the advance of the Germans and the Japanese.

Reading Connection

Have you ever had to fight obsta-cles to achieve a goal? Read to find out how the Allied forces fought the Germans and the Japanese to work for the uncondi-tional surrender of Germany and Japan.

The entry of the Americans into the war created a new coalition, the Grand Alliance: the United States, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union. Ever since the Russian Revolution of 1917, the Soviet Union had been relatively isolated from the West. Now they had to come together to fight a common enemy, Nazi Ger-many. To overcome mutual suspicions, the Allies agreed to stress military operations and ignore polit-ical differences.

At the beginning of 1943, the Allies agreed to fight until the Axis Powers—Germany, Italy, and Japan— surrendered unconditionally. The unconditional sur-render principle, which required the Axis nations to surrender without any favorable condition, cemented the Grand Alliance by making it nearly impossible for Hitler to divide his foes.

The European Theater

Defeat was far from Hitler’s mind at the beginning of 1942. As Japanese forces advanced into Southeast Asia and the Pacific, Hitler continued fighting the war in Europe against the armies of Britain and the Soviet Union.

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547 547 CHAPTER 11 World War II

CHAPTER 19 World War II 547 CHAPTER 5 Rome and the Rise of Christianity 547 CHAPTER 5 Rome and the Rise of Christianity

Women as Spies in World War II

For thousands of years, governments have relied on spies to gather information about their enemies. Until the twentieth century, most spies were men. During World War II, however, many women became active in the world of espionage.

Yoshiko Kawashima was born in China but raised in Japan. In 1932, she was sent to China by Japanese authorities to gather information for the invasion of China. Disguised as a young man, Kawashima was an active and effective spy until her arrest by the Chinese in 1945. The Chinese news agency announced that “a long-sought-for beauty in male costume was arrested today in Beijing.” She was executed soon after her arrest.

Hekmath Fathmy was an Egyptian dancer. Her hatred of the British, who had occupied Egypt, caused her to become a spy for the Germans. Fathmy sang and danced for British troops in the Kit Kat Club, a nightclub in Cairo. After shows, she took British officers to her houseboat on the banks of the Nile. Any information she was able to obtain from her guests was passed on to John Eppler, a German spy in Cairo. Eventually, she was caught, but she served only a year in prison for her spying activities.

Violette Szabo of French/Eng-lish background became a spy after her husband died fighting the Germans in North Africa. She joined Special Operations Executive, an arm of British Intelligence, and was sent to France several times. In August 1944, she parachuted into France to spy on the Germans. Caught by Gestapo forces at Salon La Tour, she was tortured and then shipped to Ravens-bruck, a women’s concentration camp near Berlin. She was exe-cuted there in April 1945.

! _{Violette Szabo spied} for the Allies to avenge her husband’s death.

People have different motives for becoming spies. List several motives that might draw someone to espionage. Do you think the motives are different in peacetime? Investigate current espionage activities using the Internet or library. What various methods do governments use today to gather intelligence?

on the Caucasus and its oil fields. Hitler, however, decided that Stalingrad,a major industrial center on the Volga, should be taken first.

In perhaps the most terrible battle of the war, between November 1942 and February 2, 1943, the Soviets launched a counterattack. German troops were stopped, then encircled, and supply lines were cut off, all in frigid winter conditions. The Germans were forced to surrender at Stalingrad. The entire German Sixth Army, considered the best of the Ger-man troops, was lost.

By February 1943, German forces in Russia were back to their positions of June 1942. By the spring of 1943, even Hitler knew that the Germans would not defeat the Soviet Union.

The Asian Theater

_{In 1942, the tide of battle in the} East changed dramatically. In the Battle of the Coral Sea on May 7 and 8, 1942, American naval forces stopped the Japanese advance and saved Australia from the threat of invasion.

“

As the next step, we are going to advance south of the Caucasus and then help the rebels in Iran and Iraq against the English. Another thrust will be directed along the Caspian Sea toward Afghanistan and India. Then the English will run out of oil. In two years we’ll be on the borders of India. Twenty to thirty elite German divisions will do. Then the British Empire will collapse.

”

This would be Hitler’s last optimistic outburst. By the fall of 1942, the war had turned against the Germans.

In North Africa, British forces had stopped Rom-mel’s troops at El Alamein (EL A•luh•MAYN) in the summer of 1942. The Germans then retreated back across the desert. In November 1942, British and American forces invaded French North Africa. They forced the German and Italian troops there to surren-der in May 1943.

On the Eastern Front, after the capture of the Crimea, Hitler’s generals wanted him to concentrate

Hulton/Archiv

e

b

y

Getty

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bypass others, “island hopping” up to Japan. After a series of bitter engagements in the waters off the Solomon Islands from August to November 1942, Japanese fortunes were fading.

Summarizing Why was the German assault on Stalingrad a crushing defeat for the Germans?

Last Years of the War

Allied victories forced Germany and Japan to surrender unconditionally.

Reading Connection

In wartime, does the end justify the means? Read to learn about President Truman’s decision to use the atomic bomb.

By the beginning of 1943, the tide of battle had turned against Germany, Italy, and Japan. Axis forces in Tunisia surrendered on May 13, 1943. The Allies

Reading Check

N S E W Mercator projection 1,000 kilometers 0 1,000 miles 0

150°W 180°

150°E 120°E

90°E

30°N

0°

TROPIC OF CAPRICORN TROPIC OF CANCER

EQUATOR

Guadalcanal (Aug. 1942–Feb. 1943)

Tarawa (Nov. 1943) New Britain (Dec. 1944) Coral Sea (May 1942) (Oct. 1944) (July–Aug. 1944)

Eastern Solomons (Aug. 1942) Santa Cruz (Oct. 1942) (Feb.–March 1945)

(Aug. 1945)

(April–June 1945)

Saipan (June–July 1944) Bataan (Jan.–April 1942) Java Sea (Feb. 1942) Wake Island (Dec. 1941) Pearl Harbor (Dec. 1941) (June 1942) (Aug. 1945) Okinawa Leyte Gulf Philippine Sea (June 1944)

PaCIFic

Ocean

indian

Ocean

Coral Sea 1943 1942 1943 1944 1944 1945 1945 1944 1945 1945 1945 1945 1945 1944 1943 1942 1942 194₄ KOREA MONGOLIA SOVIET UNION CHINA BURMA INDIA THAILAND MALAYA FRENCH INDOCHINA

DUTCH EAST INDIES

JAPAN MANCHUKUO Formosa Philippine Islands Kuril Islands Aleutian Islands Sakhalin (Karafuto) Iwo Jima Guam Mariana Islands Fiji New Caledonia New Hebrides New Guinea Solomon Islands

Hawaiian Islands Midway Island

Marshall Islands Hainan

Sumatra _{Borneo Celebes}

Java SARAWAK Corregidor Shanghai Hiroshima Tokyo Nagasaki Hong Kong

World War II in Asia and the Pacific, 1941–1945

“Island hopping,” the Allied strategy in Asia, focused more on the Pacific islands instead of the Asian mainland.

1. Interpreting Maps What was the approximate dis-tance from Japan to its farthest point of control?

2. Applying Geography Skills Compare this map to the maps in the chapter on the war in Europe. Then analyze the effects of geographic factors on the major events in the two different theaters of war.

Japan and Japanese-controlled area, 1942 Maximum extent of Japanese control, 1942

Major Allied air operation

Major battle or attack

Conventional bombing

Atomic bombing Allied offensive

The turning point of the war in Asia came on June 4, at the Battle of Midway Island. U.S. planes destroyed four attacking Japanese aircraft carriers. The United States defeated the Japanese navy and established naval superiority in the Pacific.

By the fall of 1942, Allied forces in Asia were gath-ering for two operations. One, commanded by U.S.

general Douglas MacArthur, would move into the

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then crossed the Mediterranean and carried the war to Italy, an area that Winston Churchillhad called the “soft underbelly” of Europe. After taking Sicily, Allied troops began an invasion of mainland Italy in September.

The European Theater

After the fall of Sicily, Mus-solini was removed from office and placed under arrest by Victor Emmanuel III, king of Italy. A new Ital-ian government offered to surrender to the Allied forces. However, Mussolini was liberated by the Ger-mans in a daring raid and then set up as the head of a puppet German state in northern Italy. At the same time, German troops moved in and occupied much of Italy.

The Germans set up effective new defensive lines in the hills south of Rome. The Allied advance up the Italian Peninsula turned into a painstaking affair with very heavy casualties. Rome did not fall to the Allies until June 4, 1944. By that time, the Italian war had assumed a secondary role as the Allied forces opened their long-awaited “second front” in western Europe. Since the autumn of 1943, the Allies had been planning an invasion of France from Great Britain, across the English Channel. Finally, on June 6, 1944 (D-Day), Allied forces under U.S. general Dwight D. Eisenhower landed on the beaches of Normandyin history’s greatest naval invasion. The Allies fought their way past underwater mines, barbed wire, and horrible machine-gun fire. There was heavy German resistance even though the Germans thought the bat-tle was a diversion and the real invasion would occur elsewhere. Their slow response enabled the Allied

forces to set up a beachhead. Within three months, the Allies had landed two million men and a half mil-lion vehicles. Allied forces then pushed inland and broke through German defensive lines.

After the breakout, Allied troops moved south and east. In Paris, resistance fighters rose up against the occupying Germans. The Allies liberated Paris by the end of August. In March 1945, they crossed the Rhine River and advanced into Germany. At the end of April 1945, Allied armies in northern Germany moved toward the Elbe River, where they linked up with the Soviets.

The Soviets had come a long way since the Battle of Stalingrad in 1943. In the summer of 1943, Hitler gambled on taking the offensive using newly devel-oped heavy tanks. German forces were soundly defeated by the Soviets at the Battle of Kursk (July 5 to 12), the greatest tank battle of World War II.

Soviet forces now began a steady advance west-ward. They had reoccupied Ukraine by the end of 1943 and moved into the Baltic states by the begin-ning of 1944. Advancing along a northern front, Soviet troops occupied Warsaw in January 1945 and entered Berlin in April. Meanwhile, Soviet troops, along a southern front, swept through Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria.

By January 1945, Adolf Hitler had moved into a bunker 55 feet (almost 17 m) under the city of Berlin to direct the final stages of the war. In his final polit-ical testament, Hitler, consistent to the end in his anti-Semitism, blamed the world’s Jews for the war. He wrote, “Above all I charge the leaders of the nation and those under them to scrupulous observance of

Winston Churchill

1874–1965

British prime minister

W

inston Churchill was Great Britain’s wartime leader. At the beginning of the war, Churchill had already had a long political career. He had advocated a hard-line policy toward Nazi Germany in the 1930s. On May 10, 1940, he became British prime minister.

Churchill was confident that he could guide Britain to ultimate victory. “I thought I knew a great deal about it all,” he later wrote, “and I was sure I should not fail.” Churchill proved to be an inspiring leader who rallied the British people with stirring speeches: “We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, in the fields, in the streets, and in the hills. We shall never sur-render.” Time_{magazine designated Churchill the Man of the Year in 1940 and named}

him the Man of the Half Century in 1950.

549

CHAPTER 11 World War II

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the laws of race and to merciless opposition to the universal poisoner of all peoples, international Jewry.”

Hitler committed suicide on April 30, two days after Mussolini had been shot by Italian partisans,or resist-ance fighters. On May 7, 1945, German commanders surrendered. The war in Europe was finally over.

The Asian Theater

The war in Asia continued. Beginning in 1943, U.S. forces had gone on the offen-sive and advanced, slowly at times, across the Pacific. As Allied military power drew closer to the main Japanese islands in the first months of 1945, Harry S. Truman,who had become president on the death of Roosevelt in April, had a difficult decision to make.

Should he use newly developed atomic weapons to bring the war to an end or find another way to defeat the Japanese forces?

Using atomic weapons would, Truman hoped, enable the United States to avoid an invasion of Japan. The Japanese had made extensive preparations to defend their homeland. Truman and his advisers had become convinced that American troops would suffer heavy casualties if they invaded Japan. At the time, however, only two bombs were available, and no one knew how effective they would be.

Truman decided to use the bombs. The first bomb was dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima on August 6. Three days later, a second bomb was dropped on Nagasaki. Both cities were leveled. Thousands of people died immediately, and thou-sands more died later from radiation. Emperor Hiro-hito now stepped in and forced the Japanese military leaders to surrender unconditionally, which they did on August 14.

World War II was finally over. Seventeen million had died in battle. Perhaps 20 million civilians had perished as well. Some estimates place total losses at 50 million.

Evaluating Why is the invasion of Normandy considered one of history’s greatest naval invasions?

Reading Check

Battle Deaths in World War II

Country

USSR Germany Yugoslavia Poland Romania United States United Kingdom France

Hungary Finland Italy Greece Canada

Battle Deaths

7,500,000 3,500,000 410,000 320,000 300,000 292,000 245,000 210,000 140,000 82,000 77,000 74,000 37,000

Checking for Understanding 1. Vocabulary Define: blitzkrieg,

isola-tionism, neutrality, indefinite, partisan.

2. People Identify: Franklin D. Roosevelt, Douglas MacArthur, Winston Churchill, Harry S. Truman.

3. Places Locate: Stalingrad, Midway Island, Normandy, Hiroshima.

Reviewing Big Ideas 4. ExplainHitler’s strategy of attacking

the Soviet Union. Why did his delay in launching the attack ultimately con-tribute to the Soviet victory over the Germans?

Critical Thinking

5. Evaluating How

might the Allied demand for uncondi-tional surrender have helped Hitler maintain control over Germany?

6. Sequencing Information Using a chart like the one below, place the events of World War II in chronological order.

Analyzing Visuals

7. Examinethe photo on page 543 show-ing the destruction caused by the Luft-waffe’s bombing raids on London. Explain how this strategy of Hitler’s hurt, rather than helped, Germany’s efforts.

CAHR 3

8. Descriptive Writing Imagine you lived in California during World War II. Write an essay about your expec-tations of a Japanese invasion of Cal-ifornia. You can choose to believe that an invasion was possible or impossible. CA10WA2.1

Year Country Event

1939

For help with the concepts in this section of Glencoe World

History—Modern Times,go to and

click on Study Central.

wh.mt.glencoe.com

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The New Order and

the Holocaust

Preview of Events

Guide to Reading

Section Preview

Devastation and suffering resulted during World War II when Germany set up a New Order in Europe and Japan set up a Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere in Asia.

•The German conquest of continental Europe forced millions of native peoples to labor for the Nazi war machine. (p. 552)

•Adolf Hitler’s philosophy of Aryan superiority led to the Holocaust. (p. 553)

•The Japanese conquest of Southeast Asia forced millions of native peoples to work for the Japanese war machine. (p. 556)

Content Vocabulary

genocide, collaborator

Academic Vocabulary

implement, adjust

People to Identify

Heinrich Himmler, Reinhard Heydrich

Places to Locate

Poland, Auschwitz

Reading Objectives

1. Describe how the Nazis carried out their Final Solution.

2. Explain how the Japanese created a dilemma for nationalists in the lands they occupied.

Reading Strategy

Compare and Contrast Using a Venn diagram like the one below, compare and contrast the New Order of Germany with the New Order of Japan.

10.8.5:

Analyze the Nazi policy of pursuing racial purity, especially against the Euro-pean Jews; its transformation into the Final Solution; and the Holocaust that resulted in the murder of six million Jewish civilians.

10.8.6:

Discuss the human costs of the war, with particular attention to the civilian and military losses in Russia, Germany, Britain, the United States, China, and Japan.

Germany Japan

1943

Japan uses forced labor to build Burma-Thailand railroad 1941

Einsatzgruppen

active in Poland

1944

Nazis continue Final Solution even as they start losing the war 1942

Two million ethnic Germans resettled in Poland

✦

1940

✦

1941

✦

1942

✦

1943

✦

1944

✦

1945

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The New Order in Europe

The German conquest of continental Europe forced millions of native peoples to labor for the Nazi war machine.

Reading Connection

Did you know that four million enslaved African Americans were freed after the Civil War in the United States? Read to learn about the Nazi plan to use slave labor.

In 1942, the Nazi regime stretched across conti-nental Europe from the English Channel in the west to the outskirts of Moscow in the east. Nazi Europe was usually organized in one of two ways. Some areas, such as western Poland, were directly annexed and made into German provinces. Most of occupied Europe, however, was run by German military or civilian officials with help from local people willing to collaborate with the Nazis. Because the Nazis con-trolled all Europe, they were able to carry out one of the most horrible atrocities in human history—the murder of some six million Jews, as well as other people they judged unfit for the new German Reich.

The camps were the final stage of genocide, but the Nazi plan for exterminating the Jews began with the movement of Jews and other “undesirables.”

Resettlement in the East

Nazi administration in the conquered lands to the east was especially ruth-less. These lands were seen as the living space for Ger-man expansion. They were populated, Nazis thought, by racially inferior Slavic peoples. Hitler’s plans for an Aryan racial empire were so important to him that he and the Nazis began to implement their racial pro-gram soon after the conquest of Poland.

Heinrich Himmler,the leader of the SS, was put in charge of German resettlement plans in the east. Himmler’s task was to move the Slavic peoples out and replace them with Germans. Slavic peoples included Czech, Polish, Serbo-Croatian, Slovene, and Ukrainian. This policy was first applied to the new German provinces created from the lands of western Poland.

One million Poles were uprooted and transferred to southern Poland. Hundreds of thousands of ethnic Germans (descendants of Germans who had migrated years ago from Germany to different parts of southern and eastern Europe) were brought in to colonize the German provinces in Poland. By 1942, two million ethnic Germans had been settled in Poland.

The invasion of the Soviet Union made the Nazis even more excited about German colonization in the east. Hitler spoke to his intimate circle of a colossal project of social engineering after the war. Poles, Ukrainians, and Russians would be removed from their lands and become slave labor. German peasants would settle on the abandoned lands and “German-ize” them.

Himmler told a gathering of SS officers that 30 mil-lion Slavs might die in order to achieve German

Many of Europe’s Jews perished in the death camps. The most notorious was at Auschwitz where Rudolf Höss was the commanding officer. Höss described what happened to Jews when they arrived at the camp:

“

We had two SS doctors on duty at Auschwitz to examine the incoming transports of prisoners. The prisoners would be marched by one of the doctors who would make spot decisions as they walked by. Those who were fit for work were sent into the camp. Others were sent immediately to the exter-mination plants. Children of tender years were invariably exterminated since by reason of their youth they were unable to work. . . . At Auschwitz we fooled the victims into thinking that they were to go through a delousing process. Frequently they realized our true intentions and we sometimes had riots and difficulties due to that fact.

”

Rudolf Höss

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plans in the east. He continued, “Whether nations live in prosperity or starve to death interests me only insofar as we need them as slaves for our culture. Otherwise it is of no interest.”

Slave Labor in Germany

German labor shortages led to a policy of rounding up foreign workers. In 1942, a special office was set up to recruit labor for German enterprises. By mid-1944, seven million Europeans were working in Germany. Another seven million workers were forced to labor for the Nazis in their own countries, sometimes in military camps.

The use of forced labor often caused problems, how-ever. Sending so many workers to Germany disrupted industrial production in the occupied countries that could have helped Germany. Then, too, the brutal way in which Germany recruited foreign workers led more and more people to resist the Nazi occupation forces.

Describing What was Hitler’s vision for the residents of eastern Europe?

The Holocaust

Adolf Hitler’s philosophy of Aryan superiority led to the Holocaust.

Reading Connection

Have you seen films about the

Holocaust? Read to find out how the Nazis planned to extermi-nate the Jews.

No aspect of the Nazi New Order was more terri-fying than the deliberate attempt to exterminate the Jews. Racial struggle was a key element in Hitler’s

Reading Check

world of ideas. To him, racial struggle was a clearly defined conflict of opposites. On one side were Hitler’s “master German race,” creators of human progress. On the other side were the Jews, parasites, in Hitler’s view, who were trying to destroy Germans and control the world.

Himmler and the SS closely shared Hitler’s racial ideas. The SS was given responsibility for what the Nazis called their Final Solution to the Jewish prob-lem. The Final Solution was genocide, the physical extermination of the Jewish people.

The

Einsatzgruppen

Reinhard Heydrich, head of the SS’s Security Service, was given the task of administering the Final Solution. Heydrich created special strike forces, called Einsatzgruppen, to carry out the Nazi plans for the extermination of the Jews. After the defeat of Poland, he ordered these forces to round up all Polish Jews and put them in ghettos set up in a number of Polish cities.

Conditions in the ghettos were horrible. Families were crowded together in unsanitary housing. The Nazis attempted to starve residents by allowing only minimal amounts of food. Despite suffering, resi-dents tried to adjust, and some ghettos organized resistance against the Nazis.

In June 1941, the Einsatzgruppen were given the new job of acting as mobile killing units. These SS death squads followed the regular army’s advance into the Soviet Union. Their job was to round up Jews in their villages, execute them, and bury them in mass graves. The graves were often giant pits dug by the victims themselves before they were shot.

553

CHAPTER 11 World War II

Anne Frank

1929–1945

Dutch Holocaust victim

A

nne Frank was one of the millions of victims of the Holocaust. When the Nazis began to round up Jews in the Netherlands, the Frank family, along with another fam-ily, moved into a secret annex above a warehouse owned by the family business. Employees of the Frank family provided food and a lifeline to the outside world.

Anne remained hopeful. She kept a diary to while away the time spent in hiding. On July 15, 1944, she wrote, “In spite of everything I still believe that people are really good at heart.”

On August 4, 1944, the Nazis found the secret annex of the Frank family. Anne and her sister were sent to Bergen-Belsen, a concentration camp in Germany. There they died of typhus. Anne’s father, Otto Frank, who survived, later found Anne’s diary. Published

in 1947, The Diary of Anne Frank became an international best-seller.

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The leader of one death squad described their methods:

“

The unit selected for this task would enter a vil-lage or city and order the prominent Jewish citizens to call together all Jews for the purpose of resettle-ment. They were requested to hand over their valu-ables to the leaders of the unit, and shortly before the execution to surrender their outer clothing. The men, women, and children were led to a place of execution which in most cases was located next to a more deeply excavated anti-tank ditch. Then they were shot, kneeling or standing, and the corpses thrown into the ditch.

”

The Death Camps

Probably one million Jews were killed by the Einsatzgruppen. As appalling as that sounds, it was too slow by Nazi standards. They decided to kill the European Jewish population in specially built death camps.

Beginning in 1942, Jews from countries occupied by Germany (or sympathetic to Germany) were rounded up, packed like cattle into freight trains, and shipped to Poland. Six extermination centers were built in Poland for this purpose. The largest was Auschwitz_(OWSH•_VIHTS_).

About 30 percent of the arrivals at Auschwitz were sent to a labor camp, where many were starved or worked to death. The remainder went to the gas chambers. Some inmates were subjected to cruel and painful “medical” experiments.

By the spring of 1942, the death camps were in full operation. First priority was given to the elimination of the ghettos in Poland. By the summer of 1942, however, Jews were also being shipped from France, Belgium, and Holland. Even as the Allies were win-ning the war in 1944, Jews were being shipped from Greece and Hungary. Despite desperate military needs, even late in the war when Germany faced

N S E W 500 kilometers 0

Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection 500 miles 0 FRANCE NORWAY SWEDEN FINLAND GERMANY POLAND UNITED KINGDOM HUNGARY AUSTRIA YUGOSLAVIA ITALY ROMANIA

UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS GREECE ALBANIA LITHUANIA LATVIA DENMARK NETH. BELGIUM LUX. ESTONIA SWITZ. SPAIN EAST PRUSSIA Ger. C Z E

C HOS LOVAKIA

0_° 20_°E

50

°N

10_°E

Valvara

Jasenovac Jadovno

Klooga

WesterborkNeuengamme Ravensbr¨uck

Chelmno Plaszow Warsaw Minsk Treblinka Koldichevo Stutthof Dora-Mittelbau _Buchenwald Flossenb¨urg Natzweiler _Dachau MauthausenSered Theresienstadt Bergen-Belsen Sachsenhausen Kaiserwald Smolensk Riga Gross-Rosen Auschwitz-Birkenau Majdanek Janowska Belzec Sobibor San Sabba Sajmiste North Sea A d r ia tic S ea Ba ltic Se a Paris Rome Moscow

The Nazis devoted extensive resources to what they termed the Final Solution.

1. Interpreting Maps How many concentration camps are shown on the map? How many death camps?

2. Applying Geography Skills What geographical factors do you think were involved in the Germans’ decisions about the locations of the death camps?

Concentration camp Death camp Location of Einsatzgruppen International boundary, Jan. 1938

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555

CHAPTER 11 World War II

Jews from the Warsaw ghetto surrendering after their rebellion in 1943

utter defeat, the Final Solution had priority in using railroad cars to ship Jews to death camps.

The Death Toll

_{The Germans killed between five}

and six million Jews, over three million of them in the death camps. Virtually 90 percent of the Jewish populations of Poland, the Baltic countries, and Ger-many were killed. Overall, the Holocaust was respon-sible for the death of nearly two out of every three European Jews.

The Nazis were also responsible for the deliberate death by shooting, starvation, or overwork of at least another nine to ten million non-Jewish people. The Nazis considered the Roma, sometimes known as Gypsies, to be an alien race. The Roma were rounded up for mass killing. About 40 percent of Europe’s one million Roma were killed in the death camps.

The leading citizens of the Slavic peoples—the clergy, intellectuals, civil leaders, judges, and lawyers—were arrested and killed. Probably an addi-tional four million Poles, Ukrainians, and Belorussians lost their lives as slave laborers for Nazi Germany. Finally, at least three million to four million Soviet prisoners of war were killed in captivity.

This mass slaughter of European civilians, partic-ularly European Jews, is known as the Holocaust. Jews in and out of the camps attempted to resist the Nazis. Some were aided by friends and even strangers, hidden in villages or smuggled into safe areas. Foreign diplomats would try to save Jews by

issuing exit visas. The nation of Denmark saved almost its entire Jewish population.

Some people did not believe the accounts of death camps because, during World War I, the Allies had greatly exaggerated German atrocities to arouse enthusiasm for the war. Most often, people pre-tended not to notice what was happening. Even worse, collaborators _{(people who assisted the}

enemy) helped the Nazis hunt down Jews. The Allies were aware of the concentration camps and death camps but chose to concentrate on ending the war. Not until after the war did they learn the full extent of the horror and inhumanity of the Holocaust. ;(See page 775 to read an excerpt from a French doctor’s description of the Holocaust in the Primary Sources Library.)

Children in the War

_{Young people of all ages were}

also victims of World War II. Because they were unable to work, Jewish children, along with their mothers, were the first ones selected for the gas

Visit the _{Glencoe World History—Modern Times}Web site at and click on _{Chapter 11–}

Student Web Activity to learn more about concentration camps.

wh.mt.glencoe.com

Web Activity

HISTORY

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only “in teaching simple arithmetic up to 500, the writing of one’s name, and that God has ordered obe-dience to the Germans, honesty, diligence, and polite-ness. I do not consider an ability to read as necessary.” At times, young people were expected to carry the burden of fighting the war. In the last year of the war, Hitler Youth members, often only 14 or 15 years old, could be found in the front lines. In the Soviet Union, children as young as 13 or 14 spied on German posi-tions and worked with the resistance movement. Some were even given decorations for killing the enemy.

Summarizing What was the Nazis’ Final Solution?

The New Order in Asia

The Japanese conquest of Southeast Asia forced millions of native peoples to work for the Japanese war machine.

Reading Connection

How would you feel if you were separated from your family and forced to work for a foreign country? Read to learn about the Japanese policies in the occupied areas of Southeast Asia.

Japanese war policy in the areas in Asia occupied by Japan was basically defensive. Japan hoped to use its new possessions to meet its need for raw materi-als, and also as an outlet for manufactured goods. To organize these possessions, Japanese leaders included them in the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, the economic community sup-posedly designed to provide benefits to the occupied areas and the home country.

Japanese

Policies

The

Japanese had conquered Southeast Asia under the slo-gan “Asia for the Asiatics.” Japanese officials in occupied territories quickly made con-tact with anticolonialists. They promised the people that local governments would be established under Japanese control. Such governments were eventually set up in Burma, the Dutch East Indies, Vietnam, and the Philippines.

Reading Check

American and Filipino prisoners of war were held in the Philippines. What role did prison-ers of war play in the Japanese war effort?

History

chambers upon their arrival in the death camps of Poland. Young Jew