The Bentong–Raub Suture Zone
I. Metcalfe
Asia Centre, University of New England, Armidale, NSW 2351, Australia
Received 7 February 2000; accepted 25 July 2000
Abstract
It is proposed that the Bentong–Raub Suture Zone represents a segment of the main Devonian to Middle Triassic Palaeo-Tethys ocean, and forms the boundary between the Gondwana-derived Sibumasu and Indochina terranes. Palaeo-Tethyan oceanic ribbon-bedded cherts preserved in the suture zone range in age from Middle Devonian to Middle Permian, and me´lange includes chert and limestone clasts that range in age from Lower Carboniferous to Lower Permian. This indicates that the Palaeo-Tethys opened in the Devonian, when Indochina and other Chinese blocks separated from Gondwana, and closed in the Late Triassic (Peninsular Malaysia segment). The suture zone is the result of northwards subduction of the Palaeo-Tethys ocean beneath Indochina in the Late Palaeozoic and the Triassic collision of the Sibumasu terrane with, and the underthrusting of, Indochina. Tectonostratigraphic, palaeobiogeographic and palaeomagnetic data indicate that the Sibumasu Terrane separated from Gondwana in the late Sakmarian, and then drifted rapidly northwards during the Permian–Triassic. During the Permian subduction phase, the East Malaya volcano-plutonic arc, with I-Type granitoids and intermediate to acidic volcanism, was developed on the margin of Indochina. The main structural discontinuity in Peninsular Malaysia occurs between Palaeozoic and Triassic rocks, and orogenic deformation appears to have been initiated in the Upper Permian to Lower Triassic, when Sibumasu began to collide with Indochina. During the Early to Middle Triassic, A-Type subduction and crustal thickening generated the Main Range syn- to post-orogenic granites, which were emplaced in the Late Triassic–Early Jurassic. A foredeep basin developed on the depressed margin of Sibumasu in front of the uplifted accretionary complex in which the Semanggol “Formation” rocks accumulated. The suture zone is covered by a latest Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous, mainly continental, red bed overlap sequence.q2000 Elsevier Science
Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Bentong–Raub Suture Zone; Semantan basin; Permian–Triassic boundary
1. Introduction
The belt of Lower Palaeozoic rocks that extends from the Malay Peninsula northwards through Thailand, Burma and China was termed the Yunnan–Malaya Geosyncline by Burton (1967). Jones (1968, 1973) further interpreted the stratigraphy and north–south facies belts of the Malayan portion as representing “miogeosynclinal” shelf or platform facies in the west, and “eugeosynclinal” facies (containing radiolarian cherts, basic igneous rocks and thick sections of deep-marine clastics) in central Malaya. He also suggested the former presence of a large continental landmass to the west, which has since rifted away (now interpreted as Gond-wanaland). Hutchison (1973a) placed the data in a plate-tectonics context and interpreted the “eugeosyncline” as a former trench in a subduction system. Hutchison (1975), in his paper on ophiolites in Southeast Asia, named the central Malayan zone the “Bentong–Raub ophiolite line”, which then became widely quoted as the “Bentong–Raub Line”,
or alternatively as the “Raub–Bentong Line”. Mitchell (1977), furthermore, interpreted the zone of “folded slates, radiolarian cherts and flysch, with vertical or overturned isoclinal folds, and minor ophiolitic bodies” (his Zone 2) as representing oceanic crust and sediments, forming an accretionary complex produced by eastwards subduction. Establishment of this zone as a suture zone representing the site of a former ocean now seems beyond doubt, and it is now generally referred to as the Bentong–Raub Suture Zone. The north–south trending Bentong–Raub Suture extends from Thailand through Raub and Bentong to the east of Malacca, Peninsular Malaysia. Southwards extension of the suture is controversial (see below). This suture represents the main Palaeo-Tethys Ocean which was destroyed by collision of the Sibumasu and Indochina continental terranes of Southeast Asia (Fig. 1). This paper presents an overview of the Bentong–Raub Suture Zone, and reviews the evidence for the age-duration of the Palaeo-Tethys Ocean which it represents, and the age of suturing of the Sibumasu and Indochina terranes. Impli-cations for palaeogeographic reconstructions of the region are also discussed.
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2. Geological setting of the Bentong–Raub Suture Zone
Peninsular Malaysia has traditionally been divided into three north–south-trending zones based on differences of stratigraphy, mineralisation and structure. These zones have been variously referred to as the Western, Central and Eastern “Belts” “Zones” or “Domains”. In addition,
some authors recognise a Northwestern “Zone” or
“Domain” (Fig. 1).
The traditionally recognised suture is exposed as an approximately 20 km wide zone bordering the eastern limit of the Main Range granitoids in Peninsular Malay-sia and comprises me´lange, oceanic ribbon-bedded
cherts, schist, and discontinuous, narrow, elongate
bodies of serpentinised mafic–ultramafic rocks, inter-preted as ophiolite (Hutchison, 1975, 1989; Tjia, 1987, 1989a,b). An occurrence of sheared diamictite, here interpreted as possibly tectonic me´lange, was reported
Fig. 10
Suture Zone Rocks
B
Radiolarian locality with age
Alor Star
NORTHEAST CHINA (COMPOSITE)
QS
? ?SI
SIBUMASU INDOCHINA
0 600 km
Fig. 1. Western, Central and Eastern “Belts” of Peninsular Malaysia and distribution of suture zone rocks (oceanic ribbon-bedded cherts, argillites, me´lange, serpentinites) and ribbon-bedded cherts, argillites and turbidites of the Semanggol Formation. Radiolarian localities and ages are also shown (after Metcalfe et al., 1999). Inset map shows the distribution of principal continental terranes and sutures of East and Southeast Asia. WBWest Burma, SWBSouth West
Borneo, SSemitau Terrane, HTHainan Island terranes, LLhasa Terrane, QIQiangtang Terrane, QSQamdo-Simao Terrane, SISimao Terrane,
I. and N.W. Malaya
?
2. South Perlis and North Kedah
?
0 150 km
5N 5N
102E 102E
Suture Zone Rocks
B Kinta Valley, Perak
? West & Central
Pahang
7. South Pahang, Johore, Singapore
? Yunnan, Kwangsi
Laurasia
Australia, Tibet, N. China S. China, Argentina S. China S. China S. China (Pagoda Fm)
Limestone
Setul Lst Fm. (Peritidal, South China, Indochina N. W. Australia N. W. Australia Eastern Australia
N. W. Australia Arctic-Eurasian Ulu Endau Beds Sedili Gua Musang Fm
SIBUMASU TERRANE (Western Belt of Peninsular Malaysia)
INDOCHINA TERRANE
(Central & Eastern Belts of Peninsular Malaysia)
by Metcalfe and Chakraborty (1988) near the eastern margin of the Central “Belt” (Fig. 1), which may indi-cate that the accretionary complex, exposed beneath Permo-Triassic rocks along the western margin of the Central “Belt”, extends eastwards beneath the Central “Belt”, or has been displaced eastwards by faulting. Other occurrences of Carboniferous, Permian and Trias-sic deep marine ribbon-bedded cherts to the west of the traditional suture zone (rocks previously included in the Kati and Semanggol Formations) indicate that the Bentong–Raub Suture Zone may be much wider than previously thought.
2.1. Sibumasu and Indochina terranes: origin and dispersal from Gondwanaland
2.1.1. Sibumasu Terrane
Peninsular Malaysia west of the Bentong–Raub Suture forms part of the Sibumasu continental lithospheric terrane (Metcalfe, 1984, 1986, 1988). This terrane (Fig. 1, inset) includes parts of western Yunnan (Baoshan and Tenchong Blocks), the Shan States of Burma, northwest Thailand, Peninsular Burma and Thailand, western Peninsular Malay-sia and northwest Sumatra (Metcalfe, 1988). It is bound on the east by the Changning–Menglian, Chiang Mai,
Nan-CAMBRIAN
JURASSIC
TRIASSIC
PERMIAN
DEVONIAN
SILURIAN
ORDO-VICIAN
CARBON-IFEROUS
X
X X
X
X
X X
SIBUMASU CANNING BASIN
Limestone Sandstone Mixed clastics Shale
Conglomerate Stratigraphic Break Evaporites
(salt) Glacial-marinediamictites
M
M M
E
E
E E
L
L
L S W N
V
T
PRI LUD
LLY
WEN
A C LLN
A
TR
490 434 410 354 298 252 205
545
L M
E
Uttaradit, Sra Kaeo and Bentong–Raub Suture Zones, which have been interpreted as representing the main Palaeo-Tethys Ocean (Metcalfe, 1999; Metcalfe et al., 1999). Its eastern boundary in Sumatra is contentious. Hutchison (1975, 1983) and Gasperon and Varne (1995) suggest, principally on the distribution of granite types, that the Bentong–Raub Suture extends southeast-wards through the tin islands of Bangka and Billiton. Tjia (1985, 1989a), Tjia and Zaiton Harun (1985) and Metcalfe (1988, 1996, 1998) have suggested, on structural and stratigraphic grounds, that the suture extends into the Bengkalis Graben (see Hutchison, 1993; Metcalfe, 1996 for discussions).
2.1.2. Indochina terrane
The eastern part of Peninsular Malaysia, east of the Bentong–Raub Suture, has a different pre-Jurassic tectonos-traigraphy and evolution to the Sibumasu terrane. It was interpreted by Stauffer (1973) as part of an “East Malaya Block”, but is now regarded as a southwards extension of the Indochina Terrane (Metcalfe, 1998). This terrane is bounded to the northeast by the Song Ma Suture Zone, and to the west by the Uttaradit-Nan–Sra Kaeo and Bentong–Raub sutures in Thailand and Malaysia, respec-tively. It is here taken to include what has previously been referred to as the “East Malaya Block” (excepting Borneo) of Stauffer (1974, 1983) and Metcalfe (1988).
2.1.3. Terrane origins and dispersal from Gondwanaland Palaeobiogeographic and tectonostratigraphic data for both Sibumasu and Indochina indicate that these continental blocks formed part of the India–Australian margin of Gond-wana in the Lower Palaeozoic (Metcalfe, 1988, 1990, 1993c, 1996, 1998; Burrett et al., 1990; Rong et al., 1995). Gondwana biogeographic affinities of faunas and floras on Sibumasu continue up to the Early Permian (Sakmarian), and the presence of Lower Permian glacial-marine diamictites, associated with cold climate indicators
and Gondwana faunas and floras (Fig. 2), dictate that this terrane was still attached to the margin of Gondwana up until the Early Permian. This is supported by gross
tecto-nostratigraphical comparisons between the Sibumasu
Terrane and the Canning Basin of NW Australia (Fig. 3), suggesting that the Cambrian to Lower Permian stratigraphy of Sibumasu is an extremely good fit for a position outboard of NW Australia during that period. In the Assellian–Early Sakmarian, brachiopods on the Sibumasu Terrane belong to the Gondwanan Indoralian Province, but shortly after separation from Gondwana in the Late Sakmarian-Midian, the brachiopods developed their own Sibumasu Province faunas with endemics. By Wujiapingian–Changxingian times, the brachiopod faunas had become assimilated into the Cathaysian Province. These changes of provincial affi-nities of the brachiopod faunas of Sibumasu document the northwards drift of the terrane during the Permian (Shi and Archbold, 1998).
Ordovician and Silurian faunas of Indochina show Gond-wana affinities, but by Lower Carboniferous and younger times there appears to be no Gondwana connections (Metcalfe, 1988, 2000c; Fig. 2). It seems most likely that the Indochina Terrane, along with South and North China and Tarim, separated from Gondwana in the Devonian.
2.2. Palaeomagnetic data
Palaeomagnetic summaries and studies of the Sibumasu and Indochina terranes and of Peninsular Malaysia have been made by Richter and Fuller (1996) and Richter et al. (1999). Palaeozoic and Mesozoic palaeomagnetic data from SE Asia remain problematic, due to widespread Mesozoic and Cenozoic overprints, and the Palaeozoic and Early Mesozoic rocks often carry Late Triassic or Late Cretaceous overprints (Metcalfe, 1994; Richter and Fuller, 1996; Rich-ter et al., 1999). Palaeolatitude data do, however, provide some constraints on terrane positions at certain times.
40
Devonian Permian Triassic Jurassic Cretaceous Tertiary
PALAEOLATITUDE
There is a general paucity of Palaeozoic data from the Sibumasu Terrane. Results considered reliable (i.e. passing reversal and fold tests) indicate that the Sibumasu Terrane moved from about 428S in the Late Carboniferous to around 15–208N in the late Triassic (Van der Voo, 1993; Fig. 4). This is consistent with the late Early Permian separation and Permo-Triassic northwards drift of Sibumasu as part of the Cimmerian Continent, interpreted from other data.
The majority of the palaeomagnetic data for the Indo-china Terrane has been collected from the Upper Palaeozoic and Mesozoic of the Khorat Plateau. All pre-Late Triassic rocks appear to have been remagnetised during the Late Triassic Indosinian Orogeny (Richter and Fuller, 1996). A palaeolatitude of 258N is indicated for the Khorat Plateau in the Late Triassic. The Virtual Geomagnetic Pole (VGP) presented for these data is indistinguishable from the VGP of remagnetised Permian Limestones. Interestingly, this also coincides with the mean VGP for remagnetised Permian and Triassic limestones of the Sibumasu Terrane, suggesting that a Late Triassic remagnetisation of these rocks is most likely. Unfortunately, available palaeomag-netic data for the Indochina Terrane provide little informa-tion on its pre-Late Triassic latitudinal posiinforma-tion.
2.3. Volcanic arcs
The Bentong–Raub Suture Zone represents the main Palaeo-Tethys Ocean, which would have been at least 2000 km wide at some point during its history. Long lived subduction subsequently destroyed the Palaeo-Tethys beneath either Indochina, Sibumasu, or both, resulting in destruction of the ocean, and the eventual collision of these two continental lithospheric blocks. Since subduction is required to destroy the Palaeo-Tethys, there must have been one or more volcanic arcs related to this subduc-tion process. Two Late Palaeozoic volcanic arcs can be identified in the vicinity of the Bentong–Raub Suture; a Lower to Middle Permian volcanic arc (Peusangan-Pale-pat Volcanic Arc) distributed as an elongate, fault-bounded strip to the west of the suture along the western edge of the Sibumasu Terrane in Sumatra, and a Middle to Upper Permian and Triassic volcanic arc (East Malaya Volcanic Arc), identified as an elon-gate strip to the east of the suture through eastern Peninsular Malaysia, and possibly extending to Bangka and Billiton, along the western edge of the Indochina Terrane.
2.3.1. Peusangan-Palepat Volcanic Arc
This Lower? to Middle Permian plutonic-volcanic arc is interpreted as subduction-related (Katili, 1973; Pulungono and Cameron, 1984). McCourt et al. (1996), quoting Fontaine and Gafoer (1989), suggested that the faunas asso-ciated with the andesitic volcanics of this arc indicated warm climate and Cathaysian affinities, in contrast to typical Sibumasu Gondwana sequences. They suggested that the
2.3.2. East Malaya Volcanic Arc
The Middle to Upper Permian and Triassic East Malaya Volcanic Arc comprises intermediate to acidic volcanics, distributed in eastern Peninsular Malaysia and extending southeastwards to the islands of Bangka and Billiton. Ande-sitic and acidic volcanism occurs in the Upper Permian, and acidic volcanism predominates in the Triassic (Metcalfe et al., 1982). The age of this arc may also extend down into the Carboniferous, as abundant volcaniclastics and some volca-nics of this age are widely distributed in Carboniferous rocks in eastern Peninsular Malaysia (Fig. 2). The arc was constructed on the margin of the Indochina Terrane and would have been the result of eastwards (but originally northwards) subduction of the Palaeo-Tethys Ocean. The subduction polarity suggested, is consistent with that indi-cated by tectonic transport directions (see below), and as time progressed, the volcanic arc probably migrated south-westwards. I-type granitoids of Late Permian to Triassic age
east of the Bentong–Raub Suture, represent the plutonic elements of the volcanic arc (Hutchison, 1977; see below).
3. The accretion phase and description of the Bentong– Raub suture
3.1. Suture zone rocks
The Bentong–Raub Suture Zone includes accretionary complex rocks, with oceanic ribbon-bedded cherts, argil-lites, turbiditic rhythmites, me´lange, serpentinites and conti-nental margin/shelf deposits.
3.1.1. Ribbon-bedded cherts
Cherts occurring as fault-bounded packages forming part of an accretionary complex, or as clasts in me´lange, are well developed, and occur as white, grey, green, red and black RADIOLARIAN SPECIES/
ASSEMBLAGE ZONE
RADIOLARIAN SPECIES/ ASSEMBLAGE ZONE
(after Feng and Ye, 1996) (after Cheng, 1986; Ishiga, 1990; Braun and Schmidt-Effing, 1993)
Triassocampe deweveri ass. zone Triassocampe deweveri ass. zone Triassocampe coronata ass. zone Triassocampe coronata ass. zone Pseudoeucytis liui ass. zone
Shengia yini ass. zone ?
Wangia ass. zone
Neoalbaillella ornithoformis ass. zone Neoalbaillella ornithoformis ass. zone Neoalbaillella optima ass. zone Neoalbaillella optima ass. zone
Follicucullus charveti zone Follicucullus scholasticus m. II ass. zone Follicucullus porrectus zone Follicucullus monacanthus ass. zone Follicucullus monacanthus ass. zone Pseudoalbaillella fusiformis ass. zone Pseudoalbaillella globosa zone
Pseudoalbaillella longtanensis zone Albaillella sinuata ass. zone Albaillella sinuata ass. zone Pseudoalbaillella scalprata m.
rhombothoracata ass. zone
Pseudoalbaillella scalprata m. rhombothoracata ass. zone Pseudoalbaillella lomentaria
-Pseudoalbaillella sakmarensis ass zone Pseudoalbaillella lomentaria zone Pseudoalbaillella uforma m. II
-Pseudoalbaillella elegans ass. zone Pseudoalbaillella u-forma m. II ass. zone Pseudoalbaillella u-forma m. I ass. zone Pseudoalbaillella bulbosa ass. zone
? Pseudoalbaillella nodosa ass. zone
?
Pseudoalbaillella annulata ass. zone Albaillella nazarovi zone Albaillella rockensis zone Albaillella cartalla ass. zone Latentifistula concentrica zone
Albaillella cartalla ass. zone Albaillella indensis ass. zone Eostylodictya rota zone Albaillella indensis brauni ass zone Albaillella indensis ass. zone Albaillella deflandrei ass. zone Albaillella deflandrei ass. zone Albaillella paradoxa ass. zone Albaillella paradoxa ass. zone
Albaillella-1 ass. zone Holoeciscus 3 ass. zone Entactina - Entactinosphaera ass. zone Holoeciscus 2 ass. zone Holoeciscus 1 ass. zone
? Pre-Holoeciscus ass. zone
Eoalbaillella lilaensis ass. zone ?
BENTON
cherts, generally thinly bedded, but sometimes more thickly bedded (especially red and green varieties). Most contain abundant radiolarians, but preservation is generally poor, with recrystallisation of the cherts and radiolarian tests making extraction and identification difficult. Despite these difficulties, recent intensive studies of radiolarians from these cherts (Sashida et al., 1993; Spiller and Metcalfe, 1995a,b; Sashida et al., 1995; Spiller, 1996; Metcalfe et al., 1999) have provided constraints on the age of these Palaeo-Tethyan sediments and hence on the opening and closure ages for the ocean. Fault-bounded blocks of oceanic bedded-cherts of the traditionally recognised suture zone (Fig. 1) are dated by radiolarians as Upper Devonian
(Famennian), Lower Carboniferous (Tournaisian and
Vise´an) and Lower–Middle Permian (Asselian–Roadian) and represent the Holoeciscus 2–3, Albaillella deflandrei, Albaillella cartalla, Pseudoalbaillella u-forma m. II, Pseu-doalbaillella lomentaria, PseuPseu-doalbaillella scalprata m. rhombotharacata, Albaillella sinuata and Pseudoalbaillella longtanensis radiolarian zones (Metcalfe, 1992; Spiller and Metcalfe, 1993, 1995a,b; Metcalfe and Spiller, 1994; Spil-ler, 1996; Basir Jasin and Che Aziz Ali, 1997; see Fig. 5).
In addition, ribbon-bedded cherts, argillites and pelagic limestones, previously included within the Semanggol Formation (Fig. 1), have yielded Permian and Triassic olarians. Sashida et al. (1993) reported Upper Permian radi-olarians representing the Follicucullus monacanthusand Neoalbaillella ornithoformis zones of Ishiga (1990). Lower? and Upper Permian radiolarians representing the
?Pseudoalbaillella longtanensis, Follicucullus
mona-canthus and Neoalbaillella ornithoformis zones were also reported from the Lower Chert Member of the Semanggol Formation (Spiller and Metcalfe, 1995b). Basir Jasin (1994), Spiller and Metcalfe (1995b) and Metcalfe et al. (1999) report Middle Triassic radiolarians representative of the Triassocampe deweveri zone.
An interesting isolated block of isoclinally folded, tuffac-eous chert exposed along a road cutting near Kuala Kangsar (Fig. 1), west of the Bentong–Raub Suture (sensu stricto), has yielded very poorly preserved radiolarians, tentatively assigned to ?Albaillella deflandrei Gourmelon, which suggests a Lower Carboniferous age (Spiller and Metcalfe, 1995b). In addition, ribbon-bedded cherts at Bukit Telaga Jatoh, south of Pokok Sena, Kedah, previously ascribed to the Kubang Pasu Formation, have yielded Entactinia variospina Won and Callella sp. indicating a Lower Carbo-niferous (probably Tournaisian) age (Basir Jasin, 1995). The relationship of these tuffaceous and ribbon-bedded cherts to the Bentong–Raub Suture is not clear. Basir Jasin (1995) interpreted them as continental margin deposits, but they may alternatively represent part of the accretionary complex that has been thrust westwards over the Sibumasu terrane margin.
Radiolarians recovered from rocks within the Bentong– Raub Suture Zone, sensu stricto, (Figs. 1 and 5) suggest that an open ocean basin existed between the Sibumasu and
Indochina terranes from at least Late Devonian to Middle Permian, indicating that opening of the Palaeo-Tethys occurred in the Devonian, as advocated by Metcalfe (1996, 1997, 1998), and closure of the ocean, in the Penin-sular Malaysia segment, occurred in the Late Permian or, more likely, the Triassic (Metcalfe et al., 1999). The discov-ery of Lower and Upper Permian and Middle Triassic radi-olarians from the “lower chert member” of the Semanggol Formation in northwest Peninsular Malaysia, presents some problems in interpreting this formation in the overall tectonic evolutionary framework. Sashida et al. (1995) suggested a Lower Triassic collision between Sibumasu and “East Malaya” (Indochina) and suggested that the upper part of the Semanggol Formation (mainly rhythmites and conglomerates) formed in a foredeep successor basin outboard of and partly over the accretionary complex, and identified the Semantan Formation basin of the Central Belt of the Malay Peninsular as a fore-arc basin (see Sashida et al., 1995; Fig. 7). It seems unlikely that the Lower to Upper
Permian ribbon-bedded radiolarian cherts, previously
mapped as part of the Semanggol Formation, would have formed in the foredeep successor basin, and these were more likely deposited in the Palaeo-Tethys Ocean itself, prior to collision. This would imply that these cherts form part of the accretionary complex and hence part of the Bentong–Raub Suture Zone (sensu lato). One would also expect to observe structural discontinuity between these cherts and the Trias-sic sediments of the Semanggol Formation. In this regard, repetition of Lower and Upper Permian ages in an appar-ently coherent steeply dipping sequence of cherts near Kuala Nerang, northeast of Alor Star, implies tight isoclinal folding or repetition of beds by thrusting (Spiller and Metcalfe, 1995a). This has not been observed in Triassic cherts. In addition, Azhar Haji Hussin (1993) reinterpreted the stratigraphy at Gunong Semanggol (type locality for the Semanggol Formation in the southern part of its outcrop area; see Fig. 1) and recognised a pre-Semanggol unit of 80 m1 thickness comprising predominantly chert clast-bearing orthoconglomerates overlain unconformably by the Semanggol Formation, comprising a basal conglomarate and then an Upper Triassic (dated by ammonoids and bivalves) turbidite sandstone-shale unit. A major tectonic event is thus implied, which disrupted the deposition of the older chert sequence, preceding the deposition of the pre-Semanggol unit at Gunong Semanggol. An early to Middle Triassic age for this tectonic event is implied but not precisely constrained.
3.1.2. Me´lange
in size. An example of a large “knocker” clast which is surrounded by me´lange is Bukit Cinta Manis, an undated, unfossiliferous limestone hill near Karak. Basic subduction-related volcanic clasts and true ophiolites (which occur in the Nan-Uttaradit suture further north) have not, however, been reported from the Bentong–Raub Suture. The matrix of the me´lange has not so far yielded fossils. Both perva-sively sheared tectonic me´lange and more variably sheared sedimentary me´lange (olistostrome) are recognised (Chak-raborty and Metcalfe, 1987; Metcalfe, 1987; Tjia, 1987, 1989a,b). I have not seen any convincing evidence, so far, that any of the the me´lange represents mud diapirism, but this remains a possibility in an accretionary complex setting. Clasts of chert have yielded Upper Devonian, Carboniferous and Permian radiolarians (Spiller and Metcalfe, 1995a,b; Spiller, 1996; Metcalfe et al., 1999). In addition, limestone clasts from me´lange exposed at Taman Indapura and at 2.2 km along the Krau Satu Road near Raub (Fig. 6) have yielded Lower Permian conodonts (Fig. 7) and fusulinids (Fig. 8). One limestone clast at Taman Indapura yielded Neogondolella idahoensis (Youngquist, Hawley and Miller) and Xaniognathus cf. sweeti Igo, the co-occurrence of which suggests a late Lower Permian, Kungurian age. A second
clast at this locality yielded a specimen of Neostreptog-nathodus sp., again indicative of a Permian age.
At 2.2 km along the Krau Satu Road near Raub one lime-stone clast yielded Mesogondolella bisselli (Clark and Behnken) and Sweetognathus whitei (Rhodes). The co-occurrence of these two species represents the Mesogondo-lella bisselli–Sweetognathus whitei Zone of Lower Permian (middle Artinskian) age. A second clast at this me´lange locality yielded Xaniognathus cf. sweeti Igo, which indi-cates a Lower Permian (early Cathedralian) age (Igo, 1981). In addition to conodonts, a third clast at this locality contained fusulinids which have been identified as Para-schwagerina sp., Schwagerina sp. and Pseudofusulina sp. The co-occurrence of these three genera indicate a probable Sakmarian age.
Clasts within the Bentong–Raub Suture Zone me´lange range in age from Upper Devonian to Permian, and there-fore constrain the age of the me´lange as post Upper Devo-nian to pre Triassic (no Triassic clasts so far known).
3.1.3. Serpentinite
Serpentinite bodies are found distributed along the Bentong Raub Suture (Fig. 9). These are generally small bodies, but larger ones near Sungei Telom and Cheroh are about 20 km in length and about 6 km in width. The serpen-tinite near Cheroh, and some other bodies, are in contact with phyllitic schists, or occur as diapiric intrusions along the fault contacts between schist and me´lange (e.g. small serpentinite at Pos Mering, east of Cameron Highlands see Fig. 10), but other bodies are clearly within me´lange (Haile et al., 1977 and author’s personal observations). Jones (1973) suggested that these serpentinite bodies may repre-sent original mafic–ultramafic igneous rocks, and perhaps in some cases submarine lava flows (pillow basalts). Jaaafar bin Ahmad (1976) reported a transition from peridotite to serpentinite near Durian Tipus. Serpentinites at Bukit Rokan Barat, near Bahau, Negeri Sembilan, contain pods and layers of chromian spinel. Microprobe analyses of the cores of chromian spinel grains (Khoo and Tan, 1993; Khoo, 1993) yield Cr/(Cr1Al) ratios which plot in the oceanic peridotite field of Bonatti and Michael (1989). There is no direct evidence so far for the age of the serpen-tinites. Hutchison (1973a, 1975) proposed that the serpenti-nite bodies represent dismembered ophiolites, mixed with oceanic sediments in a subduction trench. There is, however, little evidence to support the presence of true ophiolites along the Bentong–Raub Suture Zone. The serpentinite bodies are generally small, and there is no evidence of layered ultramafics or sheeted dyke complexes. Other “Palaeo-Tethyan” ophiolites of the region probably represent the remnants of back-arc basin oceanic crust rather than the main oceanic crust of the Palaeo-Tethys (see Wang Xiaofeng et al., 2000). This seems more logical in view of the current interpretation of the origin and occurrence of ophiolites as mainly the remnants of back-arc basins. Fig. 6. Bentong–Raub Suture Zone me´lange: (A) exposure of me´lange with
3.1.4. Amphibolites and amphibole schists
Amphibolites and amphibole schists also characterise the Bentong–Raub Suture, and appear to represent metamor-phosed basic igneous rocks, but the original igneous fabric has been obliterated.
3.1.5. Clastic metasedimentary rocks
Metamorphosed mudstones and rhythmites
(inter-bedded mudstones and turbiditic greywackes) also
occur along the Bentong–Raub Suture Zone, where they appear to represent the upper part of the
the suture zone rocks are exposed along the highway just west of the Perak-Kelantan state boundary (Tjia, 1989a). Equivalent rocks to the south are probably hidden under younger sediments of the Central “Belt”.
3.1.6. Limestone
Apart from shallow-marine limestones with conodonts and fusulinids that occur as clasts in me´lange, limestones of Permian and Early Triassic age are distributed along the western part of the Central “Belt”, and some of these appear to have been deposited on top of the accretionary complex.
3.1.7. Schists and phyllites
Quartz–mica schists, phyllites and amphibolite schists are found distributed in a narrow zone about 7 km wide, and are generally exposed to the west of the main me´lange-chert zone of the suture. Packages of schist and phyllite are, however, also intimately associated with me´lange, mudstone and chert in repeated tectonic stacks within the accretionary complex (see Fig. 10). The quartz–mica schists are known as the Bentong Schist in the Raub–Bentong area, and equivalents further to the south are the Karak Formation (part) and the Pilah Schist. The schists are locally strongly carbonaceous, and also
BENTONG
M
A
I
N
CHEROH
RAUB
Pre-Silurian Schists
Melange, Cherts, Argillites
Serpentinite
0 10km
N
KARAK
KrauSatu Taman
Indapura (Fig. 6A)
2.2 km locality (Fig. 6C)
Melange (Fig. 6B)
4N
102E
R
A
N
G
E
G
R
A
N
I
T
E
contain lenses of amphibolite schist, interpreted as possible metamorphosed basic igneous rocks. Quartz within the schists occurs as veins, lenses, sigmoids or irregular bodies up to 7 m in size (Tjia, 1989b). Phyllitic mudstones previously included in the “Foothills Formation”, have yielded Lower Devonian graptolites (Jones, 1970). The schists and phyllites are here regarded as metamorphosed continental (Gondwana) margin clastic deposits.
3.2. Granitoids
Granite and granitoid batholiths are widely distributed in the Southeast Asian region and are the result of major plate tectonic processes that have affected this area. Three broad belts of granitoids are recognised in Southeast Asia (Fig. 11A): a Western Granitoid Province, comprising Late Cretaceous to Eocene high-level I-type granitoids related
Granite Schist
Strike & Dip Dirt Road Thrust Fault
Melange Mudstone Bedded
Cherts Serpentinite
POS MERING
MENDROID
A
B
A
B
S. Berok
S. C ender
oh
S. Ber
0
1 km
0
1 km
0
5 km
101 40' Eo
101 40' Eo
101 35' Eo
101 35' Eo
4 45' No
4 45' No
101 45' Eo
To
GuaMusang
POS BLAU
Bt. Bayoh 1915ft
2401 ft
35 30 35 80 76
76
31 67 75
43 Granite-Schist Contact Zone
To Cameron Highlands
I.
Metcalfe
/
Journal
of
Asian
Earth
Sciences
1
8
(2000)
691
–
712
MALAYSIA SU
M A
TRA
CAMBODIA TH AILAN D
LAOS
400 km 0
98E 102E 106E 110E
4N 8N 12N 16N
4N 8N 12N 16N
98E 102E 106E 20N
20N
Western (S + I typ es) [Cretaceou s]
Main Range (S typ e) [latest Tr iassic - Early Ju rassic]
Eastern (I typ e) [Up p er Perm ian-Tr iassic and isolated p ost-orogenic p lu tons of Cretaceou s age] MYAN MAR
THAILAND
0 100 km
6N 6N
4N 4N
Main Range plutons
Central Belt plutons
Eastern Belt plutons
Cretaceous plutons
2N 2N
104E 104E
102E 102E
100E
B
A
GRANITE PROVINCES
Bentong-Raub Suture Zone Rocks
to northeastwards subduction of the Ceno-Tethys ocean; a Central Granitoid Province, which comprises Upper Trias-sic to Lower JurasTrias-sic S-type collisional granites; and an Eastern Belt Province, of mainly calc-alkaline I-type gran-itoids (but with some S-type) of Permian to Triassic age (Hutchison, 1977; Cobbing et al., 1992). The Western Belt province granitoids are not related to the Bentong–Raub Suture Zone and are not discussed further here.
3.2.1. Central granitoid province (Main Range granites in Peninsular Malaysia)
The Main Range granites of Peninsular Malaysia form the backbone mountain ranges of the Peninsula, and represent the Central Granitoid Province of SE Asia, extending north-wards into Thailand and southnorth-wards into the Indonesian Tin Islands, where they overlap with Eastern Belt Province types. They comprise a series of large mesozonal batholiths and plutons of tin-bearing, predominantly biotite granites of S-type ilmenite series, emplaced into Lower to Middle Palaeozoic low-grade metamorphic (greenschist facies) rocks in Peninsular Malaysia (Cobbing et al., 1992). Throughout the province, the granitoids have narrow ther-mal aureoles and are generally undeformed, apart from cata-clasis related to fault zones (Cobbing et al., 1992). The Main Range Granite is also enriched in uranium and thorium. U– Pb zircon emplacement ages for the granites range from
Late Triassic (230^9 Ma) to earliest Jurassic
(207^14 Ma), with a peak at around 210 Ma (Liew and
Page, 1985; Cobbing et al., 1986; Darbyshire, 1988; Hutch-ison, 1989; Cobbing et al., 1992). Initial87Sr/86Sr ratios are high, ranging from 0.7159 to 0.7512, indicating a continen-tal source for the granites (Liew and McCulloch, 1985; Cobbing et al., 1992). This is also supported by zircon inheritance ages indicated by concordia intercepts, which range from 1500 to 1700 Ma, and Nd model ages which range from 1300 to 1800 Ma (Liew and McCulloch, 1985) indicating that the granites were derived from melting of a Proterozoic continental basement. Reinterpretation of Bignell and Snelling’s (1977) Rb–Sr whole rock isotopic data for the Main Range, by the application of the “Intrusion extrapolation method” led Krahenbuhl (1991) and Kwan et al. (1992) to the controversial proposal that the major magmatic event in the Main Range was intrusion of granite between 254 and 251 Ma (Permian–Triassic boundary interval). U–Pb zircon isotopic data is regarded here as more reliable in providing tectonically significant, robust emplacement ages. The genesis of the Main Range granites has been suggested to be in an A-type subduction setting (Hutchison, 1989) and Rb vs. (Nb1Y) plots indicate that the majority of the granites are syn- to post-collisional (Cobbing et al., 1986, 1992).
3.2.2. Eastern Granitoid province (Central and Eastern belt granitoids of Peninsular Malaysia)
The Eastern Belt granitoids of the Malay Peninsula (Fig. 11B) are a compositionally expanded calc-alkaline series,
mainly metaluminous I-type, but with some minor S-type bodies present. The batholiths are mainly small and compo-site, and plutons range from rare gabbro to predominant monzogranite. The ages of the granites range from Permian, or perhaps Carboniferous, to Triassic, according to Cobbing et al. (1992), and are of similar age to their Upper Palaeo-zoic to Triassic host rocks. Nd–Sr and U–Pb zircon ages range from 265 to 230 Ma, according to Liew and McCul-loch (1985), but Darbyshire (1988) found only Triassic ages. This plutonic suite, together with associated rhyoli-tic–ignimbritic–andesitic volcanics of Permian to Triassic age, were interpreted to represent an ensialic volcano-pluto-nic arc, overlying a Permo-Triassic Benioff Zone (Hutchi-son, 1989). Zircon inheritance ages range from 900 to 1400 Ma for I-type granitoids and a single inheritance age of 1180 has been obtained for an S-type granitoid (Liew and McCulloch, 1985). Again, like western Peninsular Malay-sia, a Late Proterozoic continental basement is indicated, but this is somewhat younger than that of the Sibumasu Terrane part of the peninsula (1300–1800 Ma). The major-ity of Rb vs. (Nb1Y) plots for Eastern Belt granitoids fall in the volcanic arc field (Cobbing et al., 1986, 1992). The volcano-plutonic arc is largely buried in the Central Belt region of the Malay Peninsula by thick Triassic volcaniclas-tic mudstones and turbidites (Semantan and Gemas Forma-tions) derived from the arc (Metcalfe et al., 1982), but there are many inliers where Permian to Lower Triassic island arc volcanic rocks are found closely associated with limestone (e.g. Kampong Awah, Pahang).
In the Central Belt of Peninsular Malaysia, we also find a narrow line of plutons (Fig. 11B) which are distinct from, but contemporaneous with, the Main Range plutons. The
Benom granite has yielded a Rb–Sr age of 207^7 Ma
(Early Jurassic) with an initial 87Sr/86Sr ratio of 0.7079, which is significantly lower than ratios observed in the Main Range granites (Hutchison, 1989). Several Late Cretaceous granitoids are also present in the Central Belt of the Peninsula, indicating an igneous event at this time, but this is unlikely to be related to the Bentong–Raub Suture.
3.2.3. Tectonic setting of granitoids
Carboniferous) to Triassic I-type volcanic arc granitoids to the east, and Bentong–Raub Suture Zone rocks in between, suggests a west-facing subduction system (eastwards subduction) during Permian (possibly Carboniferous) to Triassic times. This is consistent with the stratigraphical, palaeontological, structural and palaeomagnetic data of many authors and summarised in this paper that suggests collision of the Sibumasu and Indochina continental terranes in the Triassic. Subduction polarity, indicated by the distribution of granitoids in Peninsular Malaysia, is also consistent with subduction polarity derived from tectonic vergence (see below), and also with the position of the East Malaya Permian–Triassic volcanic arc on the margin of Indochina (see above).
3.3. Structural vergence
Detailed studies of the structural geology of the suture zone rocks (Tjia, 1986, 1987, 1989a,b; Tjia and Zaiton Harun, 1985) indicates that tectonic transport was predomi-nantly westwards in the Late Palaeozoic, indicating east-wards subduction. Minor easteast-wards tectonic transport of younger age is interpreted as due to plate collision in the Permo-Triassic. Tjia and Syed Sheikh Almashoor (1993) recognised at least seven tectonic packages of suture zone rocks (schist, phyllite, me´lange, sandstone, mudstone, chert and serpentinite) in a stacked imbricate structure in Ulu Kelantan (Fig. 10). The me´lange here contains large lime-stone (up to several metres), sandlime-stone, chert, mudlime-stone and volcanic and volcaniclastic rock clasts. Massive mudstone, interpreted as a clast in me´lange, between Pos Mering and Pos Blau (Fig. 10), has yielded Permian brachiopods (Mohd Shaffea Leman, personal communication), and ribbon-bedded cherts near Pos Blau (Fig. 10) have yielded Permian radiolarians (Spiller and Metcalfe, 1995b; Spiller, 1996; Basir Jasin and Che Aziz Ali, 1997).
3.4. Overlap sequence
A thick sequence of latest Triassic? marginal marine to continental, and Jurassic and Cretaceous continental red beds, comprising conglomerates, mudstones and sandstones overlies the Bentong–Raub Suture Zone and the folded and eroded Palaeozoic and Triassic sediments of Peninsular Malaysia. These molasse sediments have been mapped as the Saiong Beds in NW Malaya, the Raub Red Beds in West Pahang and the Kerum Formation, and Tembeling and Gagau Groups in the eastern part of Peninsular Malaysia (Fig. 2). The Raub Red Beds are not directly dated, and were considered to be Carboniferous or older by Haile et al. (1977). However, they appear to overlie folded marine strata in the Raub area, dated as Permian at the Raub Gold Mine (Metcalfe, 1993a), and are less deformed than the Palaeozoic rocks in the area. This indicates a younger, prob-ably Mesozoic age. This overlap sequence indicates that suturing of the Sibumasu and Indochina Terranes was completed prior to the uppermost Triassic.
4. Major deformational phases in Peninsular Malaysia
successions. There is therefore clear evidence of a major orogenic episode in Peninsular Malaysia at about the Permian–Triassic transition level. The timing of this orogenic episode corresponds well to the timing of granitoid generation, the collision of the Sibumasu and Indochina terranes, and closure of the Palaeo-Tethys Ocean to produce the Bentong–Raub Suture Zone, based on other evidence. Late Triassic–Early Jurassic Indosinian deformation is only weakly devel-oped in Peninsular Malaysia, and is not regarded here as being related to the Bentong–Raub Suture Zone, but to the collision of amalgamated Sibumasu/Indochina/ South China with North China along the Qinling– Dabei Suture Zone and to closure of Permo-Triassic rift basins along the Song Da zone in Laos and Viet-nam. Middle to Upper Cretaceous deformation involved SW–NE shortening and is not related to the Bentong– Raub Suture Zone.
5. Conclusions: evolution and age of the Bentong–Raub Suture Zone
subduction processes taking place beneath Sibumasu or Indo-china in the Devonian. The Devonian was a period of growth for the Palaeo-Tethys. In latest Devonian or Early Carbonifer-ous times, the Indochina Terrane collided with South China along the Song Ma Suture Zone to form an amalgamated super-terrane that has been called “Cathaysialand” (Fig. 13).
Subduction of the Palaeo-Tethys, represented by the Bentong–Raub Suture Zone, may have begun in the Carboni-ferous, with evidence for this being abundant volcanics in continental margin Carboniferous sediments in eastern Penin-sular Malaysia, and the presence of a Carboniferous volcanic arc through Thailand and Western Yunnan. Northwards
B-R Suture
Fig. 13. Palaeographic reconstructions for (A) Carboniferous; (B) Early Permian; (C) Middle–Late Permian; and (D) Late Triassic, showing relative positions of the East and Southeast Asian terranes and distribution of land and sea. Present day outlines are for reference only. Distribution of land and sea for Chinese blocks principally from Wang (1985). Land and sea distribution for Pangea/Gondwanaland compiled from Golonka et al. (1994); and for Australia from
Struckmeyer and Totterdell (1990). SCSouth China; TTarim; IIndochina; NCNorth China; SSibumasu; WBWest Burma; QIQiangtang;
subduction of the Palaeo-Tethys beneath Indochina during the Permian and Triassic is recorded by I-type granitoids and intermediate to acidic volcanics of the East Malaya Volcanic Arc (see above). The (current) west-facing polarity of this subduction system is indicated by tectonic vergence data, posi-tion of the volcanic arc and distribuposi-tion of granitoid plutons (see above).
The Sibumasu Terrane, as part of the elongate Cimmerian Continental strip, separated from the margin of Gondwana in late Lower Permian times. During the remainder of the Permian and Triassic Sibumasu drifted rapidly northwards, as documented by changes in biogeography and palaeolati-tudinal position (Fig. 13).
During Permo-Triassic times, subduction beneath Indo-china constructed an accretionary complex of offscraped oceanic sediments and me´lange, and also produced the East Malaya Volcanic Arc and I-type granitoids. With time, the accretionary complex built up into an outer arc
on which shallow-marine limestones formed, some of which were incorporated as clasts into me´lange, and the volcanic arc migrated westwards. Onset of A-type subduc-tion commenced around the Permian–Triassic boundary, with the leading edge of the Sibumasu Block being under-thrust beneath the leading edge of Indochina (Fig. 14). In the Triassic, thick volcaniclastic sediments filled the forearc/ intra-arc “Semantan” basin which corresponds to the Central “Belt” or basin of Peninsular Malaysia and turbiditic rhythmites and conglomerates of the Semanggol Formation were deposited in the Semanggol foredeep basin, on top of Permian and Triassic cherts and pelagic limestones.
Acknowledgements
The Australian Research Council is gratefully
acknowledged for continued funding for research in
East Malaya Andesitic Volcanic Arc
Accretionary Complex
I-Type Granitoids
SIBUMASU
INDOCHINA
SIBUMASU
INDOCHINA
Kodiang/Chuping Lst
Kodiang/Chuping Lst
Semanggol Foredeep
Basin
Semantan Volcaniclastic Forearc Basin
Lanchang Acidic Volcanics
Bentong-Raub Suture Zone
0
50 km
0
50 km
0
50 km
0 250 km (approx.)
East Malaya Volcanic Arc
Palaeo-Tethys Ocean
Accretionary Complex
I-Type Granitoids Shallow-marine
Limestones Glacial-marine
diamictites
MIDDLE-LATE PERMIAN
MIDDLE-LATE TRIASSIC Main Range S-Type Granites
SIBUMASU
INDOCHINA
LOWER PERMIAN
East and Southeast Asia. Prof Ken-ichi Ishii and Prof Tomoo Ozawa kindly confirmed fusulinid
identifica-tions. Charles Hutchison, Dietrich Helmcke, Mike
Crow and Tony Barber are thanked for their thorough reviews of the manuscript. This paper forms a contribu-tion to IGCP Project 411.
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