CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL REVIEW
A. Grammar
1. The Definition of Grammar
There are some definitions of grammar which is completing each other. Carter and McCarthy (2006:2) explain that grammar is concerned with how sentences and utterances are formed. In a typical English sentence, we can see the two most basic principles of grammar, the arrangement of items (syntax) and the structure of items (morphology).
Moreover, grammar is defined by Ur in Tuan and Doan (2010: 61) as the way language manipulates and combines words (or bits of words) in order to form longer units of meaning. Harun et.al. (2007:123) adds that grammar is structure or the system of language which is formed by the users of the language. Then, O‟Grady et.al. (1997:715) define
grammar as the mental system of rules and categories that allows humans to form and interpret the words and sentences of their language.
2. Teaching Grammar
Teaching grammar is not as easy as we think. Teacher should know some considerations in teaching grammar. McKay in Nunan (1991:154) explained that there are three views on how to teach grammar:
a. Teaching grammar entails the formal explanation of grammar rules. While learners who receive a great deal of grammatical explanation will end up knowing quite a lot about the language, they will not necessarily be able to put the language to communicative effect. b. Teaching grammar is basically a matter of providing learners with
practice in mastering common grammatical patterns through a process of analogy rather than explanation. The learners may become fluent in the structures they have been taught, but may not be able to use them appropriately in genuine communication outside the classroom.
c. Teaching grammar is a matter giving students the opportunity to use English in a variety of realistic situations. The disadvantage of this approach is that learners will not be able to provide explanations of the grammatical rules of the target language.
3. Tense
the action or state expressed by the verb. There are about 16 kinds of tenses; some of them are simple present tense and simple past tense. Both of them should be mastered by students, especially since Junior High School. The writer will discuss both tenses clearly; start from its form, the construction, and the use of those tenses.
a. Simple Present Tense
Generally, Simple Present Tense is divided into two basic patterns, they are:
1) Simple Present Tense that consists of subject (S) and verb (V). In this term, V1 or Vs without auxiliary.
a) Positive Form
Subject Verb (S) (Object/ Adverb)
I Lina The office They
study works has come
English in my school. in a American Bank. two conference rooms. here every day.
Note:
(1) Subject of third person singular (he, she, it) use Vs (s-form), in this term the suffix of s, es or ies should follow the rules bellow:
(a) s is added in the most of verbs.
(b) es is added in verb which have sibilant sound such as s, sh, and x.
(c) es is also added in the verb with suffix o. For examples: do – does, go – goes.
(d) ies is added in verb with suffix y which preceded by consonant. The process of addition, y should be replaced with i then added with es.
For examples: study – studies, cry – cries, fry – fries. (e) verb with suffix y which is not preceded by consonant just
added s.
For examples: play – plays, say – says. (2) The use of simple present tense with V1 or Vs
(a) Habitual action
The activity of habit and it is done continually at the time including past, present, and future.
Dogs bark.
Teacher works in school.
(b) Statement of general truth
It can be fact, geographical, historical etc.
Water flows from high to lower place.
(c) Present state
The present condition (usually it is used when we are speaking).
I like travelling.
b) Negative Form
Subject Do/Does Not Verb 1 (Object/ Adverb) I
English in my school. in a American Bank. here every day.
Note:
(1) do not (don‟t) for subject I, you, we, they or first and third person plural such as I and my father, the people, the houses etc.
(2) does not for subject he, she, it or third person singular such as Adi, the class, water, etc.
Both positive and negative form can be added with adverb of frequency, such as always, usually, often, frequently, sometimes, occasionally, seldom, rarely, hardly ever, ever.
c) Interrogative Form (Question)
(1) Verbal Question (Yes/No Question)
Do/Does Subject Verb1 (Object/Adverb) Do
(2) Pronominal Question (Question-word Question/Wh-question)
Who/What Verb+ s (Object/Adverb) Who
It is preceded by what, where, when, which, who, how, how
(3) Asking other than subject
Question Word
Do/Does Subject Verb (Object/Adverb) Where
Who Doesn’t Verb 1 (Object/Adverb)
Who Which car
doesn‟t
doesn‟t Bring have
pen?
air conditioner?
(5) Asking other than Subject
Question Word
Do/Doesn’t Subject Verb1 (Object/Adverb)
Why
2) Simple Present Tense with complement (noun, adjective, adverb) a) Positive Form
Subject Be Complement
b) Negative Form
Subject Be not Complement
I
This book
am not is not
in a good condition. expensive.
c) Interrogative Form (1) Verbal Question
Be Subject Complement
Are
(2) Pronominal Question
QW Be Subject Complement
b. Simple Past Tense
1) The Use of Simple Past Tense
Simple past tense is used to declare the activity in the past. It uses verb II (regular/irregular verb) and to be II (was/were).
2) Adverb of Time
Usually, simple past tense uses adverb of time such as: yesterday, this morning
3) The Form of Simple Past Tense a) Simple Past Tense with “ verb”
(1) Positive Form
Subject Verb II (Object/Adverb)
I
Subject Did not Verb 1 (Object/Adverb) I
(3) Verbal Question
Did Subject Verb 1 (Object/Adverb)
Did
Who/What etc. Verb II (Object/Adverb) Who
(5) Asking other than subject
QW Did Subject Verb 1 (Object/Adverb)
b) Simple Past Tense with “to be” (1) Positive Form
Subject Was / were (Object/Adverb)
(2) Negative Form
Subject Was/were not (Object/Adverb) I
They
was not were not
angry. late.
(3) Interrogative Form
Was/were Subject (Object/Adverb)
Was Were
he they
late? angry?
Note:
was is used for subject I, he, she, it. were is used for subject they, we, you.
B. Feedback
1. Definition of Feedback
Cole (1994: 215), Silverius (1991: 148), Hattie and Timperley (2007: 81) define feedback as a reaction to a stimulus offered by others such as teacher, book, parent related with aspects of one‟s performance or
understanding. In giving information to the students, teacher may use test or another measurement tool that can be involves homework or task and the questions from the teacher in the class.
2. The Function of Feedback
According to Silverius (1991:149), feedback has three main functions, those are:
a. Informational Function
Feedback has close relationship with teaching learning process which should be evaluated by using an evaluation tool. The result of evaluation gives information about how far the student‟s mastery in material which has been given by teacher in
teaching learning process. b. Motivational Function
Feedback has function as motivator for students to study hard. Unfortunately, some teachers regard the test result as tool to punish students than make it as the power of constructive to train and develop students. They think that by using test as a threat, it can improve students‟ motivation to study hard. One of things that
they often do is by giving test to the students suddenly. They think that it can make students always ready in receiving test anytime. In contrary, it will increase students‟ anxiety. So the result will be not maximal.
c. Communicational function
students, then they will discuss about the solution for its remedial. So, by giving feedback, students will know their weaknesses.
3. Types of Feedback
Cole (1994:218) states that one type of the feedbacks is positive and negative feedback. He also defines that positive feedback is used to give information to students about correct aspect of their learning or performance. In another word, positive feedback is given to the students when they answer teacher‟ questions correctly. Teacher may respond students‟ answer by saying “that‟s right, that‟s fine answer, good,etc”.
While, negative feedback or corrective feedback is given to the students when they answer teacher‟ questions incorrectly. As Cole (1994:
218) state that negative feedback is used to inform students of those aspects of their performance or behaviour that are inappropriate or incorrect. Teacher may give response “not right, incorrect, that‟s wrong, etc”. It also can be given to the students explicitly or implicitly, depends
on the type of corrective feedbacks that will be used.
A Study from Lyster and Ranta in Fawbush (2010: 19) divided corrective feedback into six types of corrective feedbacks, they are:
a. Explicit correction
b. Recasts
It involves the teacher‟s reformulation of all or part of a student
utterance, minus the error.
c. Clarification requests
It indicates to students either the teacher has misunderstood their utterance or that the utterance is ill formed in some way and that a reformulation is necessary.
d. Metalinguistic Feedback
It contains either comments, information, or questions related to the well-formedness of the student‟s utterance, without explicitly providing the correct form.
e. Elicitation has three different techniques:
1) Elicit completion of their own utterance by strategically pausing to allow students to fill in the blank as it were.
2) Use questions to elicit the forms.
3) Teacher occasionally asks students to reformulate their utterance.
f. Repetition refers to the teacher‟s repetition, in isolation, of the
student‟s erroneous utterance. In most cases, teachers adjust their
intonation so as to highlight the error.
clarification requests, elicitation, and repetition. While, explicit includes explicit correction and metalinguistic feedback.
C. Recast
1. The Nature of Recast
Recast is one kind of corrective feedbacks, especially implicit feedback. Long in Ellis et.al (2006:341) stated that recast is a reformulation of all or part of a learner‟s immediately preceding utterance
in which one or more non-target like lexical, grammatical, etc. Items are replaced by the corresponding target language forms, and where, throughout the exchange, the focus of the interlocutors is on meaning not language as an object.
According to Nabei and Swain (2002:43), recast is defined as a reformulation of a previously erroneous utterance into a more target-like form while preserving the original meaning.
In another words, recast means the correction that given by teacher by repeating students‟ answer or utterance with doing some
changing in the specific part that is incorrect. Here is the example of giving recast as corrective feedback in a conversation:
Teacher: what did you do at 4 p.m yesterday?
Students: I play football with my friends in Garuda field.
Teacher: oh, you played football with your friends...
From the example of conversation above, it can be concluded that recast is given by teacher to the students indirectly. It means that recast need students‟ ability or awareness to know what the teacher‟s mean. It is why recast includes implicit corrective feedback.
2. The Advantages and Disadvantages of Recast a. Advantages of Recast
1) Recasts acknowledge the content of the child‟s utterance, creating positive effect, which enhances the child‟s motivation and
attention to participate in the conversational exchange (Nicholas, Lighbown, and Spada in Tsybina et al., 2006:178). In another word, recast can motivate and encourage students to be more active.
2) Through exposure to recasts, children are provided with
opportunities to compare their own productions to similar utterances containing complex structures that are not yet acquired (Conti-Ramsden, Hutcheson, and Grove in Tsybina, 2006:178). 3) Recasting is an informal strategy that occurs spontaneously
b. Disadvantages of Recast
Perdomo (2008: 164) states that among all the choices of implicit negative feedback recast is seen a literature as one of the best, especially for those students with higher level of proficiency. It means that:
1) recast may tend to benefit more proficient students 2) not all students know what the teacher mean
3) not all students are able to be aware comprehend which part of their errors.
To overcome the disadvantages of recast in teaching grammar, the teacher should give appropriate recast technique. Besides that, teacher should know his or her students capability. Thus, the teacher can manage the class or person when delivering the questions. This is done to avoid tendency on proficient students.
3. Procedure of Teaching Grammar using Recast
Perdomo (2008:159) states that in teaching grammar, teacher may use pictures to elicit conversation. The procedure is as follows: 1) The teacher asks a question based on the picture.
3) The teacher provides positive feedback under both conditions and appropriate negative feedback for each one according to the condition.
The short dialogues have a similar structure for subjects in both conditions:
1) Initial question (by the teacher). 2) Students‟ answer.
3) Positive or negative feedback.
The following examples illustrate a dialogue in class which use positive feedback. It is given when students have right answer.
Teacher : (after showing a picture containing a man who
went to Bali yesterday) “where did he go
yesterday?”or “please make a sentence based on
the picture!”.
Student : “he went to the Bali yesterday.”
Teacher : “That’s right.”
The next is an example illustrates a dialogue use explicit negative feedback:
Teacher : (after showing a picture containing a man who
yesterday?”Or “please make a sentence based on
the picture!”
Students : “he go to Bali yesterday.”
Teacher : “That’s incorrect. You should say: he went to
Bali yesterday”
The last is an example illustrates a condition in giving recast in teaching grammar:
Teacher : (after showing a picture containing a man who
went to Bali yesterday) “where did he go
yesterday?”Or “please make a sentence based on
the picture!”
Students : “he go to Bali yesterday”
Teacher : “yes, he went to Bali yesterday.”
Students : “Oh yes, he went to Bali yesterday.”
D. Basic Assumption
the students‟ motivation in following teaching learning process.
Consequently, it can make teaching learning process more effective.
E. Hypothesis
