Jour nal of Literature
and Ar t Studies
Volume 4, Number 6, June 2014 (Serial Number 31)
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Jour na l of Lit e rat ure
a nd Ar t St udie s
Volume 4, Number 6, June 2014 (Serial Number 31)
Contents
Literature Studies
Out of Absurdity—On the Ending of Catch-22 423
YE La-mei
Reading Dickens Romantically: “Night Walks” 436
Rukhsana Rahim Chowdhury
On Equity Between Human and Nature 442
WU Xuan
Art Studies
Learning to Be a Tea Art Practitioner: An Anthropologist’s Self-Reflection 450
Shuenn-Der Yu
Three Academic Problems on Music Iconography in China: Direction, Position, and Path 466
LIU Yu-tong
The Scenes of the Obscene in Contemporary Turkish Art 475
Elif Çimen
Sharing Culture and Belonging Through Cross-Cultural Collaborative Painting 483
Vanessa Maree Barbay
Special Research
Enhancing Music Learning With Digital Tools: A Case Study of a Student Using iSCORE 489
Rena Upitis, Julia Brook, Philip C. Abrami
Homosexuality in the Context of the Evolution Theory 498
Journal of Literature and Art Studies, ISSN 2159-5836 June 2014, Vol. 4, No. 6, 423-435
Out of Absurdity—On the Ending of
Catch-22
YE La-mei
Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China
As one of the first and most original creations of literary postmodernism, published in the year 1961, Catch-22’s (1961) position in American literature remains secure. Yet its ending has been held as unconvincing ever since its publication. Taking the overall structure, tone, and the theme of the novel into consideration, this paper aims to prove the credibility of this controversial part. It consists of five sections apart from an introduction and a conclusion. Section One provides general information on the life and works of Joseph Heller. Section Two traces the impact of existentialism and the generation of black humor to clarify the literary position of Catch-22. Section Three brings out the disputative opinions on the ending part. Sections Four and Five, try to prove Yossarian’s final desertion a natural and convincing ending from different perspectives: Section Four analyses how Yossarian gains an entropic vision of the cosmos; section Five studies his existential vision of physical life and searches for the immediate factors that propel Yossarian’s desertion. Section five also explains the ending’s change in tone and structure. The conclusion summarizes the paper and points out the social significance of the novel.
Keywords: absurdity, Catch-22, the ending
Introduction
By the end of the 50s, America, as the most powerful nation rising up after the Second World War, carried out “Police Action” in Vietnam and “Cold War” foreign policy; and domestically, it terrified the people with
McCarthyism and the investigations of Un-American activities. The American intellectual culture was seen as
oppressed and meanwhile restless. As the American historian Arthur Schlesinger put it, “ …There is evident a widening restlessness, dangerous tendencies toward satire and idealisn1,a mounting dissatisfaction with the
official priorities, a deepening concern with our character and objectives as a nation” (Potts, 1989, p. 5). In such an environment, Catch-22 (1961) came out in the first year of Kennedy presidency. It proved to be an immediate success and its London edition was reprinted four times the first year. The book was successful because it really appealed to the mood of the readers of Heller’s time. As the blurb inside the book jacket of the
first hard-cover edition notes:
Catch-22 is like no other novel we have ever read. It has its own style, its own rationale, its own extraordinary
character. It moves back and forth from hilarity to horror. It is outrageously funny and strangely affecting. It is totally original. (Heller, 1961)
However, the critics at that time disfavored the book for various reasons: the formless structure, the timeless illogical chronology, the repetition and monotony in language, the lack of traditional plot and characterization,
YE La-mei, master in literature and literary studies, associate professor, Foreign Language Institute, Shenzhen University.
OUT OF ABSURDITY—ON THE ENDING OF CATCH-22
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etc.. Whiney Balliett, for example, commented that Catch-22 is “not really a book…. It gives the impression of having been shouted onto paper” (Harris, 1971, p. 33). Indeed, few of Heller’s contemporary critics was able to appreciate the valuable uniqueness of Catch-22. Not until the 1970s had the importance of the work been gradually recognized. It was then generally accepted that the book lacks neither in craft nor in form. It actually started a new genre in American literature—postmodernism. American critics agreed that the novel was not just
“fitting loosely within the black humor genre, but the advance guard of a whole new approach to the novel, a movement now generally given the term ‘postmodernism’” (Potts, 1989, p. 7).
With time passing by, Catch-22 has secured Joseph Heller a position in American literature. However, the ending part of the novel remains disputative: Many critics held that the description of Yossarian’s desertion is a
distortion of the tone, structure, and theme of the novel and therefore unconvincing.
The author of the present paper maintains that Catch-22 has its own logic of writing, Yossarian’s final desertion fortifies the theme of searching for a meaningful existence, and the novel’s structure and tone fully comply with the development of is theme. The thesis is an attempt to do justice to the novel’s controversial ending.
Joseph Heller: Life and Works
Joseph Heller actually started his first novel Catch-22 in 1953 when the war had already been eight years away from him. He wrote the first section and then spent a whole year planning and preparing himself, using a unique system of note cards, which ran to an impressive amount of occupying the length of a shoe box. It took
him altogether eight years to finish the book. Among Joseph Heller’s other major works are: We Bombed in New Haven, a play performed in 1967; Something Happened in 1974, which is about a business executive undergoing pressures, fear, perplexities in peacetime; Good as Gold in 1979 about the Jewish family life; God Knows in 1984 about King David’s reviews of his lifespan as well as Western, Judaic and Christian history to present; No Laughing Matter in 1986 (co-authored with Speed Vogel) telling of Heller’s ordeal with Guilain Barre; and
Picture This in 1988, focusing on Rembrandt’s Holland and Aristotle’s Athens.
Joseph Heller is modest in his aims as a wrier. He once observed in an interview originally carried on The Paris Review (fifth series, 1981), “I don’t have a philosophy of life. …my books are not constructed to ‘say anything’”. He is probably being elusive for Catch-22 is actually a book humorous on the surface yet philosophical underneath. Heller simply gives the right of interpretation to his readers by such remarks. He is
realistic about his skills, “I can be funny—for one half page at a time … I can be humorous in several ways—with irony, with dialogue, with farcical situations, and occasionally with a lucky epigram or an aphorism” (Bayley,
1992, p. 6). Before his death, Heller was a professor at University of Pennsylvania.
Catch-22
, Existentialism and Black Humor
Catch-22 is regarded as “one of the first and most original creation in literary postmodernism” (Potts,1989, p. 8). A survey of relationship with literary existentialism and black humor will help to clarify its significance in
American literary history.
A Summary of Catch-22
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According to Potts (1989), the novel can be divided into five parts: Part one (sections 1-9) focuses on the
U.S. Air Force Base-Pianosa; part two (sections 10-18) tells of the Great Big Siege of Bologna; part three (sections 19-25), bridging the midpoint of the novel, reflects different value systems: idealism, practical
survivalism, self-seeking egoism,etc.; part four (sections 26-27) deals with events occurring between Pianosa and Rome; And part five (sections 38-42) is about Yosarian’s desertion.
Catch-22, Existentialism and Black Humor
When Catch-22 reached the British best-seller lists in its first year, critics still disfavored the book: They did not like the confusing plot and surreal exaggeration. Early critics failed to realize that Catch-22 represented a new direction in American literature—postmodernism.
Heller’s reading ranged from the classic 19th century novelists Dickens and Dostoyevsky to modernist William Faulkner, modern absurdist Nathanael West, and early postmodernist Vladimir Nabokov. The
picaresque caricature of Yossarian reminds us of Charles Dickens. Around the time of reading Nabokov’s blackly humorous Laughter in the Dark he discovered the avant-garde French writer Louis-Ferdinand Celine. The novel’s
avant-garde method of plot must have been inspired by Celine. Celine was known for his masterpiece Journey to the End of the Night (1990). The protagonist Ferdinand Bardamu in the novel is put in a wartime world with chaos, absurdity, and meaninglessness; he is indifferent to anything except his own survival. Heller explained that “Celine did things with time and structure, and colloquial speech I’d never experienced before”, that
“Journey to the End of the Night was the book that touched off” the conception of Catch-22 (Potts, 1989, p. 4). When he mentioned his beginning of writing the novel, he said that he thought of the opening two sentences and
the overall tone and form of the book in an hour and a half:
I was lying in bed in my four-room apartment on the west side [of New York] when suddenly this line came to me: “It was love at first sight. The first time he saw the chaplain, Someone fell madly in love with him”. …as soon as the opening sentence was available, the book began to evolve clearly in my mind…. (Plimpton, 1981, p. 235)
Heller also insisted that its apparent chaotic plot was painstakingly constructed. Its abandoning of traditional novelistic techniques pointed to a new trend.
Many American writers around Heller’s time “looked for guidance to Europe and French in particular, where they found the existentialist novels of Camus and Sartre” (Potts, 1989, p. 13). The existential vision of
physical life that “Man is matter”, read from Snowden’s death by Yossarian in the novel, might be an evidence of the impact of existentialism at that time.
Therefore, Catch-22 not only represents a new direction in literature—postmodernism, but also reflected the influence of existentialism. A further expounding of the relationship between black humor and existentialism in literature will clarify Catch-22’s position in literary history: “Black humor literature is similar to the literature of existentialism in that it begins with the same assumption—that the world is absurd” (Pratt, 1993, p. 1).
The philosophy of existentialism enjoyed a short term of popularity in America in the late 1940s and early
1950s. It derived from phenomenology. Among the existentialists, Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus were two of the most influential to the American literary men, because “both men were superb novelists and dramatists as
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beings had no essence and were thus obliged continuously to define existence”; “God did not exist”; “man would
want but one thing freedom” (Leitch, 1988, p. 153). In The Wall, he expresses his idea that “the ridiculous and arbitrary termination of human life makes life itself similarly ridiculous and arbitrary”(Harris, 1971, p. 76).
Existentialism best expressed the mood of French and European people after the serious wounding of the Second World War. People became skeptical of the existence of God. The world was no longer the one described in
Robert Borrowing’s famous lines—“God’s in his heaven—Al’s right with the world!” On the contrary, the centre of western religion was Godless. The appearance of existentialism could be regarded as an utterance of such a
crisis. As a novelist and critic, Sartre divided the problem of literature into three questions: What is writing? Why write? For whom does one write? (Horton, 1974, p. 495). It is quite easy for one to sense the air of crisis in such
division. He also demanded that “literature be directed at changing the fundamental conditions of social existence” (Horton, 1974, p. 495). William Barrett noted in his The End of Modern Literature: Existentialism and Crisis (1990) that the crisis after the Second World War “places the writer in a precarious relation even to his craft”.
Guided by the philosophy of existentialism, Sartre produced his philosophical novel Nausea (1938), The Wall (1939), etc.; Camus produced The Plague (1947) and The Myth of Sisyphus (1942). Both writers described the contradiction of human existence. For example, Camus’ The Myth of Sisyphus reflected the meaninglessness of human existence through comparing it to the punishment of Sisyphus in having to roll a huge rock eternally up a hill in Tartarus, only to see it plunge to the bottom again. However, Sisyphus is happy because “the struggle
itself towards the heights is enough to fill a man’s heart” (Horton, 1974, p. 510). This novel shows a reassertion
of the meaning of human life. Generally speaking, existentialists’ novels disclose the absurdity of the universe, meanwhile tend to be moral preaching. Viewed from an existentialist perspective, Yossarian’ s final desertion
and his decision to collect the kid sister of Nately’s whore on his way could be regarded as an elevation from his merely ego involvement to social involvement. In a sense, the ending of the novel conforms with the existentialist
idea of service and responsibility:
By the end of the fifties, the neo-realist spirit and existentialist anxieties that had dominated the first part of the decade had already begun yielding to a new tone of black humor and absurdism,which was taking fiction away from realism. (Pratt, 1993, p. 1)
Black humor was born in the shadow of the function of existentialism yet pointed to a new trend in literature. It was conceived by modernism and gave birth to postmodernism.
As a new genre of literature, black humor was generated in an era when John F. Kennedy was elected president in 1960, when the Second World War was at a distance, when cold war was around between the US and
Soviet competition in space exploration. “The writings of the sixties show a clear ret urn to politics and history, but not expressed in the form of a clear ideology nor in a devotion to social or proletarian realism” (Bradbury,
1987, p. 198). At the time when Joseph Heller started to compose the novel, the war had been eight years away. The mood of the time being Americans underwent a sharp change. Catch-22 should not be simply viewed as a war novel Heller himself observed in interviews that his novel was not intended as a criticism of World Wars, or initially even of war in general; that is, satire was aimed at the cold war of the 50s.
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During eight years’ composition, Heller adopted avant-garde literary techniques to best express the themes.
as well as to construct the novel.
Heller’s voice is a direct response to a world dominated by military institutions and systems, which cold war American had become. This is a world where sanity is madness, madness sanity, where the human is mechanical and the mechanical human, and such absurd formulae provide both the black humor and the structure of the book. (Bradbury, 1987, p. 212)
Another thing to be noted is that the term “black humor” was first coined by the French surrealist poet and
critic Andre Breton in the late 1930s as “humor noir”, the present term superseding “black humor” is “postmodernism”; “black humor “was only widely used in the 1960s. The term “postmodernism” tells us two
things: “That modernism is over, and that the late modern arts still function in is shadow… ” (Bradbury, 1987, p. 198). It describs a general tendency that in fiction “techniques grew random, styles mixed or merged, methods
became increasingly provisional!” ( Bradbury, 1987, p. 198).
Heller’s Catch-22 bears signs of existentialism in that it perceives the world as absurd and tries to reassert the meaning of human existence, but it is decidedly a work of black humor or postmodernism because its treatment of such serious themes is humorous and its anti-traditional novelistic techniques point to a new
tendency in American literature.
Disputative Opinions on the Ending
One reason for the stature of Catch-22 remaining secure is that many of the attacks it received upon publication have been settled. Its value in literary postmodernism has been widely recognized. In spite of this,
critical essays continue to be turned out, attempting to interpret the novel in various respects.
The critical essays on the novel mainly revolves around is technique or its message—the novel’s tortured
chronology or the satirical targets and theme. In 1967, Jan Solomon wrote an essay “The Structure of Joseph Heller’s Catch-22”, arguing that the novel has two opposing time lines: One is the cyclical line showing Yossarian’s psychological perception of events and the existential vision of the universe; the other is the linear time line reflecting Milo’s rising from a mess hall officer to the controller of an international cartel. Mio’s linear
time line cut randomly across Yossarian’s cyclical line and explains the apparent formlessness of the novel’s structure. Other critics defended its formlessness on the ground that is lack of a traditional chronological plot is
consistent with the chaotic cosmos and lunatic logic of the story. In 1971, an essay entitled “Catch-22: A Radical Protest against Absurdity”, carried on Contemporary Novelists of the Absurd, argued that “both the prose and the
structure are carefully controlled,not only to reinforce the novel’s theme of absurdity but to create their own dimension of absurdity as well” (Harris, 1971, p. 34). In 1974, Daniel Walden produced an essay proposing the
interpretation of the novel in traditional Jewish terms. However, “the most frequent complaint made by supporters and detractors is the sudden twist in the last part of the novel” (Potts, 1989, p. 10). Waldmeir criticized
the novel as flawed in is superficial complexity, real repetitiveness, and unconvincing ending. Many other critics who had come to appreciate the cosmos of Catch-22 meticulously constructed by Heller are also bothered by the apparent inconsistency of the ending part as com pared to the foregoing parts. They complained the last part was
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The ending part covers five sections: section 38 “Kid Sister”—Yossarian breaks the news of Nately’ s death
to Natly’s whore and is furiously attacked by the latter; section 39 “The Eternal City”—Learning that Rome is in ruins and the brothel has been raided, Yossarian gets worried about Nately’ s whore and her kid sister and returns
to Rome, only to find the degradation of human civilization; section 40 “Catch-22”—Back in Pianosa, Yossarian is tricked into signing an odious deal; section 41 “Snowden”—Injured by Nately’s whore, Yossarian is sent to
hospital recalling Snowden’s death; and section 42 “Yossarian”—Yossarian explains his decision to break the deal and deserts after learning about Orr’s reappearance in Sweden. In this part, Yossarian witnesses the
misfortunes of children and women, feeling a compulsion to stop the chain of victim and culprit; he is morally woken up by the attack of Nately’s whore, recalling the scene of Snowden’s death; he starts a most serious talk
with the idealist—Major Danby on the military system before the desertion.
Superficially at least, the ending represents a sharp change: The tone turns quite serious as Yossarian
struggles over his final decision; the narrative becomes chronological except for the flashback of the section on Snowden; and Yossarian appears a totally new person as he begins to concern himself with social responsibilities,
which is in sharp contrast to his original practical survivalism.
A critical and careful study of the novel, however, reveals that Yossarian’s final desertion is just an
apocalyptic choice owing to three factors (first, Snowden’s death enables Yossarian to gain an existential vision of physical life; second, frequently confronted with the trap of Catch-22, he is woken up by the attack of Nately’s whore before his totally falling into the tricky deal; third, Orr’s persistence in fighting against the military system
and his arrival at Sweden make a good example for Yossarian); the narrative tone has been darkening throughout the novel; and that the ending’s turning chronological is decided by the need of thematic progression. Simply put,
the ending represents a logical development of Yossarian’ s personality and a proper change in tone and structure.
The Logic of C
atch-22
There are more than 70 characters in the novel, who are more or less related with the
protagonist—Yossarian. Each of them represents an epitome of perspective on life and death. Many of their ideas clash with each other yet pivot around the logic of Catch-22. Witnessing his fellow airmen’s responses to the rule of Catch-22, Yossarian gradually realizes the absurdity of military bureaucracy embodied in the “verbal trick” of
Catch-22 and comes to a deep understanding of the absurd world in which the traditional values are inverted. Yossarian’s entropic vision of the world of Catch-22 serves as a springboard for his decision to desert.
“Catch-22”as a term has come into the American daily speech since the novel’s publication. It refers to the
absurdity of any conditions in which choices are meaningless. In the novel, Catch-22 is itself “a verbal trick” (Bayley, 1992, p. 60), it shows up in many forms throughout the novel.
The term first appears when Yossarian decides to “go crazy” (Heller, 1961, p. 46). Yossarian goes to Doc
Daneeka asking to be grounded, telling the latter he is crazy. The principle Doc Daneeka observes in life is “you scratch my back, and I’ll scratch yours”, and “you do a favor for me, I’1l do one for you” (Heller, 1961, p. 34).
He would have liked to help because Yossarian has helped him in avoiding routine flying missions by putting his name on flying records. But “there is the catch, the best one” (Heller, 1961, p. 46). It specifies “that a concern for
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and had to” (Heller, 1961, p. 47). Doc Daneeka is helpless confronting the law of Catch-22, so is Yossarian. Another scene focusing on the law of Catch-22 is in Rome. Rome is in ruins. The brothel is reduced to a shambles. “The girls were gone, the only one there was the old woman” (Heller, 1961, p. 415). It is the Military
Policemen (M. P. s) who chase the girls away. When Yossarian questions why the M. P. s have the right to do so, the old woman answers that it is the rule of Catch-22 that allows them. Yossarian further demands whether the woman asks the M. p. s to read and show the law to them, the old woman replies that “they don’t have to show us
Catch-22. The law says they don’t have to” (Heller, 1961, p. 416). Catch-22 seems to be a big trap lurking everywhere. The powerless have no hope of escaping from it. Everyone thinks the law is the supreme power and never doubts its existence. Yossarian, however, discovers “there was no such thing, Catch-22 did not exist, he was positive of that… ”, since “there was no object or text to ridicule or refute, to accuse, criticize, attack, amend, hate, revile, spit at, rip to shreds,trample upon or burn up” (Heller, 1961, p. 418). The law of Catch-22 is actually an operation principle of the whole bureaucratic system. It serves only those commanders’ needs: their fame, profits, climbing up, dehumanized appetites … It is not an established law. Yet it is the logic operating the whole
military world. The immensity of its power also derives from the various forms which it is capable of carrying on. In the Avignon action, when Yossarian tries to find morphine in the first-aid kit, he finds a note instead, which
says, “What’s good for M & M Enterprises is good for the country. Milo Minderbinder”. The medicine for saving lives in emergency has been taken away by Milo to make profits. The law Milo observes here is capitalism, the
profit principle. It works fairly well within the logic of Catch-22 because every superior commander is ready to yield for profits at the expenses of the country’s labors, properties, even the lives of those insignificant people.
Thus, Catch-22 is superficially a “verbal trick”, while substantially a profit principle and an interest principle.
In the novel, there are three missions which Yossarian confronts with. Each leads him to a deeper
understanding of war and mortality. He starts as an innocent, courageous bombardier at the debacle of Ferrara; then he changes into a “coward” continuously refusing to fly missions around the time of the Great Big Siege of
Bologna, finally Snowden’s death at Avignon mission leads him to an existential realization of human existence. Such changes of Yossarian’s attitude toward war and death lay a good foundation for his final desertion.
Yossarian, who has already realized the pointlessness in continuing an ending war, publicly rebels after Nately’s death. His rebellion annoys Colonel Cathcart and Colonel Korn, who plan to get rid of him eventually
through a tricky deal. This part aims to prove that his choice of desertion is not unconvincing: Firstly, the attacks from Nately’s whore are just like a koan in Zen which wakes him up to break the deal and brings him to a dead
end; secondly, Orr’s arrival at Sweden encourages Yossarian to desert since the idea of desertion has long been lingering on his mind before the Bologna mission. The action is delayed only because Yossarian has not had it
planned out Orr’s miraculous arrival at Sweden provides a good example for desertion.
After Nately’s death, Yossarian refuses to fly any more missions. Colonel Cathcart wants to disappear him
the way they disappear Dunbar. Colonel Korn suggests that he be sent to Rome and soothed with women and
alcohol. In Rome, Yossarian breaks the news of Nately’s death to Nately’s whore, who is heartbroken and tries to stab him to death. Yossarian has to escape back to Pianosa. As he returns to the base, Captain Black tells him that
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experiences a night walk in the rain, witnessing the degradation of the city, where the logic of Catch-22 like an evil serpent is perishing everything.
Nately’s whore was on his mind … Snowden and Nately’s whore’s kid sister were on his conscience … Yossarian thought he knew why Nately’s whore held him responsible for Nately’s death and wanted to kill him. Why the hel shouldn’t she? It was a man’s world, and she and everyone younger has every right to blame him and everyone older for every unnatural tragedy that befell them…. (Heller, 1961, p. 414)
In the long night walk, Yossarian begins to think about his responsibility for women and children, especially
for Nately’s whore and her kid sister. This change can be regarded as an existentialist moral strengthening.
Yossarian starts to care about other people besides his own survival.
In chapter 40 “Catch-22”, Yossarian gets involved in an odious catch. As is mentioned before, Yossarian is ordered to contract a deal with Colonel Cathcart and Colonel Korn. If he accepts the deal, he will be sent home
yet suffer from a guilty con science; if not, he will have a clean conscience yet run the risk of being
court-martialed. He decides to break the agreement after Nately’s whore’s attack, which, like a koan in Zen,
brings him to a sudden realization of his responsibility. The existentialist responsibility, existentialist vision of
human existence, together with the existentialist vision of the Universe—the world of Catch-22, bring Yossarian to a final decision of desertion. Nietzsche said, all the gods are dead, then man must become mature enough to
assume the role. Man must be responsible for himself as well as women, children, and, finally, the whole society.
Survival and responsibility, Yossarian embraces both.
Catch-22 is not a comic farce. It has a serious theme embodied not only in Yossarian’s entropic vision of the cosmos but also in his final desertion. The description of the absurd world of Catch-22 is actually a preparation for the thematic progression in the ending part. Yossarian’s final action is a natural and convincing development
of his personality, a light of hope for his continuous quest for a meaningful existence.
Yossarian is to escape to Sweden, a neutral country covered with snow. Sweden seems “like the Paradise:
sane people, plenty of good sex, a benevolent government, jolly drunkenness” (Karl, 1964, p. 138). Yossarian has
been dreaming of this land for a long time, especially in the period before the Bologna mission is flown. He
“waited for the piece of flak that would knock out one engine over the Italian Alps and provide him with the
excuse for heading for Switzerland” (Heller, 1961, p. 318). He wants to scheme with a trusted pilot. Had it been
possible he would have “preferred Sweden” (Heller, 1961, p. 318) because Sweden is the country “where the
level of intelligence was high and where he could swim nude with beautiful girls… ” and “have illegitimate
Yossarians… launched into life without stigma” (Heller, 1961, p. 318) with the aid of the state. Here, Sweden is
merely an imagination, a state of mind rather than a real place. It is often wondered whether there is another trap
of Catch-22 awaiting Yossarian in Sweden. Some critics are sure that “when Yossarian reaches Sweden, he will be disappointed, even frustrated. Not all the tall, blonde women will capitulate, not all the people will be sane,the
government will even expect him to work,and liquor will be expensive” (Karl, 1964, p. 138). Yet still Sweden
remains valid as an idea, just as the mythical Byzantium is for William Butler Yeats. What is important is that it
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Tone and Structure
For many critics who discredit Yossarian’s final decision of desertion, the ending part represents too much
of a change in tone and structure. The picaresque Yossarian, who has been whoring, lying and dodging flying missions in the interest of self-preservation throughout the story, suddenly becomes serious, straightforward and
decent, with none of the cynical snideness left. The narrative also ceases to be confusing and becomes chronological. To these critics, such changes are too abrupt and not convincing.
Yet, given that Yossarian’s desertion has been adequately prepared for and therefore represents a convincing development of his personality, as explained in previous sections, it would be safe to say that the
critics failed to appreciate the change in tone and structure which actually complies with the progression of the theme. A close survey of the overall structure and tone as related to the theme would make this clear.
Catch-22 has been frequently criticized by early reviewers for being formless and chaotic. Anyone who has read beyond the novel’s first section quickly becomes aware of its lack of a traditional chronological plot a close
analysis of the narrative, however, reveals that it does have an intricate organization, that “beneath the apparent chaos of the story line exists a coherent sequence of events (Potts, 1989, p. 19). Based on the alteration of tone
and the presence of de ja vu cycles (de ja vu is the feeling of having experienced something before), Potts came up with a sound division of the novel into five parts, as mentioned before. The following study of Part One is
meant to disclose the general structure and tone of the novel.
Part One of the novel embraces the first nine sections, which focus on Yossarian’s immediate circle in
Pianosa. It begins with his hospital visit at the 44th mission and circles mostly around the late summer period of Avignon and the deaths of Snowden and Clevinger. It also flashes back to spring in Ferrara and the beginning of
Milo’s activities, and then back one year to Lieutenant Scheisskopf and Clevinger at Santa Ana, and further back
to pick up the history of Major Major Major.
This account serves to offer a taste of the novel’s apparent formlessness, which is to be followed throughout
except in the ending. Many major events of the novel are heaped together but little is said of them. They are to reappear time and again in the following parts.
Nearly four-fifths of the novel is meticulously written to appear chaotic, as Heller insisted in a number of interviews. Why, then, did Heller take so much trouble to upset the time sequence of the novel?
The structure of the novel actually “internalizes and embodies the theme of avoidance” (Bayley, 1992, p. 56) Just as Yossarian skillfully evades flak barrage, the narrative circles round twice before getting to its target. It
twists and dodges, spinning round and going backwards, trying to avoid being caught. The relationship between the structure and the theme is best expressed by Doug Gaukroger: “The unorthodox treatment of time in Catch-22
is both parallel to, and prepares the readers for, the unorthodox treatment of the subject matter. It is only fitting that a novel which deals with an apparently absurd and confused world should be written in an apparently absurd
and confused style” (Potts, 1989, p. 27).
Subject matter decides the form or structure. This is also true of the ending part. In the last few sections,
Yossarian undergoes substantial changes. The degradation of Rome and Nately’s whore’s furious attacks bring him to a moral awakening; his rejection of the odious deal, which is against the survivalism he has so far practiced,
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world of Catch-22.
Yossarian’s decision of desertion represents a progression of the theme, and the novel needs a progression. Yossarian, once an absurd hero, becomes, not unconvincingly, a completely sane and decent man. He jumps out
of the world of chaos and absurdity, and it is altogether fitting that Heller jumps out of the words of chaos and formlessness and returns to chronology.
The progression of theme also accounts for the novel’s change of tone, which, in fact, has been darkening all the way.
It is widely agreed that the first few sections of Catch-22 are generally lighter in tone than those that follows. Heller’s talents and skills in producing comic effect are fully demonstrated here.
Repetition:
“You’re a chaplain”, he exclaimed ecstatically. “1 didn’t know you were a chaplain”.
“Why, yes”, the chaplain answered. “Didn’t you know I was a chaplain?” “Why, no. I didn’t know you were a chaplain” (Heller, 1961, p. 13).
Contradiction or oxymoron:
“Nately had a bad start. He came from a good family” (Heller, 1961, p. 13).
Wrenched cliché: “It was love at first sight” is promptly deflated by “The first time Yossarian saw the chaplain he fell madly in love with him” (Heller, 1961, p. 7).
Meaningless or paradoxical choices:
There was only one catch and that was catch-22, which specified that a concern for one’s own safety in the face of dangers that were real and immediate were the process of a rational mind. Orr was crazy and could be
grounded. All he had to do was ask; and as soon as he did, he would no longer be crazy and would have to fly more missions. Orr would be crazy to fly more missions and sane if he did not, but if he was sane he had to fly
them. If he flew them he was crazy and didn’t have to; but if he did not want to he was sane and had to (Heller, 1961, p. 47).
These comic devices appear with high frequency in Part One, but they are to alter in significances as the book progresses. Otherwise the book’s humor will be trivial and redundant and gradually the readers will be bored.
By the end of the opening part, verbal repetitions and contradictions begin to “shift in function from mere stylistic devices to motifs embedded in the entire foundation of the book’s structure” (Potts, 1989, p. 41).
Repetition, for example, shows up in the recycling of certain scenes.
The repetition in structure merits attention. Each time a scene is repeated, more information is added and the
scene grows in significance, and generally speaking, the tone of writing becomes darker. Snowden’s death, for example, is mentioned but in one sentence—“And Snowden lay dying in back” (Heller, 1961, p. 52), in section
five, then a piecemeal description of the event is found in sections 21, 22, and 24. Yet it is not until section 41, the last but one section, that the whole matter is described in the mode of naturalism and becomes a thematic climax:
Yossarian finally sees that physical life is all we have and there is no meaning in death.
In fact, the tone of the novel has always been darkening. Sections one through 28 offered the lightest comic touch, sections 29 through 37 are dominated by horrors, and the last five sections turned towards hope and
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which evoked a lot of laughter in tears; on the other hand, he felt obliged to offer a hopeful alternative and left his
readers with a call to actions, which is definitely serious. Had the tone been light and comic throughout, the novel would have been little more than a comic farce.
Conclusion
Catch-22 is above all an American novel. It shares many preoccupations with other American novels. These preoccupations have been summed up by Tony Tanner:
We may say that a central concern for the hero of many recent American novels is this: Can he find a freedom which is not a jelly, and can he establish an identity which is not a prison?!…(And) the dilemma and the
quest of the hero are often analogous to those of the author. Can he find a stylistic freedom which is not simply a meaningless incoherence, and can he find a stylistic form which will not trap him inside the existing forms of
previous literature? (Tanner, 1971, p. 27).
It would be safe to say that Joseph Heller has found his stylistic freedom in Catch-22. Four-fifths of the novel is painstakingly constructed to appear formless and chaotic, which actually internalizes and embodies the theme of avoidance and creates a sense of absurdity. Underlying the comic effect ingeniously produced by Heller
is the narrative tone which has been continuously darkening to remind the readers of the thematic seriousness.
When it comes to Yossarian’s decision of desertion, the thematic climax in the last five sections, Heller suddenly jumps out of the structural absurdity and shifts the narrative to chronology, and the tone accordingly becomes
serious. The novel thus progresses as he intended.
Heller once told George Plimpton that “Catch-22” is concerned with physical survival against exterior forces or institutions that want to destroy life or moral self” (Potts, 1989, p. 111). This theme is embodied in Yossarian’s quest for freedom and dignity.
Yossarian has a big appetite for life but finds himself in a world made hostile and irrational by ambitious power-seekers and greedy money-seekers. He sees everyday as a dangerous mission against mortality and
struggles to keep himself alive. Yet the world of Catch-22 is also a compromised world. Victimizers-Colonel Cathcart, Mio and the like-meet with no substantial resistance in having their way, and victims of all kinds
continue to die or wait for the doom. Yossarian is frustrated and helpless before the omnipresent Catch-22, offering little more than complaints and token resistance, followed by reluctant compliance. Yet even such token
resistance irritates the self-seekers and he is offered a deal: to be their pals and sent home.
This is indeed a great temptation since it caters to Yossarian’s survivalism. He accepts the deal but is
promptly woken up by Nately’s whore’s attack. In hospital, he recalls the death of Snowden and the night walk in the ruined Rome, morality and responsibility prevail and he decides to break the deal, which seems to mean
eternal damnation for him. Fortunately, Orr’s miraculous arrival at Sweden provides him with an alternative, he
deserts and leaps beyond the system of Catch-22.
The significance of Yossarian’s desertion is that it provides hope for a meaningful existence: a life of
dignity and freedom. Yet the readers have every reason to doubt Yossarian’s redemption: No one can guarantee that Sweden is out of the reach of Catch-22.
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contemporary as possible” (Potts, 1989, p. 115). Later in the same interview, he complained of the transfer of
wartime ideology to peacetime in America: “When this wartime emergency ideology is transplanted to peacetime,then you have this kind of lag which leads not only to absurd situations, but to very tragic situations”
(Potts, 1989, p. 115).
Many Americans find the world described in Catch-22 depressingly familiar and the term “Catch-22” soon finds its way into the English language. It is nothing difficult for them to pick up scenes and languages characteristic of Heller’s book: farcical episodes from the Vietnam War (1960s); Nixon’s exemption from
punishment for Watergate Scandal (1970s); CIA (Central Information Agency)—supported terrorists in Angola were called “freedom-fighters” (1980s); the invasion of Panama was termed “vertical insertion before dawn”
(1990s). It is no wonder that Potts ends his book with such a statement: “We still live in the world of Catch-22” (Potts, 1989, p. 117).
Cαtch-22 is certainly a brilliant book in exposing the widespread ills of modern life: intolerance, bureaucracy, capitalism, racism, the greed for money and power. Heller leaves his book with a well-prepared
hopeful ending, hoping that the world is a better place. Yet since his hero is only directed to desert and escape instead of taking actions against the absurd system, we see no strong cause for being optimistic.
References
Aldridge, J. W. (1983). The American novel and the way we live now.Oxford: Oxford University Press. Bayley, N. (1992). York notes: Catch-22. Beijing: World Publishing Corporation.
Baym, N. (1989). The Norton anthology of American literature (Vol. 2).New York: W. W. Norton & Company. Bradbury, M. (1987). Contemporary American fiction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Coyle, M. (1993). Encyclopedia of literature & criticism. Beijing: World Publishing Corporation.
Dictionary of literary biography (Vol. 28): Twentieth century American Jewish fiction writers. (1984). Detroit: Gate Research
Company.
Falck, C. (1994). Myth, truth and literature: Towards a true post-modernism. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.
Freadman, R. (1992). Re-thinking theory: A critique of contemporary literary theory and an alternative account. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Galoway, D. D. (1974). The absurd hero of American fiction. Austin: University of Texas Press. Harris, C. B. (1971). Contemporary novelists of the absurd. New Haven: College & Universiy Press. Hassan, I. ( 1973). Contemporary American literature 1945-1972. New York: Frederic Ungar Publshing Co..
Heler, T. (1993). Notes on technique in black humor. Black humor: Critical essays. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc.. Heller, J. (1961). Catch-22. New York: Dell Publishing Co., INC..
Hifer, T. (1992). American fiction since 1940.London: Long man Group UK Ltd..
Horton, R. W. (1974). Backgrounds of American literary thought. New Jersey: Prentce-Hal, Inc..
Janoff, B. (1993). Black humor, existentialsm, and absurdiy: A generic confusion. Black humor: Critical essays. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc..
Karl, F. R. (1964). Joseph Heler’s Catch-22: Only fools walks in darkness. Contemporary American novelists. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press.
Leitch, V. B. (1988). American literary criticism from the thirties to the eighties. New York: Columbia University Press. Moore, H. T. (1964). Contemporary American novelists. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press.
Nash, C. (1993). World postmodern fiction: A guide.London: Longman Group UK Ltd..
O’ Neil, P. (1993). The comedy of entropy: The con texts of black humor. Black humor: Critical essays. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc..
Palmer, J. (1994). Taking humour seriously.London: Routledge.
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Plimpton, G. (ed.). (1981). Writers at work: “The Paris Review” interviews, fifth series.Harmonds worth: Penguin Books. Potts, S. W. (1989). Antiheroic antinovel.Boston: Twayne Publshers.
Pratt, A. R. (1993). Black humor: Critical essays. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc..
Journal of Literature and Art Studies, ISSN 2159-5836 June 2014, Vol. 4, No. 6, 436-441
Reading Dickens Romantically: “Night Walks”
Rukhsana Rahim Chowdhury
BRAC University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
This paper will examine the essay, “Night Walks” (2000), to see how Charles Dickens (1812-1870), a social-realist writer of the Victorian era, has used elements adapted from the Romantics in order to draw attention to the pitiable social conditions of Victorian London. Dickens’ the realist paradoxically reflected a readiness to think and feel “without immediate external excitement”. He expressed his alignment with Romanticism by way of a cultivation of feeling and empathizing. His genius was, as expressed by Bagehot, “essentially irregular and unsymmetrical” because he was “utterly deficient in the faculty of reasoning”. His daily, or rather nightly walks provided him with the inspiration to follow the Romantic tradition of writing on walks. The essay under consideration, “Night Walks”, clearly supports the notion that Romanticism was fallaciously opposed to realism. The paper will examine the ways in which the theme, style, and structure of the essay evoke the preoccupation of a Romantic soul—for whom the walk becomes a space for “encounter and reflection”—and the Romantic mind which is empowered by “imaginative self definition or discovery”.
Keywords: Romanticism, imagination, isolation, self-knowledge, human-mind
Introduction
“Some scholars see Romanticism as essentially continuous with the present”.
Lovejoy, TheHistory of Ideas (1948)
Samuel Taylor Coleridge considers Romanticism as the beginning of a tradition of resistance to Enlightenment rationalism, Charles Baudelaire (2010) sees it, “situated neither in choice of subject nor exact
truth, but in the way of feeling” and for Robert Hughes, Romanticism marks the inaugural moment of modernity. Although 20th century scholars have scoffed at what they call “emotionalism” that this emotionalism was sometimes exaggerated should not obscure the fact that it also contained much that was genuine and inspiring. So much so thatalthough scientific advances and global social changes in the 19th century had a profound effect on literature, creating a sense of loss and despair, the Victorian era continued promoting the Romantic ideals of love and affinity with nature. It was a time when, it will be pertinent to recall, England was veering away from rationalism and showing a renewed interest in religious mysticism, idealism and Romanticism. These were the cultural trends and influences which inspired Victorian writers like Lewis Carroll to use a mixture of logic, realism, fantasy, and absurdity in his book Alice’s Adventures in
Wonderland and Matthew Arnold to sometimes reflect quite a meditative, elegiac tone in his poetry. Tennyson with his Lady of Shalott and poems dealing with the Arthurian legend was also clearly influenced by the ideals of Romanticism.
Rukhsana Rahim Chowdhury, senior lecturer, Department of English and Humanities, BRAC University.
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Romanticism Fallaciously Opposed to Realism
Charles Dickens (1812-1870), a social-realist writer, was greatly influenced by the Romantics. He grew up under the influence of the Romantic Movement’s fascination with feeling, emotion, imagination, and states of marginal consciousness. Dickens, the realist, who paradoxically, reflected a readiness to think and feel “without immediate external excitement” expressed his alignment with Romanticism by way of a cultivation of feeling and empathizing. His genius was, as expressed by Bagehot, “essentially irregular and unsymmetrical” because he was “utterly deficient in the faculty of reasoning”. His writings and especially the essay under consideration, “Night Walks”, clearly support the notion that Romanticism was fallaciously opposed to realism. Historian Jaques Barzun declared that “ …the Romantic realist does not blink his weakness, but exerts his power” (Jacques, 1755, p. 77). For Dickens, this power which was a vehicle for social change was exerted through an involvement in the life of the common people, bringing him into “sympathetic relations with people” (Dickens, 2000, p. 147).
He transformed this empathy for the sufferings of others into a medium for social reform, as is evident in this essay. “Night Walks” was originally published in the weekly journal, All Year Round in 1859. Later it appeared as chapter 13 of The Uncommercial Traveller in 1861. He wrote this essay at a time when he suffered from insomnia and decided that the best way to cope with the problem was to leave his bed and walk the streets of London and return at last in the early hours of dawn to a restfully peaceful sleep. This paper will examine the essay, “Night Walks” to see how Dickens has used the concept of imagination that he adapted from the Romantics to highlight the pitiable social conditions of Victorian London.
The English Romantic poets were clearly inspired by their long walks: Wordsworth and Coleridge in the idyllic Lake District of England and Shelley in Italy. Dickens here was clearly inspired by the Romantic tradition of peripatetic writings. Walking which is usually a physically and spiritually uplifting experience, translated into an obsession for Dickens. His walks resulted in a lament of the sickening condition of London. He describes the back alleys of this Victorian city as “the filthiest, the strangest, and the most extraordinary of the many localities that are hidden in London” (Dickens, 1994, chapter 50). But this obsessive interest in the lives of the homeless poor of London resulted in a social criticism having far reaching effects on the lives of people globally. His descriptions of the mistreatment of children helped initiate child labor reform culminating in the Great Reform Act of 1832.
The essay, “Night Walks” has almost a surreal feel to it. It reads like an exercise in meditation. Elements like imagination, emotion, nature, and Gothicism are clearly evident here. The very idea and style of the essay is evocative of Rousseau’s “Reveries of a Solitary Walker” written between 1776 and 1778 where the French philosopher described sights he encountered on his walks around Paris and recorded his introspective interaction of the mind and the world around him. According to Clark (1996):
It may be compared to that minor genre of Romantic writing that dramatizes the meditations of a walk, such as Hazlitt’s “On Going a Journey”, various essays by De Quincey or Leigh Hunt’s “Walking Home by Night”. The walk in the poetry of Wordsworth and Coleridge … engages the writer in the dramatization of a dialectical interaction between mind and world. It is a space of encounter and reflection; it enacts a drama of consciousness […gained through….] topics suggested by the walk in progress and empowerment of the mind in imaginative self definition or discovery. (p. 35)
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No words can express the secret agony of my soul as I … felt my early hopes of growing up to be a learned and distinguished man crushed in my breast. The deep remembrance … of the misery it was to my young heart to believe that, day by day, what I had learned and thought, and delighted in, and raised my fancy and emulation up by, was passing away from me … cannot be written. (Forster, 2008, p. 53)
In flight from physical problems like insomnia and internal troubles like being haunted by the past, the narrator-walker starts out “under a compulsion to walk and walk and walk in the darkness and pattering rain” and by doing so, successfully captures the romance and ecstasy of misery, isolation and wretchedness that he encounters on the streets of London. His use of personification and imagery dramatizes the inner and the outer forms of the human universe. Personification is used when the very city of London seems to share the walker’s anguish and experiences the same fits and starts of a restless sleeper in “the way in which it tumbles and tosses before it can get to sleep” (Dickens, 2000, p. 122). The hour itself, that of night, is highly Romantic, coupled with the “wild moon” and the clouds. The moon in the Romantic tradition is identified with imagination, and the night is associated with silence and solitude and therefore provides an ability to meditate and communicate easily with nature. For expressing this highly Romantic theme, Dickens, the ultimate artist employs the tool of a simple, plain and emphatic language which for Wordsworth is “a more permanent and a far more philosophical language” (Wordsworth, 1991, p. 245). The essay has quite a few Wordsworthian echoes. The lines, “ …the buildings on the banks were muffled in black shrouds … the very shadow of the immensity of London seemed to lie oppressively upon the river” (Dickens, 2000, p. 124) are like mirror-images of Wordsworth’s, “Dear God! The very houses seem asleep;/And all that mighty heart is lying still!” (Wordsworth, 1807, p. 82).
Dreams and Literary Creations
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An important dream postulated by Aristotle held special significance for the Romantics and especially Coleridge and Keats: “Nor is every presentation which occurs in sleep necessarily a dream. For in the first place, some person when asleep, actually perceive sounds, light etc., for there have been cases in which persons while asleep but with eyes partially open, saw faintly in their sleep the light of a lamp, and afterward on being awakened, straight away recognized it as the actual light of a real lamp … but none of these occurrences should be called a dream”. Coleridge referred to these as reveries. Dickens’ novel The Mystery of Edwin Drood
focuses on the opium induced reverie of the central character. Dreams as sources and techniques and especially the Aristotelian Dream Theory were important to the Romantics, and they valued and used their own dreams (Lewes, 1865, p. 69). Charles Dickens is also known to have used his own dreams as “aesthetic experiences of intrinsic value” for his creative fiction.
Coleridge’s fascination with the creative sources of the imagination, and Wordsworth’s preoccupation with recollection of childhood memories show a remarkable influence on Charles Dickens. Approaching Bethlehem, the walker is struck by the realization that we are “troubled by our own sleeping inconsistencies” just as the insane are by their “waking delusions”. Thereby, indicating his shocking idea that the perils of industrialization and pressures of living in a modern society have thrown the sane and the insane together, at least at some paranormal level. He thinks that the state of the insane is not particularly different from the state of the sleeping sane. “Are not the sane and the insane equal at night as the sane lie a dreaming?” This question beautifully internalizes the external. Dickens recalls problems of sane Londoners and implies that they too are driven by their demons just like these inmates, some of whom in ironic contrast to their situation regard themselves as kings and queens in their waking hours. In quite a Romantic manner, Dickens had entertained royalty in his dream in his childhood years. This dream contrasted sharply with his poverty stricken reality. He had in fact, used his imagination to suspend reason. Imagination can effectively control perception making the mind work in which Freud would call a primary process that dominates dreams and allows one to attain an ideal. According to Higbie (1998):
The versions of the ideal that Dickens imagines seem to be versions of a return to a paradise childhood world in which his parents had not failed him, and to a pre-Oedipal infantile union with a mother whom he could still see as loving and totally wish fulfilling. (p. 60)
George Henry Lewes in “Dickens in Relation to Criticism”, arguing about the mental processes that feed the hallucinations of the insane and their belief in the reality of their visions, said that for Dickens “revived images have the vividness of sensations; …created images have the coercive force of realities, excluding all control, all contradiction” (Lewes, 1865, p. 145). Lewes finds the glorious energy of imagination, a force “so definite” that even while knowing that the image created by imagination is false, “we could not help for a moment, being affected by his hallucination”. He also said, “Dickens sees and feels but the logic of feeling seems the only logic he can manage” (Lewes, 1865, p. 151).
Drawing Inspirations From Romantic Tradition
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these child labourers were orphans or abandoned children and therefore exposed to exploitation, physical injury, emotional trauma and even death. This depiction may be traced back to the experience of a twelve-year-old Charles forcibly sent to work at Warren’s Blacking due to his father’s imprisonment for debt and is reminiscent of Blake who was also a harsh critic of child labour. Dickens’ portrait of these child labourers echoes Blake’s depiction of the young chimney sweeps in 18th century England. It was this criticism of society which produced reforms in child labour laws towards the end of the 19th century.
The night walker saw children sharing sleeping space under the vegetable wagons with the sharp dogs in the Covent Garden market. These were children who after spending a day fighting for offal, diving for anything they can steal, hiding from the constables, running around in bare feet in the cold rain finally finding a resting place in the vegetable baskets. He compared the growth of corruption in these uncared for and ever-hunted “savages” with the growth of corruption in civilized society. These children reminded Dickens of Rousseau’s “savages” as industrialization and the ills of modern society had compelled these innocents to be driven primarily by their immediate needs like food, sleep, fear of hunger, pain, and self preservation. This portrayal of children by Dickens reinforces Rousseau’s concept of children existing in—according to Newsom in his essay, “Fictions of Childhood”—an original, natural, even prelapsarian state and thus deserving society’s care and attention so that their innocence can be preserved. The reader also notes that despite the harshness of their situation, the world of these children is filled with innocence and naivety, as these “savages” seem ignorant of their rights and position in society.
As the walk progresses towards yet another prison, the tone darkens, and his anxiety, awareness and the emotions which he found complex and indefinable or vague, found expression in a reworking of the Gothic element which is apparent in the very Coleridgean description of the “Dry Rot in Men”. We are reminded of the nightmarish experience of the ancient mariner who had committed a sin against humanity and was subsequently punished to a life-in-death experience. Just as the dreadful figure of Death makes each sailor cast one accusing condemning look at the mariner before dropping lifelessly, one by one at his feet, the walker too noticed how the dry rot in men consumes them hollow for indulging in corruption and committing unpardonable acts of cruelty.
For Coleridge, reverie meant a waking dream in which the mind though remaining aware relaxed its monitoring and allowed the imagination to roam freely in a process of association. Dickens exhibits a vivid display of just such Romantic imagination when he associates stories with people he notices at this late hour: the criminal’s shadow in the doorway, the toll-keeper at the bridge, the dead body of a murdered man, the pudding eater’s mother evoking memories of his own mother. The red-faced pudding eater in the coffee house at Covent Garden Market mentioned that his mother “was a red-faced woman that liked drink, and I looked at her hard when she laid in her coffin, and I took the complexion” (Dickens, 2000, p. 129). This grotesquely gothic association completely puts off the night walker for whom “the pudding seemed an unwholesome pudding after that, and I put myself in its way no more” (Dickens, 2000, p. 129).
Conclusion
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The theme, style, and structure of the essay evoke the preoccupation of a Romantic soul—for whom the walk becomes a space for “encounter and reflection”—and the Romantic mind which is empowered by “imaginative self definition or discovery”. As Oates (1999) said, “This haunting essay seems to hint at more than its words reveal. No one has captured the romance of desolation, the ecstasy of near-madness, more forcibly than Dickens” (p. 1).
References
Clark, T. (1996). Dickens through Blanchot: The nightmare fascination of a world without interiority. In J. Schad (Ed.), Dickens refigured: Bodies, desires and other histories (p. 35). Manchester: Manchester University Press.
Baudelaire, C. (2010). Baudelaire’s speech at the “Salon des curiosités Estethiques”. Retrieved from http://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Salon_de_1846_%28Curiosit%C3%A9s_esth%C3%A9tiques%29#II._.E2.80.94_Qu.E2.80.99e st-ce_que_le_romantisme.3F
Darrin, M. M. (1998). The counter-enlightenment and the low-life of literature in pre revolutionary France. Past and Present, 159(77-112), 79.
Dickens, C. (2000). Night walks. The uncommercial traveller (pp. 122-130). Retrieved from www2.hn.psu.edu/faculty/jmanis/dickens/travel.pdf
Dickens, C. (1994). Oliver twist. London: Penguin Books.
Forster, J. (1927). Life of Charles Dickens. London & Toronto: J. M. Dent & Sons.
Hayter, A. (1968). Opium and the Romantic imagination. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press. Higbie, R. (1998). Dickens and imagination. Gainesville: University Press of Florida.
Lewes, G. H. (1865). Dickens in relation to criticism. Fortnightly Review (pp. 69-70, 145-151).London: Chapman and Hall. Retrieved from http://catalog.hathitrust.org/api/volumes/oclc/1781612.html
Simon, L., & Hughes, R. (2004). Book world—Reviews—The sleep of reason—Goya. The World & I, 19(2), 210.
Lovejoy, A. O. (1948). On the discrimination of Romanticisms. The History of ideas (pp. 545-549). Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2909304
Newsom, R. (2001). Fictions of childhood. The Cambridge companion to Charles Dickens (p. 92). Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CCOL0521660165.008
Oates, J. C. (1999). To invigorate literary mind, start moving literary feet. The New York Times, p. 1. Rousseau, J. J. (1755). Discourse on the origin of inequality. London: R. and J. Dodsley.
Berlin, I., & Hardy, H. (2000). Three critics of the enlightenment: Vico, Hamann, Herder. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
Bagehot, W. (1858). The national review. New York: National Review.
Journal of Literature and Art Studies, ISSN 2159-5836 June 2014, Vol. 4, No. 6, 442-449
On Equity Between Human and Nature
WU Xuan
Shanghai university of Finance and Economics, Shanghai, China
Ontological negation advance the third kind of relationship between human and nature, “Equity Between Human and Nature”, which different from either “Western antagonism” or “Chinese traditional integrati n”. Human and Nature divided but equivalent, based on the limitation of Antagonism and Oneness Between Human and Nature, as well as the Fact and empirical discovery of equity between human and hature”. This third point of view is expected to bring a creative and productive separation and “a new harmony” which keeps those two different types of the worlds mutual, respectful and equal.
Keywords: equity, antagonism, attachment, the third kind of view
Introduction
Contemporary international and intercultural codependence and conflict give rise to a set of questions that
call for reconsidering the relationship between man and nature. While “Western antagonism between human and nature” implies human centralism that the human is superior to the nature because of its ability to separate
from the world, Chinese traditional way of thinking stood on “oneness between human and nature” considers the human as the integral part of the nature, containing the idea that the nature is superior over the human as
Confucianism and Taoism interpret. Can we find a new third harmony to solve the questions if the two kinds of thinking are powerless for modern and contemporary international cultural relations? Ontological negation
(WU, 2008, p. 1) is committed to the Chinese theoretically original issue. “Equity Between Human and Nature”
is one philosophical proposition of Negativism. This opinion about the relationship between human and nature, which is different from either “Western antagonism” or “Chinese traditional integration”, remains the Chinese
harmony as well as modern individuality and Originality. Chinese modernization should be neither Western “anthropocentrism” based on human’s superiority and aggression, nor the peaceful way of Chinese traditional
culture based on human’s dependence and attachment. How should be Chinese modernized harmony development? This paper seeks to establish the concept of “Equity Between Man and Nature” and Chinese
modern human—nature philosophy through reinterpretation of various manifestations of reciprocity both the cultural and the natural realms.
Limitation of Antagonism and Oneness Between Human and Nature
According to Ontological negation, on the relationship between Human and Nature, China’s modernization
WU Xuan, professor, vice-chairman of China Literature and Art Academic Society, College of Humanities, Shanghai university of Finance And Economics.
