THE EFFECTIVEN
ENESS OF COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LE TEACHING SPEAKING
WED FROM STUDENTS’ SELF-CONFIDEN al Research at Second Grade of Nursing Depar
usada Tasikmalaya in the Academic Year of
A THESIS
artial Fulfillment of Requirement for the Mast English Language Teaching
Consultant 1
Prof. Dr. Joko Nurkamto, M.Pd. NIP: 196101241987021001
Consultant II
Dr. Abdul Asib, M.Pd. NIP. 195203071980031005
The Head of English Education Department
Graduate School Faculty of Teacher Training and Education Sebelas Maret University
Dr. Abdul Asib, M.Pd. NIP. 195203071980031005
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The Board of Examiners:
Prof. Dr. Joko Nurkamto, M.Pd NIP. 196101241987021001
The Dean of Teacher Training and Education Faculty of Sebelas Maret University
Prof. Dr. M. Furqon Hidayatulloh, M.Pd. NIP: 196007271987021001
ABSTRACT
Ratu Sarah Pujasari. S891102037. 2014. The Effectiveness of Community Language Learning in Teaching Speaking Viewed from Students’ Self-Confidence. Thesis. Surakarta. 1st consultant: Prof. Dr. Joko Nurkamto, M. Pd.; and 2nd consultant Drs. Gunarso, M. Ed TESOL. English Education Department of Graduate School, Sebelas Maret University.
The objectives of the study are: (1) to reveal whether Community Language Learning is more effective than Situational Language Teaching in teaching speaking; (2) to reveal whether students with high level of self-confidence have better speaking skill than those with low level of self-self-confidence; (3) to reveal whether there is an interaction between teaching methods used and students’ levels of self-confidence. This research Involves three variables. Two independent variables are teaching methods (Community Language Learning and Situational Languag Teaching) and students’ level of self-confidence. The dependent variable is speaking skill. The research examines the effect of the two independent variables on the dependent variable.
The research was conducted in the second grade of Stikes Bakti Tunas Husada, Tasikmalaya in the Academic Year of 2011/2012. The sampling used was cluster random sampling. The samples were two classes which consist of 40 students of class A as the experimental class and 40 students of class B as the control class. The instruments used in this research cover questioneir of self-confidence and speaking test before being applied, both the self-self-confidence and speking test were tried out as the rersearcher needs to test the readability of the test instruction. The result data obtained from the treatment were analyzed using ANOVA 2X2 and Tukey test.
The result of this research reveals that: (1) Community Language Learning is more effective than Situational Language Teaching in teaching speaking; (2) The students having high self-confidence have better speaking skill than those having low self-confidence; and (3) There is interaction between teaching methodsand students’ self-confidence in teaching speaking.
According to the research finding, it can be concluded that Community Language Learning is an effetive method in teaching speaking to the second grade students of Stikes Bakti Tunas Husada, Tasikmalaya in the academic year 2011/2012. However, in the implementation of the methods, a teacher must consider about the students’ level of self-confidence. It is proved in the research, self-confidence influences the students’ speaking skill. By considering the students’ level of self-confidence, a teacher can choose the method he/she uses properly to teach speaking in order to improve the students’ skill on speaking.
Key words: speaking skill, community language learning, situationa language teaching, self-confidence, experimental research
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ABSTRACT
Ratu Sarah Pujasari. S891102037. 2014. Keefektifan Community Language Learning untuk Mengajar Speaking Ditinjau dari Percaya Diri Siswa. Tesis. Pembimbing I: Prof. Joko Nurkamto, M.Pd.; Pembimbing II: Drs. Gunarso, M. Ed TESOL. Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris Program Pascasarjana Universitas Sebelas Maret.
Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk: (1) mengetahui apakah Community Language Learning lebih efektif daripada Situational Language Teaching untuk mengajar speaking, (2) untuk mengetahui apakah siswa dengan tingkat percaya diri tinggi mempunyai kemampuan berbicara yang lebih baik dibandingkan dengan siswa dengan tingkat percaya diri rendah, dan (3) untuk mengetahui apakah ada interaksi antara metode pengajaran yang digunakan dengan tingkat percaya diri siswa. Penelitian ini melibatkan tiga variabel. Dua variabel independen meliputi metode pengajaran ( Community Language Learning dan Situational Language Teaching) dan tingkat percaya diri siswa. Sementara itu, variabel dependen adalah kemampuan speaking. Penelitian ini menguji pengaruh dua variabel independen terhadap variabel dependen.
Penelitian ini dilakukan pada tingkat dua Stikes Bakti Tunas Husada, Tasikmalaya pada tahun akademik 2011/2012. Pengambilan sampel yang digunakan adalah cluster random sampling. Sampel penelitian adalah dua kelas yang terdiri dari 40 siswa kelas A sebagai kelas eksperimen dan 40 siswa kelas B sebagai kelas kontrol. Instrumen yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini meliputi kuisioner percaya diri dan tes berbicara. Sebelum diterapkan, kedua instrumen diujicobakan terlebih dahulu ke kelas lain untuk mengetahui readabiliti pada instruksi tes. Data hasil yang diperoleh dianalisis menggunakan ANOVA 2X2 dan uji Tukey.
Hasil penelitian menunjukan bahwa: Community Language Learning lebih efektif dari Situational Language Teaching untuk mengajar speaking, dan siswa dengan tingkat percaya diri tinggi memiliki kemampuan berbicara lebih baik dibandingkan dengan siswa yang tingkat percaya diri rendah. Selain itu, melalui ANOVA, terbukti bahwa terdapat interaksi antara metode pengajaran dan tingkat kreatifitas siswa dalam pengajaran speaking.
Berdasarkan temuan penelitian, dapat disimpulkan bahawa Community Language Learning merupakan metode yang efektif untuk mengajar Speaking kepada siswa tingkat dua Stikes Bakti Tunas Husada Tasikmalaya pada tahun akademik 2011/2012. Namun dalam pelaksanaan metode, guru harus mempertimbangkan tingkat percaya diri mereka. Ini dibuktikan dalam penelitian, tingkat percaya diri mempengaruhi kemampuan speaking siswa. Dengan mempertimbangkan tingkat percaya diri siswa, guru dapat memilih metode untuk mengajar speaking dengan tepat dalam rangka meningkatkan kemampuan speaking siswa.
Kata kunci: Kemampuan speaking, community language learning, situational language teaching, percaya diri, penelitian ekperimental
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MOTTO
“And seek help through patience and prayer, and indeed, it is
difficult except for the humbly submissive [to Allah ]
(Al-
Baqaraah:45)”
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DEDICATION
This thesis is dedicated especially to:
• My beloved parents, H. R.A. Lukman Hakim, Pratiwi Amalia (Almh) parents in law, H. Royandi, H. Enok Rokayah
• My beloved Husband and daughter, Teddy Ruswandi, Pearly Putri Ruswandi
• My beloved sisters and brother, Santi, Ningrat, Tresna, Melinda and Pranata
• My beloved friends.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Alhamdulillahirobbil’alamin, all praises belong to Alloh SWT the all
compassionate and all merciful, finally the writer has already finished writing this thesis. It would be impossible to complete thesis without helps and supports from other people. Thus, she would like to extend her wholehearted thanks to:
1. The Dean of Faculty of Teacher Training and Education who has given permission to write this thesis.
2. The Director of Graduate Program, Sebelas Maret University, for his permission to write the thesis.
3. The Head of English Education Department of Graduate Program, for his permission to write the thesis.
4. Prof. Dr. Joko Nurkamto, M.Pd., the first consultant for the guidance, and support, and generous during this thesis writing.
5. Dr. Abdul Asib, M.Pd., the second consultant, for his guidance, patience, and attention.
6. The head of Nursing Department of Bakti Tunas Husada, for her permission to conduct the research.
7. The students of Nursing Department of Bakti Tunas Husada Class A and B for their willingness to take part on the research conducted.
Finally, the writer hopes this thesis can be beneficial for others and it can improve the knowledge of the writer herself.
Surakarta, August 2014
The Writer ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS
COVER PAGE ... i
APPROVAL ... ii
LEGITIMATION FROM BOARD EXAMINER ... iii
ABSTRACT... ... iv
LIST OF TABLES ... xiii
LIST OF FIGURES... xiv
LIST OF ABBREVIATION... xv
LIST OF APPENDICES... xvi
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION A. Background of the Study... 1
B. Problem Identification ... 7
C. Problem Limitation... 7
D. Problem Statement ... 7
E. Objectives of the Study... 8
F. Significance of the Study... 9
CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW A. Theoretical Description ... 10
1. Speaking Competence ... 10
a. Concept of Speaking ... 10
b. Activities in Speaking Class ... 11
c Macro and Micro Skill of Speaking... 17
d. Assessing Speaking... 19 x
e. What Makes Speaking Difficult ... 20
f. Teaching Speaking... 22
2. Community Language Learning ... 29
a. Basic Concept of Community Language Learning 29 b. Designing Task for CLL Classroom ... 31
c. Procedure of Community Language Learning... 34
d. Advantages and Disadvantages of CLL... 36
3. Situational Language Teaching ... 37
a. Basic Concept Situational Language Teaching…. 37 b. Designing Task for SLT Classroom……….. 39
c. Procedure of Situational Language Teaching... 42
d.Advantages and Disadvantages of SLT………… 44
4. Self-Confidence... ... 45
a. Definitions of Self-Confidence ... 45
b. FactorsInfluencing Someone’s Self-Confidence . 47 c. Characteristics of Self-Confidence... 49
d. Improving Self-Confidence……… 50
B. Review of Related Research... 53
C. Rationale... 55
D. Hypothesis... 59
CHAPTER III: RESEARCH METHOD A. Profile of the Speaking Class... 61
B. Method of the Research ... 62
C. Population, Sample and Sampling Technique………... 62
D. Techniques of Collecting the Data ... 63
E. Techniques of Analyzing the Data ... 65
F. Statistical Hypothesis………. 70
CHAPTER IV: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS A. Implementation of the Research... 72
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B. Data Description... 73
C.Normality and Homogeneity Test………. 84
1. NormalityTest……… 84
2. Homogeneity Test……….. 87
C. Testing Hypothesis……… 88
D. Discussion ……….... 93
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSSION, IMPLICATION, AND SUGGESTION A. Conclusion……… 100
B. Implication and Suggession………. 102
BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 106
APPENDICES………... 109
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 Time Schedule of the Research………. 19
Table 3.1 Time Schedule of the Research………. 61
Table 3.2 ResearchDesign of ANOVA 2X2……… 66
Table 3.3 Summary of a 2X2 Multifactor Analysis of Variance………….. 69
Table 4.1 Material of Teaching Speaking………... . 73
Table 4.2 Frequency Distribution of Data A1………... 75
Table 4.3 Frequency Distribution of Data A2……… 76
Table 4.4 Frequency Distribution of Data B1……… 77
Table 4.5 Frequency Distribution of Data B2……… 78
Table 4.6 Frequency Distribution of Data A1B1……… 79
Table 4.7 Frequency Distribution of Data A1B2……… 81
Table 4.8 Frequency Distribution of Data A2B1……… 82
Table 4.9 Frequency Distribution of Data A2B2……… 83
Table 4.9 Summary of Normality Test…………..……… 87
Table 4.10 Summary of Homogeneity Test…………..………. 87
Table 4.11 Summary of a 2x2 Multifactor Analysis of Variance…………. 88
Table 4.12 Table of Mean of Scores…………..……… 89
Table 4.13 Summary of Tukey…………..……… 90
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 4.1 Polygon and Histogram of Data A1……… 75
Figure 4.1 Polygon and Histogram of Data A2……… 76
Figure 4.1 Polygon and Histogram of Data B1……… 77
Figure 4.1 Polygon and Histogram of Data B2……… 78
Figure 4.1 Polygon and Histogram of Data A1B1……… 80
Figure 4.1 Polygon and Histogram of Data A1B2……….... 81
Figure 4.1 Polygon and Histogram of Data A2B1……… 82
Figure 4.1 Polygon and Histogram of Data A2B2……… 83
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CLL : Community Language Learning SLT : Situational Language Teaching
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Research Instrument
Appendix 1.1: Syllabus of Community Language Learning………... 109
Appendix 1.2: The Lesson Plan ofCommunity Language Learning………112
Appendix 1.3: Syllabus of Situational Language Teaching……… 146
Appendix 1.4: The Lesson Plan of Situational Language Teaching……….149
Appendix 1.5: Blue Print of Self-Confidence (Try Out)………. 182
Appendix 1.6: Self-Confidence Questionnaire (Try Out)……… 183
Appendix 1.7: Blue Print of Self-Confidence (After Being Tried Out)….. 186
Appendix 1.8: Self-Confidence Questionnaire (After Being Tried Out)…. 187 Appendix 1.9: Readability of Speaking Test……… 190
Appendix 110: Scoring Rubric of Speaking……….……… 191
Appendix 119: Speaking Test………194
Appendix 2: Result of Instrument Try out Appendix 2.1: Validity of Self-Confidence Questionnaire Items (1) .…… 195
Appendix 2.2: Validity of Self-Confidence Questionnaire Items (2) …….‘ 202
Appendix 2.3: Reliability Test of Self-Confidence Questionnaire Items… 208 Appendix 2.4: Readability of Speaking Test……… 209
Appendix 3: Result of Research Appendix 3.1: Descriptive Analysis of theData………. 210
Appendix 3.2: Normality and Homogeneity………... 218
Appendix 3.3: Multifactor Analysis of Variance 2 X 2 ..……… 227
Appendix 3.4: Tukey Test……….. 228
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
A. Background of the Study
Having good skill in speaking English is important nowadays.English has become the leading means of communication worldwide.The modern world of media, mass communication, and Internet demands a good knowledge of English, especially of spoken Englishera (Boonkit, 2010:1).Most college students are still not confident in their ability to speak; teachers must overcome their reluctance in order to change this situation, for that reason the student must be encouraged in mastering the speaking skill in comfortable situation and make them capable to communicate in English to achieve bright future in this globalization.
Speaking remains as one of the least-mastered skills. For students, speaking activities do not oftenly work in classes because of many factors which prevent them from speaking in English. Students are afraid of making mistakes,are anxious, have fear of being laughed at by his or her friends and have lack of confidence in their ability. Teachers should create a good atmosphere in the classroom. A friendly environment can make the studentsmotivated and have high self confidence in studying and speaking in English. Teachers must also deal with the students’ psychological aspect to make them comfortable in teaching learning process and see the students as a whole person,with intellect, feelings, instincts, physical responses, and desire to learn.According to Larsen and Freeman (2000: 89) whole person learning means that teachers consider not only their
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students’ intellect, but also have some understanding of the relationship among
students’ feelings, physical reactions, instinctive protective reactions, and desire
to learn.
Community Language Learning (also called Counseling Language Learning) is aimed to remove anxiety from learning by changing the relationship between students and teacher become client and counselor. A language counselor does not mean someone trained in psychology; it means someone who is a skillful understander of the struggle students’ face as they attempt to internalize another language. The teacher, who can ‘understand,’ can indicate his acceptance of the students’ fear and being sensitive to them, he can help students overcome their
negative feelings and turn them into positive energy to further their learning (Larsen and Freeman 2000: 89).
According to La Forge, in Richards and Rodgers (2001: 91-92),there are five psychological stages of Community Language Learning as learning progresses comparable to the progressing from childhood to adulthood:(1) Dependent,in which the learner is like an infant, completely dependent on the knower for linguistic content. The learner repeats utterances made by the teacher in the target language and overhears the interchanges between other learners and knowers.(2) Self-assertive,where Learners begin to establish their own self-affirmation and independence by using simple expressions and phrases they have previously heard.(3) Resentful and indignant,when learners begin to understand others directly in the target language. Learners will resent uninvited assistance provided by the knower at this stage.(4) Tolerant, The learner functions
independently, although his knowledge of the foreign language is still rudimentary. The learner becomes secure enough to take criticism from the teacher. He must learn how to elicit from the knower the advanced level of linguistic knowledge the knower possesses. And (5) Independent,in which learners refine their understanding of register as well as grammatical correct language use. They may become counselors to less advanced students while profiting from contact with their original knower.
Based on Richard and Rodgers(2001: 90-98) there are some key principles which differentiate Community Language Learning (CLL) from other approaches/methods. The most important principle is that CLL tries to remove any barriers within the students’ psychological state. Students should be made to
feel secure, less anxious and unthreatened before accepting the lesson. Teacher and students are regarded as whole persons, they share about their learning experience to allow learners to get to know one another and to build community. The teacher acts more as a counselor who really listens to them and understands what they are saying. Group works where students are encouraged to cooperate (rather than to compete) are generally suggested, but the teacher maintains the role of an active facilitator to guide the group works so that the activities are engaging.
This method is based on humanistic approach which includes the emotions and feelings of the learner. The two most basic principle which underlie the kind of learning that can take place in the Community Language Learning are summed up in the following phrases: (1) ‘Learning is person,’ which means that
support, and cooperation between teacher and students and among students; and (2) ‘Learning is dynamic and creative’, which means that learning is a living and
developmental process (Larsen and Freeman, (2000: 105).
To prove its effectiveness, the researcher compares Community Language Learning with Situational Language Teaching. In Situational Language Teaching, speech is regarded as the basic of language, and structure is viewed as being at the heart of speaking ability (Richards and Rogers, 2001: 40). The form of language that is taught is realistic, all words and sentences must grow out of some real or imagined situations the actual situation. Thus, the meaning of the words that are bound with a situation where they are used. Learners know the meaning of the word “board”, not because they’ve been looking at the dictionary,
but because they have learned the word in the situation.
According to Richards and Rodgers (2001: 39), there are several main characteristics of Situational Language Teaching whichhighlight the approach.Language teaching begins with the spoken language,material is taught orally before it is presented in written form. The target language is the language of the classroom. New language points are introduced and practiced situationally. Vocabulary selection procedures are allowed to ensure that an essential general service vocabulary covered. Items of grammar are graded following the principle that simple forms should be taught before complex ones. Reading and writing are introduced once a sufficient lexical and grammatical basis is established.
Both of the methodshave their own characteristics, advantages and disadvantages. Community Language Learning is a method which combines
innovative learning tasks and activities with conventional ones. (Nagaraj, P. 2009:177). Whereas Situational Language Teaching is concerned with the pattern of the sentence or structural, the students always taught the structures within the sentences. In situational language teaching is concerned with the form, the students are drilled to make a good pattern of sentences. Although it might also be student-centered in conducting its activities, those activities will be meaningless because the spoken materials used have already been prepared before and the teacher drills the students so that the students cannot explore and elaborate the content of communication delivered.
From those statements, it can be concluded that Community Language Learning focuses more on the process to get good product, whereas SituationalLanguageTeaching focuses solely on the product. Besides, community language learning is concerned more on fluency rather than accuracy. The teacher let the students explore their knowledge and speak up more in the classroom without being worried of making mistakes in grammar and pronunciation. On the other hand, situational language teaching is concerned more with accuracy. The students are supposed to produce spoken language accurately in grammar and pronunciation.
One of the factors that prevent the students from speaking ability is having lack of self confidence. A lack of self-confidence is not necessarily permanent but it can be if it is not addressed. Self-confidence is another key to successful speaking. It has an important impact on speaking development. Therefore, teachers have to raise students’ self-confidence, since it can enhance
performances and support students to learn more effectively and actively. So, by having high self-confidence, students will give hard effort to achieve their success.
Brown (2001: 62) states that Learners’ belief that they indeed are fully
capable of accomplishing a task is at least partially a factor in their eventual success in attaining the task. As a teacher we should sustain students’
self-confidence and make them belief on their abilities in achieving speaking skill in English.Anthony (2003: 5) states that one of the principle requisites for change and a self-confidence personality is to satisfy your own need first its means by understanding and loving yourself.Anotherdefinition of self-confidence(“What is Self Confidence”, para. 3) centres on being assertive, on getting what you want. This is about standing up for yourself, about having the presence, the personal power, if you like, to regard yourself as equal to others and to behave in a way that reflect this. Analysing the previous definitions above, it can be concluded that self confidence is an attitude that is characterized by positive believe, the abilities to understand and loving yourself and being assertive.
B. Problem Identification
students in achieving speaking skill? ; (6) How can the students with high self-confidence get better achievement in speaking skill than the students with low self-confidence?
C. Problem Limitation
Questions arisen from problem identifications were limited to the problems which are supposed to influence students’ speaking skills; they are the teaching methods (Community Language Learning and Situational Language Teaching) and students’ self-confidence.
D. Problem Statement
From the background of the study, problem identification, and problem limitation, there are three problems that are formulated:
1. Is there any difference in speaking competence between the students taught by Community Language Learning and Situational Language Teaching? If there is difference, which groups of the students have a better achievement?
2. Is there any difference in speaking competence between the students with high self-confidence and the students with low self-confidence? If there is difference, which groups of the students have a better achievement? 3. Is there any interaction between teachingmethods and the students’
self-confidence in teaching speaking?
E. Objectives of the Study
In relevant with the problems that have been stated previously, the objectives of the study are to find out:
1. Whether or not Community Language Learning is more effective than Situational Language Teaching in teaching speaking in the secondgradeof Nursing Department students of STIKES Bakti Tunas HusadaTasikmalayain the academic year of 2011/2012?
2. Whether the students with high self-confidence have better achievement in speaking than the students with low self-confidence?
3. Whether there is any interaction between teaching methods and the students’ self-confidence in teaching speaking?
F. Significance of the Study
The result of the research are expected to be useful for the teachers, students and other researchers.
1. For teachers, this study can offer an alternative to solve some of the problems they face in teaching speaking. There are numerous approaches and methods that can be applied to teach speaking, each with its own distinctive characteristics. Community Language Learning can be an approach to consider since it possesses the characteristics to remove psychological barriers often found among students.
2. For students, this study can become a reflection for students to think about their inclinations and difficulties in learning how to speak properly, particularly those in relation to their self-confidence. Generally, it is also
expected to enhance their skill and expand their horizon to become better learners.
3. For other researchers, this study is expected to inspire the other researchers to do the similar research using different skills or viewed from different psychological like intellegence or self-esteem.
10 CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter elaborates the theories of the variables which are investigated in this research. They are positioned as theoretical underpinnings which build the foundations to conduct this research. The concepts that will be described as follows are theories of speaking, Community Language Learning, Situational Language Teaching and Self-confidence. The rationale and hypotheses are also included in this chapter
A. Theoretical Description 1. Speaking
a. Concept of Speaking
Speaking is a speech production that becomes a part of our daily activities (Thornbury 2005:8). Speaking skill involves four domains: linguistic competence, communicative competence, strategic competence and social competence (Littlewood, 1981: 6). First, linguistic competence requires that students should improve their ability in manipulating language system to express messages or ideas. Secondly, communicative competence encourages them to differentiate between the forms of language used and the communicative function which is going to be performed. Third, strategic competence will encourage them to improve their ability and strategy to use the language as effectively as possible in a
real situation. And fourth, social competence suggests that the students should be aware of social functions of the forms of language used.
Mastering the art of speaking is the single most important aspect of learning a second or foreign language, and success is measured in terms of the ability to carry out a conversation in the language (Nunan, 2000: 39). Thornbury (2005: 9) states we noted that speaking consists of at least three stages: conceptualization, formulation, articulation during which the speakers is also engaged in self monitoring. Meanwhile, Harmer (2007: 343) proposes that if students want to be able to speak fluently in English, they need to be able to pronounce phonemes correctly, use appropriate stress and intonation patterns and speak in connected speech.
From the definitions above, the researcher concludes that speaking is the ability to carry out a conversation, to have conceptualization, formulation and articulation, to be able to pronounce phonemes correctly, to use appropriate stress and intonation pattern and to speak in connected speech. In other words, we can summarize the elements of speaking into five components: pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension.
b. Activities in Speaking Class
There are some activities to promote students’ speaking skill such as
discussion, Role play, simulation, Information Gap, Brainstorming, storytelling, Interviews , etc. According to Kayi (2006:2) states that teacher should create classroom environment where students have real-life
communication, authentic activities, and meaningful tasks that promote orang language.
1) Discussion; a discussion can be held for various reasons. The students may aim to arrive at a conclusion, share ideas about an event, or find solutions in their discussion groups. Before the discussion, it is essential that the purpose of the discussion activity is set by the teacher. In this way, the discussion points are relevant to this purpose, so that students do not spend their time chatting with each other about irrelevant things. For example, students can become involved in agree/disagree discussion In this type of discussions, the teacher can form groups of students, preferably 4 or 5 in each group, and provide controversial sentences like “people learn best when they read vs. people learn best when they travel”. Then each group
works on their topic for a given time period, and presents their opinions to the class. It is essential that the speaking should be equally divided among group members. At the end, the class decides on the winning group who defended the idea in the best way. This activity fosters critical thinking and quick decision making, and students learn how to express and justify themselves in polite ways while disagreeing with the others. For efficient group discussions, it is always better not to form large groups, because quiet students may avoid contributing in large groups. The group members can be either assigned by the teacher or the students may determine it by themselves, but groups should be rearranged in every discussion activity so that students can work with various people and learn to be open to
different ideas. Lastly, in class or group discussions, whatever the aim is, the students should always be encouraged to ask questions, paraphrase ideas, express support, check for clarification, and so on.
2) Role Play; one other way of getting students to speak is role-playing. Students pretend they are in various social contexts and have a variety of social roles. In role-play activities, the teacher gives information to the learners such as who they are and what they think or feel. Thus, the teacher can tell the student that "You are David, you go to the doctor and tell him what happened last night, and…" (Harmer, 1984)
3) Simulations are very similar to role-plays but what makes simulations different than role plays is that they are more elaborate. In simulations, students can bring items to the class to create a realistic environment. For instance, if a student is acting as a singer, she brings a microphone to sing and so on. Role plays and simulations have many advantages. First, since they are entertaining, they motivate the students. Second, as Harmer (1984) suggests, they increase the self-confidence of hesitant students, because in role play and simulation activities, they will have a different role and do not have to speak for themselves, which means they do not have to take the same responsibility.
4) Information Gap; in this activity, students are supposed to be working in pairs. One student will have the information that other partner does not have and the partners will share their information. Information gap activities serve many purposes such as solving a problem or collecting
information. Also, each partner plays an important role because the task cannot be completed if the partners do not provide the information the others need. These activities are effective because everybody has the opportunity to talk extensively in the target language.
5) Brainstorming; students can produce ideas in a limited time. Depending on the context, either individual or group brainstorming is effective and learners generate ideas quickly and freely. The good characteristics of brainstorming is that the students are not criticized for their ideas so students will be open to sharing new ideas.
6) Storytelling; students can briefly summarize a tale or story they heard from somebody beforehand, or they may create their own stories to tell their classmates. Story telling fosters creative thinking. It also helps students express ideas in the format of beginning, development, and ending, including the characters and setting a story has to have. Students also can tell riddles or jokes. For instance, at the very beginning of each class session, the teacher may call a few students to tell short riddles or jokes as an opening. In this way, not only will the teacher address students’
speaking ability, but also get the attention of the class.
7) Interviews; students can conduct interviews on selected topics with various people. It is a good idea that the teacher provides a rubric to students so that they know what type of questions they can ask or what path to follow, but students should prepare their own interview questions. Conducting interviews with people gives students a chance to practice their speaking
ability not only in class but also outside and helps them becoming socialized. After interviews, each student can present his or her study tothe class. Moreover, students can interview each other and "introduce" his or her partner to the class.
8) Story Completion; this is a very enjoyable, whole-class, free-speaking activity for which students sit in a circle. For this activity, a teacher starts to tell a story, but after a few sentences he or she stops narrating. Then, each student starts to narrate from the point where the previous one stopped. Each student is supposed to add from four to ten sentences. Students can add new characters, events, descriptions and so on.
9) Reporting; before coming to class, students are asked to read a newspaper or magazine and, in class, they report to their friends what they find as the most interesting news. Students can also talk about whether they have experienced anything worth telling their friends in their daily lives before class.
10) Playing Cards; in this game, students should form groups of four. Each suit will represent a topic. For instance: a) Diamonds: Earning money; b) Hearts: Love and relationships; c) Spades: An unforgettable memory; d) Clubs: Best teacher. Each student in a group will choose a card. Then, each student will write 4-5 questions about that topic to ask the other people in the group. For example: If the topic "Diamonds: Earning Money" is selected, here are some possible questions: a) is money important in your life? Why? ; b) What is the easiest way of earning
money? ; c) What do you think about lottery? Etc. However, the teacher should state at the very beginning of the activity that students are not allowed to prepare yes-no questions, because by saying yes or no students get little practice in spoken language production. Rather, students ask open-ended questions to each other so that they reply in complete sentences.
11) Picture Narrating; this activity is based on several sequential pictures. Students are asked to tell the story taking place in the sequential pictures by paying attention to the criteria provided by the teacher as a rubric. Rubrics can include the vocabulary or structures they need to use while narrating.
12) Picture Describing; another way to make use of pictures in a speaking activity is to give students just one picture and having them describe what it is in the picture. For this activity students can form groups and each group is given a different picture. Students discuss the picture with their groups, and then a spokesperson for each group describes the picture to the whole class. This activity fosters the creativity and imagination of the learners as well as their public speaking skills.
13) Find the Difference; for this activity students can work in pairs and each couple is given two different pictures, for example, picture of boys playing football and another picture of girls playing tennis. Students in pairs discuss the similarities and/or differences in the pictures.
c. Macro and Micro Skills of Speaking
Taylor (2003:2) states that the underlying construct of spoken language proficiency today advocates more modern and cognitive descriptions of the speech production process. Such view holds that the proficient second language speaker possesses the following competences:(a) a wide repertoire of lexis and grammar to enable flexible, appropriate, precise construction of utterances in ‘real time’(the knowledge factor);(b) a set of established
procedures for pronunciation and lexico grammar; and (c) a set of established ‘chunks’ of language.
Many experts have attempted to subcategorize speaking into distinct elements. The general consensus is that speaking skill is divided into micro and macro skills. The micro skills of speaking refer to producing small chunks of language such as phonemes, morphemes, words and phrasal units. The macro skills include the speakers' focus on the larger elements such as fluency, discourse, function, style cohesion, nonverbal communication and strategic options.
Another expert who tries to formulate micro and macro skills of speaking is Brown (2007: 328), who further elaborates themes follows:
1) Micro-skills of speaking
a) Produce chunks of language of different lengths
b) Orally produce differences among the English phonemes and allophonic variants.
c) Produce English stress patterns, word in stressed and unstressed positions, rhythmic structure, and intonation contours.
d) Produce reduce forms or words or phrases.
e) Use an adequate number of lexical units (words) in order to accomplish pragmatic purposes.
f) Produce fluent speech at different rates of delivery.
g) Monitor your own oral production and use various strategies devices-pauses, fillers, self-correction, backtracking-to enhance the clarity of the message.
h) Use grammatical words classes (noun, verbs, etc), systems(e.g., tense, agreement, pluralization), word order, patterns, rules and elliptical forms.
i) Produce speech in natural constituents-in appropriate phrase, pause groups, breath groups and sentences.
j) Express a particular meaning in different grammatical forms. 2) Macro-skills of speaking
a) Use cohesive device in spoken discourse.
b) Accomplish appropriately communicative functions according to the situations, participants, and goals.
c) Use appropriates registers, implicature, pragmatic conventions, and other sociolinguistics features in face-to-face conversation.
d) Convey links and connections between events and communicate such relations as main idea, supporting idea, new information and given information, generalization, and exemplification.
e) Use facial features, kinesics, body language, and other nonverbal cues along with verbal language to convey meanings.
f)
Develop and use battery of speaking strategies, such as emphasizing key words, rephrasing, providing a context for interpreting the meaning of words, appealing for help and accurately assessing how well your interlocutor in understanding you.d. Assessing Speaking
Test is one of the important things in the teaching learning process. It can be used to measure the students’ performance in the classroom especially for speaking class. The researcher found the way to assess speaking test and the sample of an oral English rating scale that used 1-5 points as presented by Harris. It can be seen in table 2.1.
Table 2.1. Harris’ Speaking Scoring Rubric No. Criteria Rating
Score
Comments
1 Pronunciation 5 Has few traces of foreign language
4 Always intelligible, thought one is conscious of a definite accent
3 Pronunciation problem necessities concentrated listening and occasionally lead to misunderstanding 2 Very hard to understand because of pronunciation
problem, most frequently be asked to repeat
1 Pronunciation problem to serve as to make speech virtually unintelligible
2 Grammar 5 Make few (if any) noticeable errors of grammar and word order
4 Occasionally makes grammatical and or word orders errors that do not, however obscure meaning
3 Make frequent errors of grammar and word order, which occasionally obscure meaning
2 Grammar and word order errors make comprehension difficult, must often rephrases sentence and or rest rich himself to basic pattern
1 Errors in grammar and word order, so, severe as to
make speech virtually unintelligible
3. Vocabulary 5 Use of vocabulary and idioms is virtually that of native speaker
4 Sometimes uses inappropiate terms and must rephrases ideas because of lexical and equities
3 Frequently uses the wrong words conversation somewhat limited because of inadequated vocabulary 2 Misuse of words and very limited vocabulary makes
2 Usually hesistant, often farced into silence by language limitation
1 Speech is so halting and fragmentary as to make conversation virtually impossible
5. Comprehension 5 Appears to understand everything without difficulty 4 Understand nearly everything at normal speed although
occasionally repetation may be necessary
3 Understand most of what is said at slower than normal speed without repetation
2 Has great difficulty following what is said can comprehend only social conversation. Spoken slowly and with frequent repetition.
1 Cannot be said to understand even simple conversational English
e. What Makes Speaking Difficult
Many students think that speaking is one of the more difficult skills to achieve. They have to overcome psychological constraints before they are prepared to speak in the foreign language. Some students feel uneasy when they have to speak in the classroom situation because there is always an audience. A few prefer not to speak at all and pass the opportunities for practicing due to the psychological constraints. Brown (2001:270) states that the following characteristics of spoken language can make oral performance easy, as well as in difficult in some cases.
2) Redundancy; the speaker has opportunity to make meaning clearer through the redundancy of language. Learners can capitalize on this feature of spoken language.
3) Reduced Forms; contractions, elisions, reduced vowels, etc., all form special problems in teaching spoken English. Students who don’t learn colloquial
contractions can sometimes develop a stilted, bookish quality of speaking that in turn stigmatized them.
4) Performance Variables; one of the advantages of spoken language is that the process of thinking as you speak allows you to manifest a certain number of performance hesitation, pauses, backtracking, and corrections. Learners can actually be taught how to pause and hesitate. For example, in English our ’thinking time” is not silent; we insert certain “fillers” such as uh, um, well,
you know, I mean, like , etc. one of the most silent differences between native and nonnative speakers of a language is in their hesitation phenomena.
5) Colloquial language; make sure your students are reasonably well acquainted with the words, idioms, and phrases of colloquial language and those they get practice in producing these forms.
6) Rate of delivery; another silent characteristic of fluency is rate of delivery. One of your tasks in teaching spoken English is to help learners achieve an acceptable speed along with other attributes of fluency.
7) Stress, rhythm, and intonation; this is the most important characteristic of English pronunciation. The stress-timed rhythm of spoken English and its intonation patterns convey important messages.
8) Interaction; as noted in the previous section, learning to produce waves of language in a vacuum (without interlocutors) would rob speaking skills of its richest component, namely the creativity of conversational negotiation.
Considering the difficulties which are found in speaking, teaching learning process should cover them by using ways that will overcome those difficulties for speaking activities to be successful.
f.
Teaching SpeakingThe objective of teaching spoken language is the development of the ability to interact successfully in the target language, and that involves comprehension as well as production (Hughes 2004 :). Based on the statement above, it can be concluded that teaching speaking is included as productive skill. Here, the researcher discusses two main parts: types of classroom speaking performance and principle for teaching speaking skills.
1) Types of Classroom Speaking Performance
According to Brown (2007: 327-330), there are six similar categories apply to the kinds of oral production that students are expected to carry out in the classroom:
a) Imitative
A very limited portion of classroom speaking time may legitimately be spent generating “human tape recorder” speech, where, for example,
learners practice an intonation contour or try to pinpoint a certain vowel sound. Imitation of this kind is carried out not for the purpose of meaningful interaction, but for focusing on some particular element of language form.
b) Intensive
Intensive speaking goes one step beyond imitative to include any speaking performance that is designed to practice some phonological or grammatical aspect of language. Intensive speaking can be self-initiated, or it can even form part of some pair work activity, where learners are “going over” certain forms of language.
c) Responsive
A good deal of student speech in the classroom is responsive: short replies to teacher- or student-initiated questions or comments. These replies are usually sufficient and do not extend into dialogues. Such speech can be meaningful and authentic, such as this example:
Teacher : “How are you today?”
Student 1 : “Pretty good, thanks, and you?” Teacher : “What is the main idea in this essay?”
Student 1 : “The United Nations should have more authority.” Student 1 : “So, what did you write for question number one?” Student 2 : “Well, I wasn’t sure, so I left it blank.”
d) Transactional (dialogue)
Transactional language, carried out for the purpose of conveying or exchanging specific information, is an extended form of responsive
language. Conversations, for example, may have more of a negotiative nature to them than does responsive speech, for example:
Teacher : “What is the main idea in this essay?”
Student : “The United Nations should have more authority.” Teacher : “More authority than what?”
Student : “Than it does right now.” Teacher : “What do you mean?”
Student : “Well, for example, the UN should have the power to force certain countries to destroy its nuclear weapons.”
Teacher : “You don’t think the UN has that power now? Student :”Obviously not. Several countries are currently
manufacturing nuclear bombs.”
Such conversation could readily be part of group work activity as well. e) Interpersonal (dialogue)
The other form of conversation mentioned in the previous chapter was interpersonal dialogue, carried out more for the purpose of maintaining social relationship than for the transmission of facts and information. These conversations are a little trickier for learners because they can involve some or all of the following factors:
(1) casual register (2) colloquial language
(3) emotionally charged language (4) slang
(5) ellipsis (6) sarcasm
(7) a covert “ agenda”
For example:
Amy : “Hi, Bob, how’s it going?” Bob : “Oh, so-so.”
Amy : “Not a great weekend, huh?”
Bob: “Well, far be it from me to criticize, but I’m pretty miffed about last week.”
Amy :” What are you talking about?”
Bob : “I think you know perfectly well what I’m talkingabout.”. Amy : “Oh, that….How come you get so bent out of shape
over something like that?”
Bob : “Well, whose fault was it, huh?”
Amy : “Oh,wow, this is great.Wonderful.Back to square one. For crying out loud. Bob, I thought we’d settled this before. Well, what more can I say?”
Learners would need to learn how such features as the relationship between interlocutors, casual style, and sarcasm are coded linguistically in this conversation.
f) Extensive (monologue)
Finally, students at intermediate to advanced levels are called on to give extended monologues in the form of oral reports, summaries, or perhaps short speeches. Here the register is more formal and deliberative. These monologues can be planned or impromptu.
2) Principle for Teaching Speaking skills
Brown (2007: 331-332) mentions the principle for teaching speaking skill:
to bear in mind a spectrum of learner needs, from language-based focus on accuracy to message-based focus on interaction, meaning, and fluency. When you do a jigsaw group technique, play a game, or discuss solutions to the environmental crisis, make sure that your tasks have a linguistic (language-based) objective, and seize the opportunity to help students to perceive and use the building block of language. At the same time, don’t bore your students to death with lifeless,
repetitious drills. As noted above, make any drilling you do as meaningful as possible.
b) Provide intrinsically motivating techniques
Try at all times to appeal to students’ ultimate goals and interests, to
their need for knowledge, for status, for achieving competence and autonomy, and for ‘being all that they can be’. Even in those techniques
that don’t send students into ecstasy, help them to see how the activity
will benefit them. Often students don’t know why we ask them to do
certain things; it usually pays to tell them.
c) Encourage the use of authentic language in meaningful contexts
This theme has been played time but one more reminder shouldn’t hurt!
It is not easy to keep coming up with meaningful interaction. We all succumb to the temptation to do, say, disconnected little grammar exercises where we go around the room calling on students one by one to pick the right answer. It takes energy and creativity to devise authentic contexts and meaningful interaction, but with the help of a
storehouse of teacher resource material it can be done. Even drills can be structured to provide a sense of authenticity.
d) Provide appropriate feedback and correction
In most EFL situations, students are totally dependent on the teacher for useful linguistic feedback. In ESL situations, they may get such feedback “out there” beyond the classroom, but even then you are in a
position to be of great benefit. It is important that you take advantage of your knowledge of English to inject the kinds of corrective feedback that are appropriate for the moment.
e) Capitalize on the natural link between speaking and listening
Many interactive techniques that involve speaking will also o course include listening. Don’t lose out on opportunities to integrate these two
skills. As you are perhaps focusing on speaking goals, listening goals may naturally coincide, and the two skills can reinforce each other. Skills in producing language are often initiated through comprehension. f) Give students opportunities to initiate oral communication
A good deal of typical classroom interaction is characterized by teacher initiation of language. We ask question, give directions, and provide information, and students have been conditioned only to “speak when
spoken to”. Part of oral communication competence is the ability to
initiate conversation, to nominate topics, to ask question, to control conversations, and to change the subject. As you design and use
speaking techniques, ask yourself if you have allowed students to initiate language.
g) Encourage the development of speaking strategies.
The concept of strategic competence is one that few beginning language students are aware of. They simply have not thought about developing their own personal strategies for accomplishing oral communicative purposes. Your classroom can be one in which students become aware of, and have a chance to practice, such strategies as:
(1) asking for clarification (What?)
(2) asking someone to repeat something (Huh? Excuse me?) (3) using fillers ( Uh, I mean, Well) in order to gain time to process (4) using conversation maintenance cues (Uh-huh, Right, Yeah, Okay,
Hm)
(5) getting someone’s attention( Hey, Say, So)
(6) using paraphrases for structures one can’t produce
(7) appealing for assistance from the interlocutor ( to get a word or phrase, for example)
(8) using formulaic expressions (at the survival stage) (how much does___cost? How do you get to the____?)
(9) using mime and nonverbal expressions to convey meaning.
2. Community Language Learning
a. Basic Concept of Community Language Learning
Community Language Learning (also called Counseling Language Learning) was created by Charles A Curran, a Jesuit priest and professor of psychology, and Paul La Forge. Inspired by the humanistic psychology of Carl Rogers, it aimed to remove the anxiety from learning by changing the relationship between the teacher and student. In Community Language Learning, that relationship the “teacher” – who is known not as the teacher but as the “knower”, the one who knows the language –is seen as being in the same relationship to the student as the counselor is to a client : the client has a “problem” (in this case not knowing the language) which is currently creating
confusion and causing problems. The counselor’srole is not to tell the client what to do, but to help him or her explore and resolve the problem while retaining personal autonomy.
Nunan (1998: 236) states that the primary aim of Community Language Learning is to create a genuinely warm and supportive ‘community’ among
the learners and gradually to move them from completes dependence on the teacher to-complete autonomy.
According to Richards and Rodgers (2001: 91), Curran himself wrote little about his theory of language. His students La Forge (1983) has attempted to be more explicit about this dimension of Community Language Learning theory. La Forge accepts that language theory must start, though not end, with criteria for sound features, the sentence, and abstract models of
language (La Forge 1983:4). The foreign language learners’ tasks are “to
apprehend the sound system, assign fundamental meaning, and to construct a basic grammar of the foreign language.”
Curran (1972: 90) in Richards and Rodgers (2001: 92) comments the Community Language Learning view of learning is a holistic one since ‘true’
human learning is both cognitive and affective. This is termed whole-person learning. Such learning takes place in a communicative situation where teachers and learners are involved in an interaction….in which both
experiences a sense of their own wholeness. Within this, the development of the learner’s relationship with the teacher is central. The process is divided
into five stage and compare to the ontogenetic development of the child. In the first stage, “birth” stage, feelings of security and belonging are
established. In the second, as the learner’s abilities improve, the learner, as
child, begins to achieve a measure of independence from the parent. By the third, the learner “speaks independently” and may need to assert his or her
own identity, often rejecting un-asked for advice. The fourth stage sees the learner as secure enough to take criticism, and by the last stage, the learner merely works on improving style and knowledge of linguistic appropriateness. By the end of the process, the child has become adult. The learner knows everything the teacher does and can become knower for a new learner. The process of learning a new language, then, is like being reborn and developing a new persona, with all the trial and challenges that are associated with birth and maturation.
In addition Brown (2007: 323) the argument was, of course, that adult second language acquisition should simulate the child’s first language-learning processes. It can be concluded that we need the steps or stages in achieving the language.
b. Designing Tasks for Community Language Learning Classroom 1) Objectives
Richards and Rodgers (2001: 93) states that since linguistic or communicative competence is specified only in social terms, explicit linguistic or communicative objectives are not defined in Community Language Learning. Most of what has been written about it describes its use in introductory conversation courses in a foreign language.
2) Syllabus
Community Language Learning does not use a conventional language syllabus, which sets out in advance the grammar, vocabulary, and other language items to be taught and the order in which they will be covered. The progression is topic-based, with learners nominating things they wish to talk about and messages they wish to communicate to other learners. The teacher’s
responsibility is to provide a conveyance for these meanings in a way appropriate to the learners’ proficiency level. In this sense, then, a Community Language Learning syllabus emerges from the interaction between the learner’s expressed communicative intentions and the teacher’s reformulations
for more detailed study and analysis, and subsequent specification of these as a retrospective account of what the course covered could be a way of deriving a CLL language syllabus. (Richards and Rodgers, 2001: 93)
3) Learning Activities
As with most methods, Community Language Learning combines innovative learning tasks and activities with conventional ones. They include: a) Translation. Learners from a small circle. A learner whispers a message or
meaning he or she wants to express, the teacher translates it into (and may interpret it in) the target language, and the learner repeats the teacher translation.
b) Group work. Learners may engage in various group tasks, such as small-group discussion of a topic, preparing a conversation, preparing a summary of a topic for presentation to another group, preparing a story that will be presented to the teacher and the rest of the class.
c) Recording. Students record conversations in the target language.
d) Transcription. Students transcribe utterances and conversations they haverecorded for practice and analysis of linguistic forms.
e) Analysis. Students analyze and study transcriptions of target language sentences in order to focus or particular lexical usage or on the application of particular grammar rules.
f) Reflection and observation. Learners reflect and report on their experience of the class, as a class or in groups. This usually consists of expressions of
feeling- sense of one another, reactions to silence, concern for something to say, and so on.
g) Listening. Students listen to a monologue by the teacher involving elements they might have elicited or overheard in class interactions.
h) Free conversation. Students engage in free conversation with the teacher or with other learners. This might include discussion of what they learned as well as feelings they had about how they learned.
4) Learner’s role
Learner roles in CLL are well defined. Learners become members of a community-their fellow learners and the teacher- and learn through interacting with the community. Learning is not viewed as an individual accomplishment but as something that is achieved collaboratively. Learners are expected to listen attentively to the knower, to freely provide meanings they wish to express, to repeat target utterances without hesitation, to support fellow members of the community, to report deep inner feelings and frustrations as well as joy and pleasure, and to become counselors of other learners. CLL learners are typically grouped in a circle of six to twelve learners, with the number of knower’s varying from one per group to one per student.( Richards and Rodgers, 2001: 94).
5) Teacher’s role
Curran in Richards and Rodgers (2001: 95) states the teacher’s role derives from the function of the counselor in Regorian psychological counseling. The counselor’s role is to respond calmly and non-judgmentally, in a
supportive manner, ad help the client try to understand his or her problems better by applying order and analysis to them.” One of the functions of the counseling response is to relate affect…..to cognition. Understanding the
language of ‘feeling’, the counselor replies in the language of cognition.
c. Procedure of Community Language Learning
According to Richards and Rodgers (2001: 96) states the teacher might then form the class into facing lines for 3-minute pair conversation. These are seen as equivalent to the brief wrestling session by which judo students practice. Following this the class might be re-formed into small group in which a single topic, chosen by the class or the group, is discussed. The summary of group discussion may be presented to another group, who in turn try to repeat or paraphrase the summary back to the original group.
In an intermediate or advanced class, a teacher may encourage groups to prepare a paper drama for presentation to the rest of the class. A paper drama group prepares a story that is told or shown to the counselor. The counselor provides or corrects target-language statements and suggests improvements to the story sequence. Students are then given materials with which they prepare large picture card to accompany their story. After practicing the story dialogue and preparing the accompanying pictures, each group presents its paper drama to the rest of the class. The students accompany their story with music, puppets, and drums as well as with their picture. (La Forge 1983: 81-82 in Richards and Rodgers 2001: 96).
Finally, the teacher asks the learners to reflect on the language class, as a class or in group. Reflection provides the basis for discussion of contracts (written or oral contracts that learner and teacher have agreed upon and that specify what they agree to accomplish within the course), personal interaction, feeling toward the knower and learner, and the sense of progress and frustration.(Richards and Rodgers, 2001: 96)
Dieter Stroinigg, (in Stevick 1980: 185-186), in Richards and Rodgers presents a protocol of what a first day’s CLL class covered, which is outlined here:
a) Informal greeting and self-introductions were made.
b) The teacher made a statement of the goal and guidelines for the course. c) A conversation in the foreign language took place:
(1) a circle was formed so that everyone had visual contact with each other.
(2) one student initiated conversation with another student by giving a message in the L1 (English).
(3) the instructor, standing behind the student, whispered a close equivalent of the message in the L2 (German).
(4) the student then repeated the L2 message to its addressee and into the tape recorder as well.
(5) each student had a chance to compose and record a few messages.
(7) each student repeated the meaning in English of what he or she had said in the L2 and helped to refresh the memory of others.
d) Students then participated in a reflection period, in which they were asked to express their feelings about the previous experience with total frankness. e) From the materials just recorded the instructor chose sentences to write on
the blackboard that highlighted elements of grammar, spelling, and peculiarities of capitalization in the L2.
f) Students were encouraged to ask questions about any of the items above. g) Students were encouraged to copy sentences from the board with note on
meaning and usage. This became their “textbook” for home study.
d. Advantages and disadvantages of Community Language Learning
In Richard and Rodgers book’s (2001) Approaches and Methods in
Language Teaching, CLL has both advantages and disadvantages. The affective advantages are evident. CLL is an attempt to overcome some of the threatening affective factors in L2 learning. The threat of the teacher, of making blunders in the foreign language in front of classmates, of competing against peers all threats which can lead to a feeling of alienation and inadequacy are presumably removed. It creates a warm, sympathetic and trusting relationship between the teacher and learners and recognizes that language learning is a sensitive process. The counselor allows the learner to determine the type of conversation and to analyze the foreign language inductively. The learner-centered nature of the method can provide extrinsic motivation and capitalize on intrinsic motivation. In addition, the cultural
aspect of the target language learning is enhanced in that students are found to have freedom and high motivation in the community language learning class.
But there are some practical and theoretical problems with CLL. The counselor-teacher can become too non-directive. The learner often needs direction, especially in the first stage. Supportive but assertive direction from the counselor could strengthen the method. Despite its weakness CLL is a potentially useful method for the foreign language teaching if the teachers adapt it properly to the curricula.
3. Situational Language Teaching
a. Basic Concept of Situational Language Teaching
The main characteristics of the Situational Language Teaching that Richards and Rodgers (2001: 39) stated as follows:
1) Language teaching begins with the spoken language. Material is taught orally before it is presented in written form.
2) The target language is the language of the classroom.
3) New language points are introduced and practiced situationally. 4) Vocabulary selection procedures are allowed to ensure that an essential
general service vocabulary covered.
5) Items of grammar are graded following the principle that simple forms should be taught before complex ones.
6) Reading and writing are introduced once a sufficient lexical and grammatical basis is established.
