DESIGNING A SET OF ENGLISH INSTRUCTIONAL
SPEAKING MATERIALS FOR ANDONG DRIVERS
A THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Birgitta Anggre Hapsari Student number: 981214168
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAMM
DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION
FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE OF TITLE...i
PAGE OF APPROVAL...ii
PAGE OF the STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY...iv
PAGE OF DEDICATION...v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS...viii
LIST OF FIGURES...xii
LIST OF TABLES...xiii
LIST OF APPENDICES...xiv
ABSTRACT...xv
ABSTRAK...xvi
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION...1
A. Background of the Study...1
B. Problem Identification...2
C. Problem Formulation...2
D. Objectives of the Study...3
E. Benefits of The Study...3
F. Definition of Terms...3
CHAPTER II. THEORETICAL REVIEW...…...5
B. Theoretical Description...5
1. English for Specific Purposes...5
a. The Origins...6
b. The Characteristic of ESP Program...7
c. Designing ESP...11
2. Communicative Language Teaching...12
a. Background...12
b. Theory of Learning...14
c. Type of Teaching Learning Activities...14
d. Learner Roles...14
e. Teacher Roles...15
3. Communicative Syllabus Design...16
4. Speaking Skill...19
a. The nature of Speaking...20
b. Teaching Techniques...21
5. Instructional Program Development...22
a. Banathy’s Model...22
b. Yalden’s Model...24
C. Theoretical Framework...25
CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY...27
A. Introduction...27
1. Library Study...27
2. Survey Study...28
C. Respondent...28
D. Procedures...29
E. Instrument...31
1. Questionnaire...31
F. Data Analysis...31
CHAPTER IV. RESULT ANALYSIS...33
A. Introduction...……...33
B. The Result of Library Study...33
1. Need Survey...34
2. Formulating Objectives...36
3. Selection/development of Syllabus Type...41
4. Designing the Instructional Materials...41
5. Design and Conduct the Evaluation...43
C. The Result of the Survey Study...43
1. Result of Need Analysis...43
a. Description of the Andong Drivers...43
2. Result of Evaluation of the Designed Materials...49
a. Description of the data...50
D. Discussion...54
CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS...58
A. Conclusions...58
B. Suggestions...60
BIBLIOGRAPHY...62
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: The Process of the Communication System...20
Figure 2: Banathy’s Model...23
Figure3: Yalden’s Model...24
Figure 4: The Stages of the Theoretical Framework...26
Figure5: The Graph of the Data Presentation of the Andong Drivers’ Educational Background...44
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Three Levels of Communicative Competence in Second Language
Education...18
Table 2: The form of the Table of Need Survey...……...32
Table 3: The Table of the General Instructional Objectives...36
Table 4: The Table of the Specific Instructional Objectives...38
Table 5: The Table of the Data Description of the Andong Drivers...44
Table 6: The Result of the Target Needs...47
Table 7: The Table of the Language Functions...49
Table 8: The Table of Data Description of the Lecturers and Trainers...50
Table 9: The Table of the Measurement Points...50
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Questionnaires of Need Analysis...64
Appendix 2: Surat Permohonan Pengisian Kuesioner...67
Appendix 3: Gambaran Umum...68
Appendix 4: Questionnaires for Evaluation...70
Appendix 5: Syllabus...73
Appendix 6: Lesson Plan...75
Appendix 7: The Presentation of A Set of English Instructional Speaking
ABSTRACT
Birgitta Anggre Hapsari (2003) Designing a Set of English Instructional Speaking Materials for Andong Drivers. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University
This study was conducted in order to design a set of instructional materials that could be used to help the andong drivers improve their speaking ability in English. There were two problems discussed in this study. They were: 1) How is a set of English instructional materials for andong drivers designed? 2) What do the designed materials look like.
To solve both problems, the designer used both library and survey study. This study was constructed on the combination of Banathy’s and Yalden’s model, and also enriched by Hutchinson’s model. The reason why the designer decided to combine the models from Banathy and Yalden was because they were simple and applicable. They consist of five stages. 1) A needs’ survey (Yalden’s and Hutchinson’s), 2) Formulating objectives (Yalden’s and Banathy’s), 3) Selection/development of syllabus type (Yalden’s), 4) Design the instructional materials (Banathy’s and Yalden’s), 5) Design and conduct evaluation (Yalden’s).
The survey study was conducted in order to solve the second problem namely what do the designed materials look like, by compiling data from the respondents. The respondents were the English lecturers of the English education study program and trainers of several courses in Yogyakarta. The English lecturers of the English education study program of Sanata Dharma University and the trainers of several courses were involved because they had experience in English instructional materials and also the teaching/learning activities.
In this study, the writer used questionnaires to gather the data from both the andong drivers and also the lecturers. Questionnaires were chosen since they were the most effective way to obtain the data from the andong drivers and from the lecturers also trainers.
From the andong drivers, the writer obtained information about their interest in English also about the kind of English needed by them. From the English lecturers of the English education study program of Sanata Dharma University and the trainers, the writer obtained their opinions, criticisms and suggestions on the designed materials.
ABSTRAK
Birgitta Anggre Hapsari (2003) Designing a Set of English Instructional Speaking Materials for Andong Drivers. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.
Dilaksanakannya studi ini bertujuan untuk membuat seperangkat materi pengajaran bahasa Inggris untuk para pengemudi andong untuk dapat meningkatkan kemampuan berbicara dalam bahasa Inggris.Dalam studi ini terdapat dua permasalahan yang perlu dibahas. Permasalahan tersebut adalah: 1) Bagaimana seperangkat materi pembelajaran bahasa Inggris yang menekanken pada kemampuan berbicara didesain. 2) Seperti apakah desain seperangkat materi pembelajaran tersebut.
Untuk menjawab dua permasalahan tersebut penulis meggunakan metode studi pustaka dan studi survey. Dalam studi ini, penulis menggunakan kombinasi dari dua model yaitu Yalden dan Banathy yang diperkaya oleh Hutchinson untuk menjawab permasalahan pertama yaitu bagaimana seperangkat materi pembelajaran bahasa Inggris yang menekankan pada kemampuan berbicara didesain. Alasan dipilihnya kombinasi dari ketiga model yang tersebut diatas adalah bahwa model tersebut sederhana dan dapat diterapkan. Langkah-langkah tersebut adalah: 1) Melakukan survey kebutuhan siswa (Yalden and Hutchinson) 2) Memformulasikan tujuan pembelajaran 3) Menyusun silabus (Yalden) 4) Mendesain sistem (Banathy) 5) Mengadakan perbaikan (Banathy).
Metode kedua yaitu studi survey dilakukan untuk menjawab permasalahan kedua yaitu seperti apakah desain seperangkat materi pembelajaran tersebut. Dalam rangka menjawab permasalahan tersebut studi ini dilakukan untuk memperoleh data dari para responden. Responden-responden tersebut adalah para dosen dari prodi PBI dan beberapa instruktur bahasa Inggris dari beberapa tempat kursus di Yogyakarta. Para dosen bahasa Inggris dari PBI USD dan dan para instruktur bahasa Inggris dilibatkan dalam studi ini karena mereka telah memiliki pengalaman yang cukup dalam pengajaran bahasa Inggris.
Dalam studi ini penulis mengguanakan kuesioner untuk mendapatkan data yang diperlukan baik dari para pengemudi andong maupun dari para dosen dan instruktur bahasa Inggris. Kuesioner dipilih karena kuesioner adalah cara yang paling efektif untuk memperoleh informasi yang diperlukan mengingat kondisi dan situasi.
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
A. Background of the Study
Tourism in Indonesia especially in Yogyakarta grows rapidly. There are a lot
of tourists coming to visit this city. The impact of those phenomena is that a lot of
people work at tourism field. Hotels, motels and guesthouses are built in many
places. The transportation facilities also grow fast along the improvement on
tourism area. Consequently, the growth of services in many areas of tourism must
be improved. The improvement includes the improvement of human resources in
the area of tourism, especially in the transportation services, and of course the
ability to speak in English is also required.
All tourists who come in this city tend to find the uniqueness that they will
never meet in their country. The uniqueness also includes the uniqueness of the
vehicles, which are available in this city. Besides pedicab, the unique vehicles are
andong which become one of alternatives preferred by tourists. They like andong
because while they ride on the andong they can also feel the original atmosphere
of the city.
In doing their jobs, andong drivers often make contacts with tourists
although they do not master English properly. In order to be able to give good
services, good communication is required so that they can attract more foreigners
The fact that lies on the society is that most andong drivers in Yogyakarta
do not have the ability to communicate in English appropriately, while English in
their daily work is very crucial. This is because most of them have low motivation
since they think that doing their job is the most important thing for them. By
seeing this phenomenon, the study is meant to provide material and facility to help
them to learn English.
B. Problem Identification
The designer knows that providing English materials for them is difficult since
most of them are primary graduates, and they do not master English. For its
difficulty of finding a ready to use materials for andong drivers, thus in this study
the designer tries to design materials which are easy and applicable in their daily
job
By providing materials which are easy and applicable, the designer hopes that
andong drivers will be able to communicate with foreign tourists easily and
appropriately, so that if they can speak English communicatively they might find
foreign visitors easily. Therefore they might increase their income.
C. Problem Formulation
From the discussion above the designer formulates the problems as
follows.
1. How is a set of English instructional materials for andong drivers designed?
D. Objective of the Study
The objective of this study is to answer the first question on how a set of
English instructional materials for andong drivers is designed. To answer this
question the designer will present the kinds of method and approach that are going
to be used in designing the materials. The second objective of this study is to
answer the second question on what the design materials will look like. To answer
this question, the designer will present the designed materials for andong drivers
which will be design based on the needs of the andong drivers and the theories
presented in chapter two.
E. Benefit of the Study
For the andong drivers, this design material will help them to improve their
knowledge of English, so that it will be useful in the andong drivers’ job.
For the designer and those who are interested in designing English
instructional materials, they can get the picture of stages in developing the
materials. This set of English instructional materials can be an alternative that can
avoid the learners from boredom of the existing materials.
F. Definition of Terms
In this section, the definition of terms used in designing the program is given
to avoid the ambiguous interpretation.
According to Gagne and Briggs (1979: 18), instruction is defined as the means
employed by teachers, designer of materials, curriculum specialists, and others
whose purpose is to develop an organized plan to promote learning. The
instructional design can be intended for using in any field such as in public or
private schools, in industry, or in public service training installations.
2. Instructional Materials
Banathy (1976: 16) states that instructional system means a system itself
which seen its purpose to the extent, that enables the entire possible
interaction between the learners and the environment to attain the design
performance.
3. Andong
According to Ecchols and Shadily (1994: 19) andong is defined as vehicle
four-wheeled carriage drawn by two horses common in Central Java. The term
andong drivers in this study refer to persons who ride the vehicle called
CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL REVIEW
A. Introduction
This chapter will be divided into two parts: the theoretical description and
theoretical framework. The theoretical description consists of several theories related
to the development of the designed set of materials. They are theory of English for
Specific Purposes (ESP), theory of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT),
theory of Communicative Syllabus Design, theory of Speaking Skill, and theory of
Instructional Design Model.
The theoretical framework will consist of the framework, which is based on
the theoretical description that has been discussed in the first part of this chapter.
B. Theoretical Description
1. English for Specific Purposes
It is important to discuss English for Specific Purposes since English for
andong drivers is part of it. In this part the writer presents the history of ESP
development, the characteristic and the classification of ESP, in order to give an
a. The Origins
ESP is not a planned and coherent movement, but rather a phenomenon that
grows out of a number of converging trends. These trends have operated in variety of
ways around the world, but we can identify three main reasons common to the
emergence of all ESP (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987: 6).
1. The demand for the instrumental use of English
The demand for the instrumental use of English starts from the
historical review of the masses of a brave new world which turned out to be
dominated by two powerful forces, namely technology and commerce. Having
a solid economic basis, the USA played a primary role in those two fields.
English therefore gained access for international scale of use. In addition to
that, people of the New World came to realize that being involved in two
dominating waves would inevitably require English communication ability.
Thus, these people wished to learn English for ‘a predominance of practical
command’ or for ‘instrumental use’ (Strevens, 1980: 6).
2. The new concern about linguistics
At about the same time as the demand for courses aiming at fulfilling
the specific needs of the learners grow, new ideas emerged (Hutchinson and
waters, 1987: 7). However in this new idea, the language was concerned from
a different point of view, between the study of language usage towards
language use (Widdowson, as cited in Dardjowidjojo, 1992: 3). Nevertheless
The new concern about language use brings the fact that language
varies from one context to another.
3. Focus on the learner
There is no doubt that people want to learn English not for pleasure
only, but also for communication. Stevick (1971: 5) points out that ‘what
matters in communication is the dimension of depth or personal significance
of what is being communicated’. This means that learning to communicate in
the target language should be related to the learners’ personal significance of
their needs.
Thus, as much as language learning is to gain communicative ability,
the language program should be relevant to the learners’ needs. Since ‘with
the relevance of the English courses to the learners needs would then improve
their motivation and thereby make the learning better and faster’ (Hutchinson
and Waters, 1987: 8).
a. The Characteristic of ESP Program
With the learner-centered program, the program designer should start from the
learners in term of communication needs in their job situations. Once people
understand that syllabus and materials are characterized from learners’ needs, they
begin to concern the methodology aspect. Certainly as agreed by Strevens (1980:
120) that ‘ESP is not itself a methodology’. On the other hand the term
classroom procedures. So much as it is, Strevens (1980: 120) further adds, ‘the
matching of teaching to learners’ needs also extent to innovate in methodological
terms. This conception will certainly give a new meaning and challenge towards the
ESP program development. This way, the program designer will be able to make a
new way of teaching instead of being constraint to the particular method.
There are features, which are considered as the ESP criteria suggested by
Robinson (1991: 2) as follows:
1. ESP is ordinarily goal directed.
It means that people intentionally learn English because they want to achieve
a certain goal. They need English for their study or their work purposes and
not merely because they are interested in General English. Consequently, the
materials and activities must be appropriate with their study or work purpose.
2. The design of ESP course.
Need analysis as the direction of teaching learning process should be obtained
first. Moreover, need analysis is used to clarify what people have to do in
learning English. It emphasizes target or end course requirements.
3. People who study ESP are usually adult rather than children.
Normally people who learn English are not beginners, but they have already
studied General English. In other words, they need ESP to continue their
learning English in a more specific way related to their study or work.
Generally people who study in the same class must have the same kind of work
or specialty. It is not usual for an ESP class to have people who have more that
one field of study or work.
In addition to need analysis, which is stated on the second characteristics,
Hutchinson and Waters offer an important way to conduct needs analysis. By
determining target needs of the andong drivers, the sufficient data can be obtained.
The target needs consist of 3 terms (Hutchinson and waters, 1987: 55) which can be
seen as follows.
a) Necessities
Necessities are the types of needs, which are determined by the demands in
the target situation. It concerns on what the learners have to know in order to
function effectively in the target situation.
b) Lacks
Besides knowing the learners’ necessities, it is important to recognize what
learners are already knows in order to see the learners’ lacks.
c) Wants
After the designer identifies the learners’ lacks and necessities, it is important
to support the target needs with the learners’ view of their needs. The learners
are giving a chance to tell their wants about the subject.
Further Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 55) present a framework for target
What is the language need?
- For study
- For work
- For training
- For combination of these
How will the language be used?
- Medium: speaking, reading , writing, etc
- Channel: e.g. telephone, face to face
- Types of text or discourse: e.g. academic texts, lectures, informal conversation,
and technical manuals.
What will the content areas be?
- Subject: e.g. medicine, biology, commerce, tourism
- Level: technician, craft man, postgraduate, secondary school.
Whom will the learners use the language with? - Native speaker or non-native speaker
- Level of knowledge or receiver: e.g. expert, layman, and students
- Relationship: e.g. colleagues, teachers, customers, superior subordinate
Where will the language be used?
- Physical settings: e.g. office, lecture, theatre, hotel, workshop, library
- Human context: e.g. alone, meetings, demonstration, or telephone
When will the language be used?
- Concurrently with the ESP course or subsequently
- Frequently, seldom, in large a scope.
To gather information for need analysis, there are numbers of ways, which are
frequently used. There are questionnaires, interviews, observation, data collection,
and informal consultation with sponsors (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987: 58).
c. Designing ESP
1. Stages
In organizing the ESP course, it is important to design what should be done.
Strevens (1980: 109) gives some principal stages, which are important to follow, and
those are,
a) A detailed analysis of the learners needs.
Because ESP is not general English, it is very important to get the data of the
learners’ need, want, purpose, etc for which English is required.
b) Determination of the scientist or technical content.
English is widely used in science and technology. Consequently, teachers in
ESP class should recognize the importance of theoretical, discourse, and
communicative feature in scientific English.
c) Determination of whether needs are ‘educational or ‘occupational.
ESP is required for purpose either for study or work. So the people who need
Students of a particular subject who need English for the ability to
understand lectures given in English, to read the book written in
English, to do their essay in English, etc.
People who are already in occupation that need English for their
work purpose.
d) Determination of whether instruction in English precedes educational or
occupational training follows it, or concurrent with it.
e) Preparation of suitable syllabus and teaching materials.
Actually, every ESP group has its own identified syllabus, its own
range of teaching materials, and its own appropriate methodology.
2. Communicative Language Teaching
Discussing the CLT method is important since the designer wants to
base the course on the method. The designer chooses CLT as the basic of material
development because CLT method is considered to be the most appropriate method
according to the demand of the market. Some items to be discussed here are the
theory of learning, the types of teaching and learning activities, the learner roles, and
the teacher roles.
a. Background
Communicative Language Teaching derived from the previous approach
practicing basic structures in meaningful situation based activities (Richards and
Rodgers, 1986: 64). The communicative language teaching firstly proposed by
Christopher Candlin and Henry Widdowson. The CLT method saw the need to focus
on the language teaching a communicative proficiency rather than on mere mastery of
structure (Richards and Rodgers, 1986: 64).
The CLT itself aims to:
a. Make communicative competence the goal of language teaching, and
b. Develop procedures for the teaching of the four skills that acknowledge and
interdepence of language and communication.
From this we can conclude that in CLT there is no single text or authority on it, nor
any single model that is universally accepted as authoritative. Littlewood (1981: 1) as
cited by Hutchinson and waters states that “one of the most characteristic features of
CLT is that it pays systematic attention to functional as well as structural aspect of
language”.
Howatt as quoted by Hutchinson and Waters (1986: 67) distinguishes between
a “strong” and “weak” version of CLT. Strong version advances the claims that
language is acquired through communication, so that it is not merely a question of
activating an existing but inert knowledge of the language. Weak version stresses the
importance of providing learners with opportunities to use their English for
c. Theory of Learning
There are three elements underlying the learning concept of CLT method,
which can be seen below.
1. Communication principle activities: activities that involve real communication to
promote learning.
2. Task principle: activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful
tasks to promote learning.
3. Meaningfulness principle: language that is meaningful to the learners, to support
the learning process. (Johnson: 1982).
Seeing that we can learn that CLT method not only inquire the learners to
understand the language but also how to use the language actively in their daily
activity.
d. Types of Learning and Teaching Activities
The range of exercise types and activities based on communicative approach
is unlimited, as long as such exercises enable learners to engage in communication
and require the use of such communicative process as information sharing and
interaction.
e. Learner Roles
Learner roles in Communicative Language Teaching are different from those
language classroom emphasize on the grammar, the emphasis of Communicative
Language Teaching is on the processes of communication, rather than the mastery of
language form. Breen and Candlin as quoted by Richards and Rodgers (1986: 76-77)
describe the learner roles within CLT in the following terms:
The role of the learners as negotiator-between the self, the learning process, and the object of the learning-emerges from and interacts with the roles of joint negotiator within the group and within the classroom procedures and activities which the group undertakes. The implication of the learners is that he should contribute as much as he gains, and there by learning in an independent way.
There are several things, which are need to be observed concerning the learner’s roles
in CLT method. There is thus an acknowledgement, in some account of CLT that
there is no text, grammar rules are not presented, classroom arrangement are not
standard, students are expected to interact to each other rather than with the teacher,
and the correction of errors may be absent or infrequent. CLT methodology
consequently recommended that learners learn to see that failed communication is a
joint responsibility and not the fault of the speaker or listener. Thus, successful
communication is an accomplishment jointly achieved and acknowledged.
f. Teacher Roles
There are several roles, which are assumed for teachers in CLT. Breen
and Candlin as quoted by Richards and Rodgers (1986: 77-78) describe teacher roles
The teacher has two main roles: the first role is to facilitate the communication process between all participants in the classroom, and between these participants and the various activities and texts. The second role is to act as an independent within the learning-teaching group. These roles imply a set of secondary roles for the teacher; first, as an organizer of resources and as a resource himself, second as a guide within the classroom procedure and activities.
Other roles assumed for teachers are need analysts, counselors, and
group process managers.
3. Communicative Syllabus Design
In this study the writer bases her designed set of material on Communicative
Language Teaching Method, thus the most appropriate syllabus is communicative
syllabus, which is not easy to be designed.
Yalden (1987: 86) states that the communicative syllabus should consider a number
of extra-linguistic factors, the educational settings, the characteristics of the learners,
the circumstances in which educational institution operates, and the society.
The other important factors are that the syllabus should fulfill the learners’ need to
communicate in a more appropriate and efficient way. Yalden (1987: 86) provides the
components of communicative syllabus as follows:
1. As detailed consideration as possible of the purposes for which the learners wish to
acquire the target language.
2. Some idea of the setting in which they will want to use the target language
3. The socially defined the role of the learners will assume in the target language, as
well as the roles of their partner in communication.
4. The communicative event in which the learners will participate could be in
everyday situations, vocational and professional situations, academic situations,
and so on.
5. The language functions involved in these events, or what the learners will need to
be able to do with or through the language.
6. The notions involved, or what the learners will need to be able to talk about.
7. The skills involved in the “knitting together” or getting in touch of discourse:
discourse and rhetorical skills.
8. The variety or varieties of the target language that will be needed, and the levels in
the spoken and written language which the learners will need to reach.
9. The grammatical content that will be needed.
10. The lexical content that will be needed.
There are many types of syllabuses. Yalden proposes several types of
syllabuses, which are considered to be forms of communicative syllabus (1987: 110).
1. Communicative Syllabus Type 1: Structural – Functional
The structural – functional syllabus gives emphasis on two components, namely
form and communicative function.
2. Communicative Syllabus Type2: Structures and Functions
The syllabus type 2 represents a structural progression in a communicative
3. Communicative Syllabus Type 3: Variables focus
The emphasis of the third syllabus type is on the level in progression from the
basic to advanced. Structural progression will dominate at the first level and the
next emphasis will change to communicative function and finally to situation or
subject matter. Allen as quoted by Yalden (1987: 114) explains the concepts as
follows:
... Thus at level 1, the main emphasis is on structural practice, and functional and instrumental practice will be relatively speaking ‘out of focus’. Similarly level 2 emphasizes functional practices, and level 3 instrumental practices, but at both levels the other types of practice remain in the background ready to be utilized as the need arises.
Levels of Communicative Competence
Level Level 2 Level 3
(a) Structural control (a) Discourse control (a) Situational or topical
control
4. Communicative Syllabus Types 4: Functional
This fourth syllabus type considers objectives to be stated primarily.
Objectives will determine the functions, which are needed. Then the functions
themselves will determine the selections and sequencing or grammatical
materials.
5. Communicative Syllabus Type 5: Fully Notional
This syllabus type is suitable for the learners whose ability in the second
language has to be specified for very particular and narrow purposes.
6. Communicative Syllabus Type 6: Fully Communicative
This fully communicative syllabus is also called learners –generative syllabus.
In designing the syllabus, the learners’ needs become the main considerations.
In this syllabus, language, which is considered as a means of communications,
becomes the primary objectives.
4. Speaking Skill
Since language is a means of communication, it is not enough if the learners
only learn words, phrases, and grammatical features, but they also need to learn how
to produce the language in such a way that makes their utterances comprehensible to
a native speaker.
In this section the designer will discuss the nature of speaking and the
teaching technique since these are the basic consideration in designing a set of
a. The Nature of Speaking
Brown and Yule as cited by Nunan (1986: 26-27) say that spoken language
consists of short, often fragmentary utterances, in a range of pronunciations. In
spoken language, we can not ignore that speaking and listening processes are
involved. Therefore, it is important to understand the communicative system in
spoken language. The figure below shows the process of communicative system,
taken from Shannon and Weaver.
Figure 1: The process of communicative system (Rivers, 1970: 158).
Noise Source
Destination Receiver
Transmitter Info Source
From the diagram we can see that the information source emits a message,
which is encoded for transmission as a signal. The signal passes through a channel to
a receiver, which decodes the message for use at its destination.
According to Rivers (1986), “to teach speaking skill the teacher should
persuade themselves to speak foreign language all the time in the classroom, and the
students will, at the same time begin to speak it fluently”. Referring to this quotation,
the designer tries to develop the kind of materials that will force the students and the
b. Teaching Technique
In teaching speaking in this study, the designer adopting two types of
techniques namely conversation and role-play.
1. Conversation Technique
According to Rivers (1968: 168) a conversation in the informal language is learned
in immediately useful form, a form which the students can practice by turning to
his neighbor, or apply in contact outside the classroom. In this study conversation
is meant to provide the first introduction of structured to be drilled. Thus in
designing the conversation the designer tries to make it relevant to the andong
drivers’ everyday situation. In the conversation practice the learners learn to speak
to their friends directly. They learn to ask and answer the question.
2. Role-play techniques
There are three techniques proposed by Littlewood (1983: 50) in conducting
role-play technique. First, learners are asked to imagine themselves in a situation which
could occur in their daily activities. Second, they are asked to adopt a specific role,
and third they are asked as if the situation really existed. In role-play technique the
learners’ focus will be on the communication activities, this means that they are
asked to practice the language function that they have already known.
Rivers (1968: 165) says, most learners respond to the activities that challenge
them to apply what they have learned because they are given the opportunity. That is
why in applying the techniques the designer provide kinds of exercises that are
5. Instructional Design Model a. Banathy’s Model
Several steps of Banathy’s model can be seen as follows:
1. The formulation of objectives
This step is seen as the description of the expected performance of the
learners. These objectives specify learners’ competence, level of achievement and
circumstances.
2. The test development
This step is meant to find out the learners’ performance at the output
point. This test is also used as a means for controlling the quality of the system
3.The learning tasks analysis
This step is meant to decide what the learners have to learn in order to be
able to perform the target language appropriately. Therefore the analysis of learning
task is needed.
4.The design of the system
The system is defined as a deliberately designed synthetic organism,
composed of interrelated and interacting components, which are employed to function
in an integrated fashion to attain predetermined purposes (Banathy 1976:1). The
design of the system is presented below. The design consists of four major steps:
a. Function analysis
This is to identify everything that has to be done by the system in order to
b. Component analysis
Identifying what and who is to be employed to carry out the specific
function identified, as the outcome of functional analysis, is the purpose of this
analysis.
c. Distribution of function among components.
d. Scheduling
5. System implementation
6. Quality control
After developing the system, the next step is to put the system into
operation. The evaluation and quality control are conducted in order to find out
whether the objectives of the system are being met.
The instructional model by Banathy can be clearly seen in figure 2 as follows:
Formulate Objectives
Analyze Learning Task
Design System
Implement and test Output
Change to Improve Develop Test
b. Yalden’s Model
Yalden (1987: 88) proposes the stages in language program development
as follows:
1. Holding needs survey to find out the learners’ need.
2. Describing the purpose of the program.
3. Selecting and developing the syllabus type to be used.
4. Producing a proto syllabus. The syllabus concerns with general objectives, specific
topics, the language function, and the vocabulary being used.
5. Producing a pedagogical syllabus. In this stage there will be a development of the
teaching material.
6. Developing classroom procedure that includes the exercises, teaching techniques,
lesson plan, weekly schedule, etc.
7. Evaluating the learners, the program, and the teaching.
8. Evaluating the whole components of the program.
The stages are presented as follows:
C. Theoretical Framework
1. Framework for Designing the Materials
In designing the instructional material for Andong drivers, the writer based the
designed materials on Yalden’s model enriched by Banathy and Hutchinson, which
have been reviewed in the theoretical description. The three models are modified to
make a new framework to conduct the study.
In determining the instructional models used in this study, the writer tries to
establish a model that is simple and applicable. Having a simple model will enable
the instructor to learn and teach it easily in order to reach the goals.
The framework of the designed model consists of five steps, which can be
seen as follows.
1. Needs survey
Need survey conducted in order to find out what kind of English needed for the
andong drivers, so that the designed materials meet the andong drivers needs.
2. Formulate objectives
Formulate a statement which will contains what the designer want to be able to do
when they have completed the instructions.
3. Selection/development of syllabus type
Determine the syllabus type that would be best to the students’ needs and
characteristics.
Identify the strategy and media, which will be used in the instructional design that
ensure the students to master the tasks.
5. Design and conduct evaluation
To try out the designed system in order to find out how effective the module
works.
The stages of the theoretical framework of the designed materials can be seen as
follows.
Needs Survey
Design and conduct evaluation Design the Instructional Materials Selection/development of Syllabus Type
Formulate Objectives
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
A. Introduction
This chapter discusses the methodology used in this study. The discussion
includes the kinds of study, subjects, procedures, data gathering and also data
analysis.
B. Kinds of Study
In order to answer the problem stated in chapter one, the writer used two
different methods, library study and survey study.
1. Library Study
The library study firstly answered the first question: How is a set of English instructional speaking materials for andong drivers designed? Secondly, this
study also answered the second question: What do the design materials look
like? In conducted the library study, the writer referred to several books about the theories of Instructional Design, English for Specific Purposes, teaching
techniques, Communicative Language Teaching, Communicative Syllabus
Design, and also some other books used for designing the instructional materials.
Those books became the input for designing a set of English instructional
2. Survey Study
The survey study had two objectives. First was to find out the needs of the
andong drivers and second was to obtain feedback from the lecturers. In defining
the needs of the andong drivers, the writer distributed questionnaires that contain
questions about the kind of English materials needed by them. The survey study
focused on several things as followed.
- The kind of topic related to andong drivers
- The contents of materials which were appropriate for the andong drivers
- The kinds of instructions, goals, and objectives which were suitable for
teaching and learning English for andong drivers
- The kind of vocabularies which were suitable for them
- The kind of skills which were mostly needed to be master by the andong
drivers
Concerning the second objectives, the writer distributed questionnaires to 10
lecturers. The results of these questionnaires were used as feedback for the designed
materials.
C. Respondent
The first respondents in this study were the andong drivers themselves. The
total numbers of andong drivers in Yogyakarta were 226 people (Source: Polresta
Yogyakarta). In this study, the respondents chosen by the writer were consist of 30
Ngasem traditional market since foreign tourists frequently visited that place. Those
andong drivers were chosen since they were assumed to have some needs in learning
English so that they could serve foreign visitors well.
The writer characterizes the andong drivers as follows.
- They were about 20 to 45 years old.
The writer decided to limit the andong drivers’ age in order to fulfill the
requirements of the characteristics of ESP. It was said that ESP learners were
adults rather than children.
- Most of them had no prior knowledge about English.
The fact that the writer found when conducting the need analysis was that
most of the andong drivers did not have enough education, especially about
English and only few of them who already knew English
- Mostly they were graduates from elementary school.
- They were all male.
As long as the writer knew there were no female andong drivers.
The second participants were 10 respondents (lecturers). They were supposed to
be evaluators of the designed set of materials, in order to get feedback as the
foundation to do the revision.
D. Procedures
In the following section, the writer discussed the procedures of how the study
analysis, the design of the instructional materials, and also the distribution of
questionnaires to the lecturers.
1. Preparation
Some preparation needed to be held before the writer conducted the need analysis
and designed the instructional materials. The preparation included:
a. Conducting the need analysis of the existing materials. This includes the
gathering of the related theories, especially on English for Specific Purposes,
instructional design and syllabus.
b. The questionnaires distribution to the andong drivers.
2. Need Survey Analysis
The need survey analysis included the preparation of the instrument for gathering
the data, as soon as the data compiled, the writer analyzed that by making the list
of the language functions mostly chosen by the andong drivers.
3. The design of the Instructional Materials
In this step, the writer developed the instructional materials. The development
was based on the language functions which obtained from the need survey
analysis.
4. Distributing Questionnaires
As soon as the instructional materials were designed, the designer distributed the
questionnaires to get suggestions and evaluations on the designed materials. The
E. Instruments
The instrument used in this paper to gain information from the andong drivers
was questionnaires.
Questionnaires
Questionnaires are printed list for data collection, which contain questions or
statements for the subject to respond (Salinger and Shahomy, 1989: 72).
There were two kinds of questionnaires, which used in designing English
instructional materials for andong drivers. In this study the writer decided to use
questionnaires only since they were the most effective means for this purpose. The
first questionnaire was given to the 30-andong drivers in order to analyze the
educational background and what kinds of English they wanted to learn.
The second questionnaire was given to 10 respondents (lecturers). The aim of
this was to obtain their input about the designed materials produced. Based on their
input the writer made some revisions and improvements.
F. Data Analysis
The data in this study were analyzed by counting the number of andong
drivers who choose the items of the proposed listed language functions, the next put
the result into a table. Then they were used to determine the language functions to
Table 2: The form of the table of Needs Survey (blank)
No Language Functions Number of Respondents
Second, the data analyzed by using descriptive analysis. Adding up all the
scores and then by dividing this sum determined the mean of average point by the
total numbers of the questions Brown (1988: 66). The formula for calculating the
mean proposed by Brown (1988: 66) could be seen below.
X= ΣX
N
X: the mean or the average point
ΣX: the sum of the scores
CHAPTER IV
RESULTS ANALISYS
A. Introduction
This chapter discusses the result analysis. As discussed in chapter 3 the
writer uses two methods; they are library study and survey study. The first part of
the discussion consists of the result of library study, and the second part consists
of the result of survey study. The result includes the description of the respondents
and the data presentation taken from the distributed questionnaires.
B. The Result of Library Study
The library study was conducted in order to find out theories, which can
support the development of the English instructional materials. In this study the
writer based the study on Yalden’s model that also enriched by Banathy’s model
and Hutchinson’s model. In this section the writer presented the steps which had
been showed in theoretical framework. This is also the main answer to the first
question of the problem formulation in chapter I. The result can be seen as
follows.
a. Need Survey (Banathy, Yalden, Hutchinson)
Since there was no curriculum yet for andong drivers, the writer conducted the
need survey in order to find out the needs of the andong drivers, which was
the first step of Banathy, Hutchinson and Yalden’s model.
The second step taken from Yalden’s model. The writer employed this model
because it was important to formulate the objectives after knowing the
learners’ needs. Formulating objectives as suggested by Yalden was
considered as the appropriate one.
c. Selection/development of syllabus type (Yalden, Hutchinson)
Since the materials established in language function based organization, there
was certain syllabus type employed in this study. The only model, which
suggested the selection of syllabus type was Yalden, therefore the writer
modified the third step from Yalden’s model.
d. Designing the instructional system (Banathy and Yalden)
The fourth step taken from Banathy and Yalden’s model. After employed the
steps from one to three, the next was to design the instructional materials
itself.
e. Design and conduct evaluation
The writer needed the evaluation on the designed materials. Thus she
determined what to be evaluate in the fifth step of this model. This modified
step taken from Yalden’s model.
The results of the library study that had been discussed above presented
below.
1. Need Survey
The writer distributed questionnaires to know what language functions needed
The data from the questionnaires used as the basis to design the English
instructional materials.
The result from the library study and the questionnaires showed that the
andong drivers needed resources, which could help them practicing English,
especially in speaking skill because they had to communicate in the target
language with foreign visitors frequently. The andong drivers needed to learn
English in a simple and applicable way in order to support their job in dealing
with foreign visitors. It means that the andong drivers needed to master some
language functions, which were frequently used in communicating with foreign
visitors.
From the questionnaires, the writer found 8 language functions that were most
frequently used by andong drivers. Those 8 language functions could be seen as
followed.
1. Greetings
2. Thanking people and replying to thanks
3. Describing things and people
4. Telling time
5. Offering services
6. Numbers and prices
7. Bargaining
8. Giving direction
Having those kinds of language functions, the writer moved to the second step
2. Formulating Objectives
The objectives here was the expected behavior of the learners after finished
learning English using the designed materials.
In this study the objective was “The learners are expected to be able to
communicate with foreign visitors appropriately”. Considering the objective in designing the English materials, teaching objectives formulated for each kind of
language functions. They also formulated based on the results of the
questionnaires distributed to the andong drivers regarding what they wanted to
achieve at the end of the course. The General Instructional Objectives and the
Specific Instructional Objectives can be seen as follows.
a. General Instructional Objectives
Table 3: The General Instructional Objectives
Units Goal Topic General Instructional
Objectives
learners will be able to:
1. Understand the way to greet the foreign visitors appropriately.
2. Recognize the patterns of greetings being used in the dialogue.
3. Know the pattern of English and be able to use the pattern correctly. learners will be able to:
1. Understand the pattern of thanking and replying to thanks towards the foreign visitors.
foreign visitors.
3. Recognize the pattern of thanking and replying to thanks being used in the dialogue. learners will be able to:
1. Understand how to
describe about something and about
someone in an appropriate way.
2. Recognize the patterns of describing something and someone in the dialogue.
3. Describe something and someone in the
Telling time At the end of the course, the
learners will be able to:
1. Understand the way to telling time to the foreign visitors appropriately. 2. Recognize the pattern of
telling time being used in the dialogue.
3. Use the pattern of telling time in the real situation with the foreign tourists. 5 Developing the learners will be able to: 1. Understand the pattern on
how to offer their services to foreign visitors.
2. Use the form of offering services in the real situation to the foreign visitors appropriately. 3. Recognize the pattern of
6 Developing the learners will be able to:
1. Understand how to mention the numbers from one to ten, teens, tens, hundreds and thousands in the target language.
2. Use the saying of numbers and prices with the foreign visitors
learners will be able to:
1. Understand the way to bargain with the foreign visitors in the correct way.
2. Use the way of bargaining in the real situation.
3. Recognize the patterns of bargaining being used in the dialogue. learners will be able to:
1. Understand the way to give direction to the
foreign visitors appropriately.
2. Use the patterns of giving direction in the real situation with the foreign visitors.
3. Recognize the pattern of giving direction being used the dialogue.
b. Specific Instructional objectives
Table 4: The specific Instructional Objectives
Unit Goal Topic Specific Instructional
Objectives 1 Developing the
ability to
Greetings At the end of the class, the
communicate with the foreign visitors appropriately.
1. Greet the foreign visitors using the correct pattern. 2. Read the conversation
with correct pronunciation.
3. Do the exercises provided in the design materials appropriately.
4. Choose the correct pattern of greeting correctly. 5. Mention the pattern of
grammar discussed in the design material. learners will be able to:
1. Choose the appropriate pattern to be used in the real situation.
2. Choose the appropriate words to replying thanks. 3. Do all exercises provided
in the design materials correctly. learners will be able to:
1. Describe something and someone by using the pattern being discussed without any assistance.
2. Use the pattern of
describing something and people in the real situation with the foreign visitors appropriately. 3. Do all exercises provided
in the design materials correctly.
4. Make their own dialogue that contains the pattern of describing things and
students will be able to: 1. Read the time in the target
2. Mention the pattern of telling time.
3. Make their own dialogue containing the pattern of telling time.
4. Do all exercises provided in the design materials appropriately. learners will be able to:
1. Offer their services to the foreign visitors using the correct form.
2. Make their own dialogue based on the pattern being discussed.
3. Do the exercises provided in the design materials appropriately.
4. Mention the patterns of Offering services. learners will be able to:
1. Mention the numbers
from one to ten, teens, tens, hundreds, and thousands correctly.
2. Read the numbers and prices with correct pronunciation.
3. Do the exercises provided in the design materials correctly.
learners will be able to:
1. Mention the patterns of bargaining correctly
2. Use the patterns of
bargaining in the real situation appropriately 3. Make their own dialogue
which contain the pattern of bargaining correctly without any assistance 4. Do all exercises provided
appropriately learners will be able to:
1. Mention the patterns of giving direction with correct pronunciation.
2. Use the patterns of giving direction in the real situation correctly.
3. Make their own dialogue, which contain the patterns of giving direction appropriately.
4. Do all exercises provided in the design materials correctly.
3. Selection/development of Syllabus Type
Since the materials were constructed based on language functions that were
frequently used by the andong drivers, functional syllabus used in this study.
Functional syllabus chosen because it was considered as the most appropriates
syllabus type for this design. This type of syllabus emphasizes the objectives in
terms of communicative functions not in terms of linguistics items of ideational
content (Yalden: 1987).
4. Designing the Instructional Materials
The learners’ needs, teaching objectives and type of syllabus had been
discussed and formulated. The program was ready to be constructed based on the
learners’ needs, goal and objectives, and type of syllabus. The materials itself is
The program development consists of four types of activities. They were
dialogue, language focus, language exercises, and communicative practice. Each
unit consists of several activities, the description of those activities was clarified
below.
1. Dialogue
In this activity, the instructor gave example of a conversation between two
people related to language function emphasized. From that dialogue the
learners expected to be able to familiarize themselves with the model of
conversation, which used the language being discussed.
2. Language focus
From the language functions in the unit being practiced, the learners were able
to know the form of the sentences, which used to express something. In this
case the instructor gave examples of useful expressions.
3. Language exercise
In this activity, the instructor encouraged the learners to be active in doing the
exercises. The exercises themselves could be both in oral and written form.
4. Communicative Practice
It was an activity in which the learners’ involvement emphasized. The learners
expected to be active in constructed and practiced the dialogues. At the end of
5. Conducting Evaluation
After the program developed, the writer determined what to be evaluated. The
evaluation itself intended to know whether the objective had been accomplished
or not. In this evaluation the writer distributed the design materials to the lecturers
of English Language Educational Program of Sanata Dharma University. The
characteristic of the evaluation included the language functions presented,
vocabulary, level of difficulty, and the exercise.
C. The Result of Survey Study 1. Result of Need Analysis
Two types of data were taken from the survey study. The first type was
taken from the andong drivers in order to assess the learner’s needs and to find
out the suitable materials. The second type was taken from 10 lecturers and
trainers in order to get feedback toward the designed materials. The data of each
respondent were presented below.
a. Description of the Andong Drivers
To find out what kinds of materials needed for Andong drivers, the writer
visited some Andong drivers in 3 places. They were Alun-alun kidul Yogyakarta,
Malioboro Street, and around Ngasem traditional market. The respondent consists
of 30 andong drivers and the questionnaire distribution conducted on 13th and
14th of April 2002. The data gathered used to design the English instructional
material.
Table 5: The table of the data description of the andong drivers.
From the questionnaires distributed to the andong drivers, the writer found
that most of the andong drivers (more than half of them) did not had any reference
about English. The rest of them claimed that they had ever studied English in
school but they never practiced their English to communicate with foreign
tourists.
Another thing drawn from the questionnaires was about the andong
drivers’ educational background. The writer found that 17 (56.66%) participants
graduated from elementary school, 8 (26.67%) participants graduated from junior
high school, and 5 (16.67%) participants graduated from senior high school. The
graph of the data can be seen as follows.
Figure 6: The graph of the data presentation of the andong drivers’ educational
background.
The number from 1 to 30 represented the number of the andong drivers,
and the horizontal line showed the number of andong drivers who had graduated
from elementary school, junior high school, and senior high school.
Before started to design English for andong drivers, the writer asked the
andong drivers about their interests in learning English. Most of them said that
English was urgent for their profession as andong drivers, so that they are willing
to learn English to improve their competence in communicating with foreign
visitors.
In the following paragraph the writer presented the result of the question
concerning the importance of English for andong drivers. According to them,
English was very important related to their job. It was important to improve their
capability and to reduce misunderstanding between the andong drivers and the
foreign customers in communicating using English. There were 28 (93.33%)
participants who agreed that English were important for their job and only 2
(6.67%) participants who think that English were not important for their job.
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
important not important
the importance of English
Figure 7: The graph of the data presentation of the importance of English
language.
The vertical line with the number from 1 to 30 represented the number of
the andong drivers, while horizontal line showed the number who agreed that
English was important for their job and those who were not agreed that English
was important for their job.
In order to gain sufficient data, the writer used the target needs. The writer
based the design on the category suggested by Hutchinson and Waters (1987:
55-56) covered necessities, lacks, and wants. The result of the target needs, taken
Table 6: The result of the target needs.
OBJECTIVE (perceived
by the designer)
SUBJECTIVE (perceived
by the andong drivers)
NECESSITIES The kind of English
related to their job as
andong drivers, especially
in serving foreign visitors.
Need to be accustomed
with a ‘second language’
situation related to their
job.
LACKS The ability to use English
related to their job as
andong drivers.
The ability to use English
related to their job as
andong drivers.
WANTS To serve foreign visitors
appropriately by mastering
English speaking skill.
To be able to speak
English in order to serve
foreign visitors
appropriately.
From the information gathered, the writer designed a target situation
framework below.
Why is the language needed?
- for work
How will the language be used?
- Medium: speaking (the emphasis is on speaking), writing, listening, and
reading.
- types of text discourse : informal conversations
What will the content areas be? - Subject : tourism
- Level : basic
Whom will the andong drivers use the language with?
- native speakers
- Level of knowledge of receiver: various, they can be student, layman, and
expert.
Where will the language be used? - Physical setting: in the street
- Human context: person to person
- Linguistic content: in own country
When will the language be used? - frequently
About the designed materials, the andong drivers suggested that the materials
should be easy to understand. The ability of the andong drivers is still basic, they
expected the materials which were appropriate with their level. From the need
analysis the writer conclude several topics which are wanted to be learn by the
andong drivers. The kinds of topic that they want to learn are as follows.
• Greetings
• Thanking people and replying to thanks
• Describing things and people
• Offering services
• Numbers and prices
• Bargaining
• Giving direction
Further, there were many andong drivers who expected that they could
master the speaking skills. The andong drivers said that most of their
conversations with the foreign visitors done in informal situation so that this
situation requires them to acquire speaking more than other skills.
From the need survey result the writer found that there were12 language
functions chosen out of 25 language functions listed, but there were only 8
language functions that were the most chosen by the andong drivers. And the
result presented as followed:
Table 7: The language function chosen by the andong drivers.
No Language Functions Number of respondent who need
to master the language function
1 Greetings 2
2 Thanking people and replying to
thanks
3
3 Describing things and people 2
4 Telling time 3
5 Offering services 5
6 Numbers and prices 3
7 Bargaining 6
8 Giving direction 6
2. Results of Evaluation of the Designed Materials
In order to get feedback to revise and to improve the designed materials,
the designer distributed the designed materials to 10 respondents. The respondents
respondents were trainers from several courses in Yogyakarta. The data of the
respondents were presented below.
Table 8: The description of the lecturers and trainers.
Sex Educational
a. Description of the data
In this study questionnaires were used to get the data on the evaluation of the
design materials. The respondents gave their evaluation by choosing the
representative numbers from 1 to 5 as the measurement points. The measurement
points can be clarified as follows.
Table 9: The table of the measurement points.
Points of Agreement Meaning 1
At the end of the questionnaires, respondents were asked to give opinions and
suggestions. The result of the questionnaires distributed to 10 respondents can be
