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DESIGNING A SET OF SPEAKING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
IMPLEMENTING TASK-BASED LEARNING FOR THE FIFTH GRADE
ELEMENTARY STUDENTS ATSD KANISIUS TEGALMULYO YOGYAKARTA
A Thesis
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Andrias Haris Cahyo Raharjo Student Number: 041214055
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to give my first gratitude to my Mother Mary and Jesus Christ for blessing myself so that I can finish my study at Sanata Dharma University. Because of them, I am able to walk through my life and in bad times and good times.
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Drs. J.B. Gunawan, M. A., my thesis sponsor, who wants to share his time to guide and give me direction so that I can finish my thesis.
I would like to thank Drs. Paimin for permitting me to conduct my research in his school. My deepest appreciation also goes to my research participants (L. Mawar Buana, Febri Floreta, Frans Cleophas, Sri Nurhidayati, and Christina Lhaksmita Anandari), for their precious inputs, suggestions, and willingness to participate in this study. I thank Antonius Jody and Ratri who have given me a notion and introduced task-based learning.
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I also want to give my biggest gratitude to my dad, Marsudi Raharjo, to my mom, Septi Susilowati, to my brother, Yohanes Suprobo, and to my sister, Maria Hertanti Tri Melania for their love and support when I finish my thesis. They are parts of my happiness and success.
I also thank the one and only, my sweetheart, Margaretha Sinta Septiani Hasibuan for her attention, love, and encouraging words so that I can complete this study. She is the one whom my frustration and love come to and the one who wants to accept my craziness and loyalty.
I also send my gratitude to all of my companions; my honest friend Yosafat Diaswikarta for his support, to my ex-staff in Service Program Design (Kenyar, Adi’Munti’, Festy, Vony, and Putri) for their deepest encouragements, to all of my friends in Practical Teaching /PPL 2 (Silvestra Maria Yessy ’03, Tesada Yane ‘01, and Dita’ 04) for the encouragement, to Christiana Novitawati for her willingness to lend me her thesis, Hermas Bram for his craziness, my ex-band Fur Elise (Surya ‘Last Elise’ and his girl, Seto, Wawan, Denny, Cosmas ‘Lambe’, Rahajeng Titisari, Yudhex, Tyo), my former band Oh, Nina! (Arip and Krisna ‘Simbah bukan Pace-cup’), my latest band, Simon Says (Ervin Oktavan) for his motivation and rocking words, all of my relatives wherever they are, and to all staff at English and Computer course of SMILE GROUP Yogyakarta, especially Mr. Frans and Mrs. Ida for being my material evaluators.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
TITLE PAGE………... i
APPROVAL PAGE……….... ii
DEDICATION PAGE………. iv
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY………... v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……… vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS……….... viii
LIST OF FIGURES……… xii
LIST OF TABLES……….. xiii
ABSTRACT……….... xiv
ABSTRAK..... xvi
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Research Background………. 1
1.2 Problem Formulation………..……… 5
1.3 Problem Limitation………..……….. 5
1.4 Research Objectives……….……….. 5
1.5 Research Benefits……… 5
1.6 Definition of the Key Terms………... 6
CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2.1 Theoretical Description……… 9
2.1.1 Instructional Design Models………….………...… 9
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2.1.1.2 Yalden’s Model……….………... 15
2.1.2 A Brief Description of the School-Based-Curriculum……. 19
2.1.2.1 What Is School-Based-Curriculum?……… 19
2.1.2.2 The Purpose of the School-Based-Curriculum……… 20
2.1.2.3 English Lesson in the Elementary School……… 21
2.1.3 Task Based Learning……… 22
2.1.4 Task Types……….. 28
2.1.5 Speaking Skill……….. 33
2.1.5.1 The Nature of Speaking………... 33
2.1.5.2 Principles for Teaching Speaking……… 34
2.1.6 Syllabus Design……….... 36
2.2 Theoretical Framework……… 37
CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY 3.1 Research Method……….. 44
3.2 Research Participants………... 48
3.3 Research Instruments………... 48
3.3.1 Observation………... 48
3.3.2 Questionnaire………... 49
3.3.3 Interview……….. 50
3.4 Data Gathering Technique………... 51
3.5 Data Analysis Technique………. 51
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CHAPTER IV: RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 The Elaboration of Steps in Designing A Set of Speaking Instructional Materials Implementing Task-Based Learning for the Fifth Grade Elementary Students at SD Kanisius Tegalmulyo……….
57
4.1.1 Research and Information Collecting………... 57
4.1.1.1 Conducting Need Survey……… 58
4.1.2 Planning……….. 64
4.1.2.1 Stating the Competency Standards, Basic Competences, and Topics……… 64
4.1.2.2 Specifying the Learning Indicators………. 66
4.1.3 Developing Preliminary Form of Product……… 68
4.1.3.1 Listing the Subject Content……….. 68
4.1.3.2 Selecting Teaching/ Learning Activities and Resources…. 73 4.1.4 Conducting Preliminary Field Testing………. 75
4.1.4.1 Evaluating……… 75
4.1.5 Revising the Main Product……….. 77
4.1.5.1 Revising………... 78
4.2 Discussion……… 79 4.3 A Brief Description about A Set of Speaking Instructional
Materials Implementing Task-Based Learning for the Fifth Grade Elementary Students at SD Kanisius Tegalmulyo………...
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CHAPTER V: CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS
5.1 Conclusions……….. 82
5.2 Suggestions………... 83
5.2.1 Suggestion for Material Users………. 83
5.2.2 Suggestion for Future Research………... 83
REFERENCES……… 84
APPENDICES……… 86
APPENDIX A: Surat Ijin Penelitian 87 APPENDIX B: The Result of Observation………. 89
APPENDIX C: The Pre-Design Questionnaire……….. 91
APPENDIX D: The Result of Pre-Design Questionnaire………... 98
APPENDIX E: The Post-Design Questionnaire………. 101
APPENDIX F: The Result of Post-Design Questionnaire……….. 105
APPENDIX G: The List of Interview Questions……… 108
APPENDIX H: The Teacher’s Book……….. 111
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
2.1 Kemp’s Instructional Model……….. 14
2.2 Yalden’s Language Program Development………... 18
2.3 Willis’s Task-Based Framework……… 28
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
2.1 Nunan’s Task Classification……….. 30
3.1 The Description of the Post-Design Respondents………. 50
3.2 The Description of the Topics for the Designed Materials……… 52
3.3 The Description of the Result of the Post-Designed Questionnaire….. 53
4.1 The Goals and General Purposes of the Materials………. 65
4.2 The Learning Topics and Basic Competences………... 66
4.3 The Learning Indicators………. 67
4.4 The Description of the Respondents’ Background……… 75
xv ABSTRACT
Raharjo, Andrias Haris Cahyo. 2009. Designing A Set of Speaking Instructional Materials Implementing Task-Based Learning for the Fifth Grade Elementary Students at SD Kanisius Tegalmulyo. Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program, Sanata Dharma University.
As the implementation of the School- Based Curriculum has been in progress, the teachers, especially English teachers, at SD Kanisius Tegalmulyo find difficulties in motivating and encouraging the students to achieve the language competence. Since the teachers have lack of creativity in delivering speaking materials due to time and resource limitation, it was an opportunity for this study to help them. This study attempted to design a set of speaking instructional materials for the fifth grade elementary students at SD Kanisius Tegalmulyo implementing task-based learning.
This study was aimed at answering two research questions: (1) how is a set of speaking instructional materials implementing task-based learning for the fifth grade elementary students at SD Kanisius Tegalmulyo designed, and (2) what does the designed set of speaking instructional materials look like.
To answer the first question, the writer combined two instructional design models from Kemp (1977) and Yalden (1983) employing 7 steps. Those steps were merged and put together under the umbrella of Borg & Gall’s (1986) Research and Development methodology (R&D). Due to time and resource limitation, only five out of ten stages of the R&D model were employed. The five steps were: (1) research and information collecting, (2) planning, (3) developing preliminary form of product, (4) preliminary field testing, and (5) main product revision.
To obtain the necessary data, information collecting was conducted in exchange of the need survey by distributing the questionnaires to all students in the classroom, interviewing two English elementary teachers, and conducting a-three-time observation in the classroom. The designed set of speaking instructional materials was then evaluated by distributing the questionnaires to two English elementary teachers at SD Kanisius Tegalmulyo, two English instructors, and to one lecturer. The result of the evaluation showed that out of 4 points of agreement, the mean of the degree of agreement of the statements range from 3.6 to 4, indicating that the designed set of speaking instructional materials was ready to be implemented. In addition to the result, the respondents suggested the writer provide the source of the pictures in the student’s book, make the language instructions simpler, keep the titles consistent, and reduce the pages of the student’s book if it was possible to do. All suggestions had been accepted for the sake of the material improvement.
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xvii ABSTRAK
Raharjo, Andrias Haris Cahyo. 2009. Merancang Satu Set Materi Pembelajaran Berbicara dengan Menerapkan Pembelajaran Berdasar Tugas untuk Kelas Lima (5) Sekolah Dasar di SD Kanisius Tegalmulyo. Yogyakarta: Program Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Sebagaimana penerapan Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan (KTSP) telah berlangsung, para guru SD Kanisius Tegalmulyo, khususnya bahasa Inggris, menjumpai kesulitan-kesulitan dalam memotivasi dan mendorong para siswa untuk mencapai kompetensi bahasa. Semenjak para guru memiliki keterbatasan kreatifitas dalam menyampaikan materi berbicara yang disebabkan oleh keterbatasan waktu dan sumber bahan ajar, hal tersebut merupakan kesempatan bagi studi ini untuk membantu para guru. Studi ini berupaya untuk merancang satu set materi pembelajaran berbicara untuk kelas lima (5) sekolah dasar di SD Kanisius Tegalmulyo yang menerapkan pembelajaran berdasar pada tugas.
Studi ini berupaya menjawab 2 masalah penelitian: (1) bagaimana satu set materi pembelajaran berbicara untuk kelas lima (5) sekolah dasar di SD Kanisius Tegalmulyo yang menerapkan pembelajaran berdasar pada tugas dirancang, (2) seperti apakah rancangan satu set materi pembelajaran berbicara tersebut.
Untuk menjawab pertanyaan pertama, penulis menggabungkan 2 model rancangan pembelajaran dari Kemp (1977) dan Yalden (1983) yang menggunakan 7 langkah. Langkah -langkah tersebut digabungkan dan diletakkan bersama di bawah payung Borg dan Gall (1986) yaitu metodologi penelitian dan pengembangan (R&D). Karena keterbatasan waktu dan sumber, hanya 5 dari 10 langkah metodologi penelitian dan pengembangan (R&D) tersebut yang digunakan. Kelima langkah tersebut adalah (1) penelitian dan pengumpulan informasi, (2) perencanaan, (3) pengembangan produk pendahuluan, (4) uji pendahuluan lapangan, dan (5) perbaikan produk utama.
Untuk mendapatkan data yang diperlukan, pengumpulan informasi dilakukan sebagai bentuk pertukaran dari survey kebutuhan dengan mengedarkan kwesioner kepada seluruh siswa di kelas, mewawancarai kedua guru bahasa Inggris, dan melakukan 3 kali observasi di dalam kelas. Rancangan materi pembelajaran berbicara kemudian dievaluasi dengan mengedarkan kwesioner kepada 2 guru bahasa Inggris SD Kanisius Tegalmulyo, 2 instruktur lembaga bahasa Inggris, dan 1 dosen. Hasil evaluasi menunjukkan bahwa di luar 4 poin persetujuan, nilai tengah dari tingkat persetujuan pernyataan berkisar dari 3.6 ke 4 yang menunjukkan bahwa materi pembelajaran berbicara yang dirancang telah siap untuk diterapkan. Sebagai tambahan terhadap hasil penelitian, para responden menganjurkan kepada penulis untuk menyertakan sumber dari gambar-gambar yang ada di buku guru (materi yang bisa difotokopi), membuat bahasa instruksi di buku siswa lebih singkat, menjaga judul unit tetap konsisten, dan, halaman di buku siswa diperpendek atau dikurangi kalau memungkinkan. Segala saran diterima penulis demi peningkatan materi.
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8 unit. Setiap unitnya dibagi menjadi 6 bagian yaitu “Stimulation”, “Let’s Voice It”, “Let’s Study It”, “Let’s Do It”, “Language Focus”, dan “Sum It Up”.
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, the writer of this study would like to divide this chapter into six (6) parts. They are namely research background, problem formulation, problem limitation, research objectives, research benefits, and definition of the key terms. Each part in this chapter is going to be explained clearly and reasonably by the writer.
1.1 Research Background
English is a very important language. Many people around the world have considered English as one of the most important languages since it is used as a means of communication in today’s society. In Indonesia, English serves as a foreign language that is taught starting from the elementary school. Consequently, an investigation in all aspects of the teaching of English needs to be urgently conducted. There are many students in the elementary school who still do not comprehend in practicing and using English as a means of communication. They want to be able to use English as a foreign language to communicate with others, but there are some factors that make the students have lack of learning and applying English language as a means of communication. One of the factors is the availability of short-limited designed books or materials in English for elementary students especially for speaking or conversation.
production (Nunan, 2003: 48). However, the students sometimes can hardly speak in English. They become passive since they are afraid of making mistakes and they appear to be unable to grab as many vocabularies as possible in order to be used in speaking. In this case, the teachers should be careful in providing and teaching the available materials that can make elementary students interested in what they learn. Teaching speaking seems to be uneasy job. There are some difficulties that had become a barrier in learning English. Those difficulties are: teachers’ lack of creativity, students’ lack of motivation and courage, etc. These problems seemingly also occur not only in Indonesia but also in other countries. Without a good approach in motivating the students to study, it seems to be difficult to transfer the knowledge from the teacher to the students. Thus, Task-Based Learning, as one of the best approaches in teaching and learning activities, shares its notions providing some successful phases in accomplishing the teaching and learning process.
purpose of the applied curriculum. Task-Based Learning is utterly needed by the students who want to be able to learn and use English as a means of communication in today’s society. This approach shares the notions in teaching and learning activities with fun, more understandable activities, easier technique to attract the student’s motivation, more real-tasks, and purposeful material sources. To prove that the Task-Based Learning is successful to teach speaking English, the research target is needed for the sake of applying the designed speaking materials in this case. The writer chooses SD Kanisius Tegalmulyo as a research setting. Having conducted observation in this school, the writer finds that the teachers are having the same difficulties, as stated above, in motivating students to learn English as a foreign language, exploring creativity in teaching and learning activity, and employing a significant approach for teaching and learning experiences.
The fact that the English lesson is not going to be assessed in the national examination (UAN) for the elementary school does not decrease the writer’s will and motivation to help the fifth grade elementary students to learn English, especially speaking skill. This skill helps the elementary students to practice English in order to be able to apply it to daily conversation with friends or society. For this purpose, the writer will design or provide the designed set of speaking instructional materials for the fifth grade of elementary school, of course, the designed materials will also be adapted with the curriculum which is currently applied.
learning for this study is because there is a connection between interesting teaching and learning activities and the students’ learning motivation.
1.2 Problem Formulation
The problems are formulated as the following:
1. How is the designed set of speaking instructional materials implementing Based-Learning for the fifth grade elementary students at SD Kanisius
Tegalmulyo designed?
2. What does the designed set of speaking instructional materials look like? 1.3 Problem Limitation
The writer only focuses his attention on designing a set of speaking instructional materials implementing Task-Based Learning (TBL) for the fifth grade elementary students. The target learners are the fifth grade elementary students at SD Kanisius Tegalmulyo Yogyakarta.
1.4 Research Objectives
In this section, the writer would like to formulate the objectives of this thesis. The objectives are stated as the following:
1. To figure out the steps in designing a set of speaking instructional materials by implementing Task-Based Learning for the fifth grade elementary students at SD Kanisius Tegalmulyo Yogyakarta is designed. 2. To present the designed set of speaking instructional materials.
1.5 Research Benefits
The writer hopes that this thesis will be utterly beneficial for the sake of teaching and learning of English lesson at SD Kanisius Tegalmulyo
Yogyakarta and it is also expected to give a lot of contributions for English teachers to enhance and strengthen the teaching of language particularly speaking in English.
2. English elementary school teachers and novice teachers
The writer hopes that this thesis will contribute some information concerning to the designed set of speaking instructional materials to teach speaking and help them choose their stance on.
3. The researchers or the students who want would like to conduct further research
The writer hopes that the next students of English Language Study Program or researchers will have a much more study of designing a set of speaking instructional materials implementing Task-Based Learning (TBL) to teach the students of elementary school.
4. Department of National Education
The writer hopes that this thesis will lead the Department of National Education to start pondering on English language teaching in Indonesia so that they can make the goal, process, and assessment of successful learning walk in harmony.
1.6 Definition of the Key Terms
1. The term “design”, according to Hornby (1974: 234), it means making such general arrangement or planning of a book. The plan in this study is to design a set of speaking instructional materials containing of activities to be applied by the teachers to the fifth grade elementary students in the classroom.
2. The term “speaking” refers to kind of active or productive interaction that makes use of the aural medium (Widdowson, 1979:59). Aural media means mouth, lips, tongue, and other oral activities. In speaking, a message is transferred from the speaker to hearer. The speaker produces the message, and the hearer receives it. In this study, the writer designs a set of materials for speaking English.
3. The term “instructional materials” refers to the materials (films, slides, recordings, computers, and so on) of instruction designed by the teachers (Kemp, 1977:7). In this study, the researcher or writer will design a set of materials of speaking consisting of instructions in each meeting and it is finally applied by the teacher itself to the fifth grade elementary students. 4. The term “task” according to Long (1985:89), as quoted by Nunan
5. The term “task-based learning”, according to Richards and Rodgers (2001: 223), refers to an approach of language learning which is based on the use of tasks as the core unit of planning and instruction in language teaching-learning. The plan in this study is to design a set of English speaking materials implementing task-based approach.
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
In this chapter, the writer is going to clarify what theories related to designing a set of speaking instructional materials implementing task-based learning for the fifth grade elementary students are. This chapter is divided into two main parts. The first part is theoretical description which involves instructional design models, a brief description of the school- based curriculum (kurikulum tingkat satuan pendidikan), task-based learning, task types, speaking skills, and syllabus design. The second part is theoretical framework. In this second part, the writer is going to clarify what framework the writer used to conduct the process in designing a set of speaking instructional materials for the fifth grade elementary students is.
2.1 Theoretical Description
As what have stated above, theoretical description is divided into six (6) main parts to be clarified. They are instructional design models, a brief description about school-based curriculum, task-based learning, task types, speaking skills, and syllabus design.
2.1.1 Instructional Design Models
2.1.1.1 Kemp’s Model
For the sake of designing materials, Kemp’s instructional model plan offers a flexible process. This first model is going to be adapted by the writer in his thesis. Kemp’s model is appropriate to be applied to the elementary school because it is as effectively as the learning process will be pursued.
Kemp’s model, in his book entitled Instructional Design- A Plan for Unit and Course Development, also offers meaningful steps to be followed. These steps are based on the learners’ needs and characteristics to achieve a successful learning process. Kemp’s (1977:8) model leads to the three essential questions to be answered in designing such instructional materials. They are:
1. What must be learned? (objectives)
2. What procedures and resources will work best to reach the desired learning levels? (activities and resources)
3. How will we know when the required learning has taken place? (evaluation)
The second element is learner characteristics. In his book, Kemp argues that when the instructional plan would like to assure both individual’s success and group’s success in educational program, the instructional material designer has to obtain information about the learners’ capabilities, needs, and interests. In order to design an appropriate instructional plan, Kemp also suggests that the instructional material designer decide for himself which of the following characteristics of the students would be most helpful to know. The students’ characteristics include
academic factors and social factors. Academic factors can be number of students, academic background, level of intelligence, reading level, scores on standardized achievement and aptitude tests, motivation for studying, study habits, expectation of the course, vocational and cultural aspirations. Social factors include age, maturity, attention span, special talents, physical and emotional handicaps, relations among students, and socioeconomics situation.
The third element is learning objectives. This third element, according to Kemp (1977:23), is essential because learning requires active effort by the learner. Kemp also argues that good teachers have always told their students what performance and achievement levels were to be expected of them at test time. Kemp also states that writing objectives is a developmental activity that requires refinements, changes, and additions as the instructional designer develops subsequent planning steps.
instructional designers with their planning, Kemp (1977) mentions that there are some questions to be considered before listing the content for a topic of the designed material later on.
1. What specifically must be taught or learned in this topic? 2. What facts, concepts, and principles relate to this topic?
3. What steps are involved in necessary procedures relating to this topic? 4. What techniques are required in performing essential skills?
The fifth element is pre-assessment. Kemp (1977), in his book, argues that the use of pre-assessment is to figure out specifically to what extent each student has acquired the necessary prerequisites for studying the topic and to what the student may have already mastered about the subject to be studied.
The sixth element is teaching/learning activities and resources. Kemp, here, suggests that the instructional material designers determine the most efficient and effective methods and then select materials to provide learning experiences to that will utilize the content associated with each objective. Kemp, in his book, also conveys that there are three basic methods of teaching and learning. They are presentation to a group, individualized learning, and teacher-student interaction.
aspects of the institution (student schedules, guidance services, and so forth) must be given.
The last element would be evaluation. According to Kemp (1977), one way to determine whether an instructor is teaching for high-level objectives (applying principles and problem solving methods in the cognitive area, using tools and operating equipment under the motor-skill performance category or appreciation as attitudinal objective) is to examine the final examination or other evaluation instrument.
In a concise explanation, the steps in designing instructional materials, which is suggested by Kemp (1977) in his book entitled Instructional Design- A Plan for Unit and Course Development, can be stated as follows:
Step 1 Consider goals, then lists topics, stating the general purposes for teaching each topic.
Step 2 Enumerate the important characteristics of the learners for whom the instruction is to be designed.
Step 3 Specify the learning objectives to be achieved in terms of measurable student behavioral outcomes.
Step 4 List the subject content to support each objective.
Step 5 Develop pre-assessment to determine the students’ background and present level of knowledge about the topic.
Step 7 Coordinate such support services as budget, personnel, facilities, equipment, and schedules to carry out the instructional plan.
Step 8 Evaluate students’ learning in terms of their accomplishment of objectives, with a view to revising and reevaluating any phases of the plan that need improvement.
Kemp (1977: 9) conveys that the whole processes are flexible. It is composed of many interrelated parts and functions that must operate in a coherent manner in order to achieve success. Designing a model of materials should be step-by-step in the process. If the teachers know how to adapt Kemp’s model into the real situation, then the teacher will be able to attract the students’ motivation in learning process. The Kemp’s model instructional plans show the characteristics of how the whole ways of teaching and learning process are connected. This figure will illustrate the interdependence among the eight elements in the instructional design proposed by Kemp (1977: 9).
In this study, the writer adapts some steps from Kemp’s model (1977). They are specifying goals, topics, and general purposes, specifying learning objectives, listing the subject content, selecting teaching/learning activities resources, conducting evaluation, and conducting revision. The further explanation of this study’s steps of designing instructional materials will be clarified in theoretical framework at the end of chapter 2.
2.1.1.2 Yalden’s Model
For the sake of designing the appropriate speaking materials, the writer also bases his study on Yalden’s model (1983). This model will be meaningful for the writer especially when the writer decides to design a communicative syllabus.
Yalden (1983), in her book entitled The Communicative Syllabus Evolution, Design, and Implementation, argues that the principles in a structured syllabus are different from those for selecting the linguistic content to be included in it. Yalden (1983: 86-87) also proposes a large number of components into the make-up of the syllabus. The components, in which she proposes in her book, deal with the term a communicative syllabus. The components of a communicative syllabus include:
1. The purposes for which the learners wish to acquire the target language. 2. The setting in which the learners will want to use the target language
5. The language function involved in communicative events, or what the learners will need to be able to do with or through the language.
6. The notions involved, or what the learners will need to be able to talk about.
7. The skills involved in the “knitting together” of discourse: discourse and
rhetorical skills.
8. The variety or varieties of the target language that will be needed, and the levels in the spoken and written language which the learners will need to reach.
9. The grammatical content that will be needed. 10. The lexical content that will be needed.
Yalden (1983: 88) states that it is better to start the next higher level in the language learning/teaching process in order to comprehend the process of constructing communicative syllabus. According to Yalden also, there are eight steps (8) in developing or designing a communicative syllabus. Each step clearly explains what the principles or decisions are in designing a communicative syllabus. The steps are stated as follows:
1. Need Survey
much about the learners as possible prior to the beginning of the program, in order to establish realistic and acceptable objectives.
2. The description of purpose
After the need survey has completed, Yalden (1983: 105) proposes the next stage of designing a communicative syllabus. It is going to be description of the purpose. The use of this stage, according to Yalden, is to clarify the purpose of language program and to establish the foundation for the major decision facing the language course designer when the designer of certain educational plan arrives at the choice of a syllabus type.
3. The choice of a syllabus type
After completing the general category for a course, Yalden (1983: 108) says that the next step in designing instructional materials is the choice of a syllabus type. Yalden (1983, 109) mentions six (6) types of communicative syllabus design. They are structural-functional syllabus, structures- functions syllabus, variable focus syllabus, functional syllabus, fully notional syllabus, and fully communicative syllabus.
4. Production of a proto-syllabus
5. Production of pedagogical syllabus
In this step, Yalden (1983: 144) suggests that it is important that the syllabus designers conside developing communicative competence. It means that the designers employ the pedagogical syllabus providing a repertoire of words and phrases, chosen as exponents of functions and suitable to the topics identified as important to the learners.
6. Development of classroom procedure
According to Yalden, once syllabus designers come to this stage, it is highly suggested for them to select teaching techniques and types of exercise, to prepare lesson plans, and to prepare weekly schedules.
7. Evaluation
The last step of syllabus design is evaluation. There are two aspects dealing with this phase according to Yalden. First, one would wish to evaluate or test the students in the program. Second, the teaching as well as the over-all design of the course should be assessed. It is very important to do this final step, because one needs to measure the whole process of teaching and learning.
The whole steps proposed by Yalden (1083) can be illustrated as a figure below.
Figure 2.2: Yalden’s Language Program Development (Yalden, 1983: 88)
Needs Survey Description Of purpose Selection/ Develop-ment of syllabus type Produc-tion of a Proto-syllabus
Produc-tion of a
In this study, the writer employs some steps in designing a set of instructional materials from Yalden’s model (1983). They are conducting need analysis/ survey, and evaluation. The further explanation of the steps of this study can be figured out in theoretical framework.
2.1.2 A Brief Description of the School-Based-Curriculum (KTSP)
For the sake of designed materials, the next step which is considered important by the writer, is explaining the recent curriculum in elementary schools. It is significant since the thesis adopts some components found in the curriculum to the designed materials for assistance.
2.1.2.1 What Is School-Based-Curriculum?
2.1.2.2 The Purpose of the School-Based-Curriculum
Since any applied curriculum is reliable and meaningful, it should be clear what the basic purpose of the curriculum itself is. Mulyasa (2008: 22) mentions three purposes of School-Based-Curriculum in order to achieve the teaching and learning process. Three purposes are stated as the following:
1. To develop education quality through independency and initiative of each school in developing curriculum, organizing, and using provided resources.
2. To develop the awareness of school members and society in curriculum development through taking decision all together.
3. To develop a healthy competition among the schools about the education quality in which wants to achieve.
Three purposes above become a paramount base to achieve a worthwhile teaching and learning process. It becomes an important value for the writer to ponder the purpose of School-Based-Curriculum because it has something to do with the designed material product later. To carry out the curriculum, the writer comes to a thought about what base in designing material content, learning activity, and learning experience is.
The purposes of English lesson to be taught in elementary schools have two major significances. First, it is to develop communication ability orally and it is restrictedly to accompany the action in school context. Second, it is to possess the awareness of the essence and importance of English to increase the globalization era competition.
2.1.2.3 English Lesson in the Elementary School
In his book, Mulyasa (2008: 50) cites that English acts as a secondary lesson (muatan lokal) for the elementary schools which aims at developing competence being appropriate with the characteristics and the potentiality of each area in this country. English lesson should be taught to achieve four elements of function. They are performative, functional, informational, and epistemic
function. In performative level, the students are expected to be able to read, to write, to listen, and to speak using the used symbols. In functional level, the students are expected to be able to use the language for the sake of daily needs such as reading newspapers, instructions, or manual. In informational level, the students are expected to be able to access knowledge and language ability. In
epistemic level, the students are expected to be able to express knowledge through target language.
employs some of the components in School-Based-Curriculum to determine what kind of goals, topics, and purposes in teaching and learning activities should be.
The designed material of the writer’s would like to combine between the curriculum applied and the need analysis. The writer is going to adopt the standard competences and basic competences from the curriculum itself to design what kind of speaking materials content will be. The writer is also going to design the material content based on the need analysis in order to decide the specific topic of speaking instructional materials in each unit.
The writer intends to develop a set of speaking instructional materials for the fifth grade elementary students by the assistance of need analysis and the School-Based- Curriculum. Having known the purpose of basic competences and standard competences in the curriculum, the writer would like to utilize both aspects in designing a set of speaking instructional materials.
2.1.3 Task Based Learning
Before the writer begins with the approach used in designing a set of speaking instructional materials, it is better to discuss about the meaning of the term task. The task, in this thesis, plays an important aspect to determine the content of the materials later on. The role of a task in TBL becomes a foundation to achieve a successful goal of teaching and learning. There is a task definition according Long (1985:89) as quoted by Nunan (2004: 2) in his book.
other words, by “task” is meant the hundred of done things people do in everyday life, at work, at play, and in between. “Tasks” are the things people will tell you they do if you ask them and they are not applied linguists (Long, 1985:89).
Willis (1996: 23) argues that tasks are activities where the target language is being experimented and drawn on by the learners for a communicative goal in order to achieve an outcome. It can be concluded that if the learners use the target language for specific purpose in terms of activities, the learners indirectly learn how the target language is really meaningful for them and may produce an expected result of learning.
Nunan (2004: 2) in his book entitled Task Based Language Teaching
quotes what Richards (1986: 289) inferred about the definition of a task, but Richards defines the term of a task by approaching pedagogical perspective. It is defined as the following
…an activity or action which is carried out as the result of processing or understanding language (i.e. as a response). For example, drawing a map while listening to a tape, listening to an instruction and performing a command may be referred to as tasks. Tasks may or may not involve the production of language. A task usually requires the teacher to specify what will be regarded as successful completion of the task. The use of a variety of different kinds of tasks in language teaching is said to make language teaching more communicative…since it provides a purpose for a classroom activity which goes beyond the practice of language for its own sake (Richards, et al. 1986: 289).
curriculum moves along with the communicative principles, the tasks which are composed should reflect the process of learning. It is intended to make the learning experience more active and the students eager to practice more in target language.
The writer would like to explain the paramount theory in designing a set of speaking instructional materials. Task-Based learning is an approach adapted by the writer to design a set of speaking instructional materials. TBL becomes a part of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) which has similar approach to School-Based- Curriculum in carrying the teaching and learning process out.
The writer in this thesis would like to design a set of communicative tasks inspired by those two definitions above about a task. What Willis and Long state about a task becomes an input or notion to the writer before he begins to design a set of speaking instructional materials. The writer is eager to design communicative tasks which enable the learners to be more active in learning process, to trigger the learners’ motivation, and to achieve the successful target language. Thus, the TBL approach, as part of Communicative Language Teaching, is used to figure out the steps in designing such material content.
to design a set of English speaking materials containing of tasks which trigger the students in learning English as a foreign language.
Richards and Rodgers (2001:225) also add that tasked-based learning (TBL) identifies several key areas of concern. They are stated as the following:
a. Analysis of real-world task-use situations
b. The translation of these into teaching tasks descriptions c. The detailed design of instructional tasks
d. The sequencing of instructional tasks in classroom teaching/training Since the approach brings about a change in the process of teaching and learning in the class, it is considered important to state the learning theory in TBL. TBL as a part of Communicative Language Teaching shares the learning theory as a base for providing or designing tasks and activities in the teaching and learning process. Richards and Rodgers (2001:228) underlie fundamental assumptions of TBL theory. They are:
a. Tasks provide both input and output processing necessary for language acquisition
b. Task activity and achievement are motivational
c. Learning difficulty can be negotiated and fine-tuned for particular pedagogical purposes
given. They will have the opportunity to share their meaning, and when the come to this such process, they will listen and learn to each other about the language used during interacting.
Long and Crookes, as quoted by Larsen and Freeman (2000: 149) in her book, identify three different types of TBL. The first is procedural. Second, based on Breen and Cadlin’s notion (1980), language learning should be seen as a process which grows out of communicative interaction. For example, the teachers and the students decide together on which tasks to do. The third is that task-based language teaching which focuses on meaningful interaction while still drawing students’ attention to language form as needed.
Nunan (2004: 35) states that TBL should provide several principles to conduct communicative learning in the class. There are seven principles according to Nunan. They are scaffolding, task dependency, recycling, active learning, integration, reproduction to creation, and the last is reflection. These all principles bases the way TBL undergo in the framework of teaching and learning. The writer tries to clarify the seven principles of TBL proposed by Nunan in his book. First, in scaffolding phase, lessons and materials should provide supporting frameworks within which the learning takes place. At the beginning of the learning process, learners should not be expected to produce language that has not been introduced either explicitly or implicitly.
phase, the learners are led step by step to the point where the students are able to carry out the final task in the sequence.
The third is recycling. In this phase, recycling languages maximizes opportunities for learning and activates the “organic” learning principles. It means that the learners are able to encounter target language items in a range of different environments, both linguistics and experiential by.
The fourth is active learning. In this step, the learners will learn best by actively using the language they are learning. The fifth is integration. In this phase, the learners should be taught in ways that make clear the relationships between linguistics form, communicative function and semantic meaning.
The sixth is reproduction to creation. This step allows the learners to be encouraged to move from reproductive to creative language use. The tasks are designed to give learners mastery of form, meaning, and function in reproductive task.
The last is reflection. In this phase, the learners should be given opportunities to reflect on what they have learned and how well they are doing.
Language Focus
Analysis Practice
Pre-task
Introduction to topic and task
Task Cycle
Task Planning
Report
they are exposure, use, and motivation. Language focus allows a closer study of some of the specific features naturally occurring in the language used during the task cycle. The learners, by this point, will have already worked with the language and processed it for meaning, so they are ready to focus on the specific language forms that carry that meaning.
In a brief explanation, the framework of Task-Based Learning proposed by Willis (1996) in her book can be illustrated as the figure below.
Figure 2.3: Willis’s Task-Based Framework (1996:52)
2.1.4 Task Types
for the writer to ponder which type of task will be applied in his designed materials. Thereby, the writer needs some inspiration from the proponents of task based language learning.
Prabhu, as quoted by Diane and Freeman (2000: 148), identifies three types of task in TBL. First, it is an information-gap activity which involves the exchange of information among participants in order to complete a task. For example, an information-gap activity may involve a student describing a picture for another student to draw or students drawing each others’ family trees after sharing information.
Second, it is an opinion-gap activity which requires that the students give their personal preferences, feelings, or attitudes in order to complete a task. For example, the students may be given a social problem, such as high-unemployment and be asked to explain with series of possible solutions. Another task may be to compose a letter of advice to one of students’ friends who has sought their counsel about a dilemma.
The last or the third type is a reasoning-gap activity which requires the students to derive some new information by inferring it from information they have been given. For instance, the students may be given a railroad timetable and asked to work out the best route to get from one particular city to another or the students may be asked to solve a riddle.
teaching and learning activity. The classification of the task types can be seen below in table 2.1.
Table 2.1: Nunan’s Task Classification COGNITIVE
CLASSIFYING Putting things that are similar together in
groups
PREDICTING Predicting what is to come in the learning
process
INDUCING Looking for the patterns and regularities
TAKING NOTES Writing down the important information in a
text in your own words
CONCEPT MAPPING Showing the main ideas in a text in the form of a map
INFERENCING Using what the learners know to learn
something new
DISCRIMINATING Distinguishing between the main idea and
supporting information
DIAGRAMING Using information from a text to label a
diagram
INTERPERSONAL
CO-OPERATING Sharing ideas and learning with other students
ROLE PLAYING Pretending to be somebody else using the
language for the situation learners are in
LINGUISTIC
CONVERSATIONAL PATTERNS Using expressions to start conversations
PRACTISING Doing controlled exercise to improve
knowledge and skills
USING CONTEXT Using the surrounding context to guess the
meaning of an unknown word, phrase, or concept
SUMMARIZING Picking out and presenting the major points in
a text in summary form
SELECTIVE LISTENING Listening for key information without trying to understand every word
SKIMMING Reading quickly to get a general idea of a text
AFFECTIVE
PERSONALIZING Learners share their own opinions, feelings, and ideas about a subject
SELF-EVALUATING Thinking about how well the learner does on a
learning task, and rating learner itself on a scale
REFLECTING Thinking about ways the learners learn best
CREATIVE
Meanwhile, according to Willis (1996: 26), there are six types of task which encourage the students to achieve an outcome in learning. Six types of the task are:
1. Listing. It involves the process of brainstorming and fact-finding. In brainstorming, the learners use their knowledge and experience either as a class or in pairs/groups. In fact finding, the learners figure out the things by asking each other orther people and referring to books, etc.
2. Ordering and sorting. They involve the process of sequencing items or actions in chronological order, ranking items according to particular criteria, categorizing items, and classifying items in different ways where the categories itself are not clarified.
3. Comparing. It involves the process of matching to identity specific points and to relate them to each other, finding similarities, and finding differences.
4. Problem solving. It involves the process of thinking using the learners’ logic to solve the problem.
5. Sharing personal experiences. It involves the process of orienting. In this process, the learners are engaged in free-talking to share their own experiences to achieve goals of conversation.
Moreover, Pica, et al., as quoted by Richards and Rodgers (2001:234), state that there are five tasks according to the type of interaction that take place in the task accomplishment. They are:
1. Jigsaw tasks. These involve learners combining different pieces of information to form a whole.
2. Information gap-tasks. One student or one group of students has one set of information and another student or group has complementary set of information. They must negotiate and find out what the other party’s information is in order to complete an activity.
3. Problem-solving tasks. These mean the students are given a problem and a set of information. They must arrive at a solution to the problem. There should be a single resolution of the outcome.
4. Decision-making tasks. These mean the students are given a problem for which there are number of possible outcomes and they must choose one through negotiation.
5. Opinion-exchange tasks. These mean the learners engage in discussion and exchange of ideas. They do not need to reach agreement.
2.1.5 Speaking Skill
In this part of the topic, the writer is going to clarify about the nature of speaking and principles for teaching speaking. It is considered important for the writer to explain the basic component before he begins to design English speaking materials. The main point of its is that the writer will lead these related theories to bridge the readers and the designed material, which is going to be a set of speaking instructional materials for the fifth grade of elementary school students, to be presented later. it would be a great opportunity for the writer to explain all the things that base teaching and learning process to the readers.
2.1.5.1 The Nature of Speaking
Speaking, or so-called spoken language, consists of short, often fragmentary utterances, in a range of pronunciations. There is often a great deal of repetition and overlap between one speaker and another, and speakers frequently use non-specific references (Nunan, as quoted from Brown and Yule (1983), 1989: 26).
In his book, Nunan (1989: 27) quotes what Brown and Yule said about language functions. There are transactional function and interactional function. The two of language functions differ to each other. Transactional function is primarily concerned the transfer of information, whereas interactional function, in which the primary purpose of speech, is the maintenance of social relationships.
words and sentences to discourse. The top-down approach suggests that the learners start with the larger chunks of language, which are embedded in meaningful contexts, and use the knowledge of us of these contexts to comprehend and use correctly the smaller elements of language.
Bailey, as quoted by Nunan (2003:48), defines speaking as the productive aural/ oral skill which consists of producing systematic verbal utterances to convey meaning. Bailey also adds some characteristics of spoken language. It is auditory and temporary. Spoken language is prosody. It means that it contains rhythm and stress intonation. Spoken language is immediate feedback. It has also planning and editing which are limited by channel. Channel is the medium of the message.
2.1.5.2 Principles for Teaching Speaking
According to Bailey (1994), as quoted by Nunan (2003:54), there are some principles for teaching speaking which base the whole process in achieving target language. They are stated as the following:
1. Be aware of the differences between second language and foreign language learning contexts. Speaking is learned in two broad contexts (foreign language and language situations). A foreign language context is one where the target language is not the language of communication in the society. A second language context is one where the target language is the language of communication in the society.
they use target language. Fluency is the extent to which speakers use the language quickly and confidently, with few hesitations or natural pauses, false starts, word searches, etc.
3. Provide opportunities for students to talk by using group work or pair work, and limiting teacher talk. Pair work and group work activities can be used to increase the amount of time that learners get to speak in the target language during lessons.
4. Plan speaking tasks that involve negotiation for meaning. It means that checking to see if the teachers understand what the learner has said, clarifying the teachers’ understandings, and confirming that learners understand the teacher’s meaning.
5. Design classroom activities that involve guidance and practice in both transactional and interactional speaking. Interactional speech is communicating with someone for social purposes. It includes both establishing and maintaining social relationships. Transactional speech involves communicating to get something done or to take decisions, including the exchange of goods and/ or services.
2.1.6 Syllabus Design
The next step which is considered important by the writer is deciding the syllabus used in the thesis. The writer in this section is going to clarify the meaning of the syllabus and kinds of the syllabus to which one the examples of the syllabus will be adopted to design the speaking material. It is fundamental for the writer to define the meaning of the syllabus before the writer begins to conduct designing product material.
According to Hutchinson and Waters (1987:80), a syllabus is a document which says what will (or at least what should) be learnt. Syllabuses, on the other hand, are more localized and are based on accounts and records of what actually happens at the classroom level as teachers and learners apply a given curriculum to their own situation (Nunan, 1988:3). Moreover, Nunan (1988:6) defines a syllabus as a statement of content which is used as the basis for planning courses of various kinds, and that the task of the syllabus designer is to select and grade this content.
Nunan (1988: 42) presents the types of syllabus. First is procedural syllabus or process syllabus. It is a syllabus concerning with the classroom processes which stimulate learning.
the task types, then, selecting and sequencing the pedagogical tasks to form a task syllabus.
The third is content syllabus. Nunan (1988:48) argues that a content syllabus is a syllabus derived from some fairly well-defined subject area such as science, social study, specialist subject, etc.
The writer, in this study, adapts task-based syllabus. The reason is because the designed materials will be fit to the approach in which the writer uses. Another reason is task-based syllabus is easier to be employed because it is derived from the need analysis which is conducted by the writer in this study. Indeed, the writer has to do the survey first to get the information about learners’ need, weaknesses, and the type of the tasks which is going to identify.
2.2 Theoretical Framework
the use of tasks as the core unit of planning and instruction in language teaching-learning is called Task-Based Learning. This approach is used by the writer as the basis of his study to design a set of instructional materials.
Designing a set of instructional materials involves a number of procedures to conduct. Therefore, the writer adapts the combination of two instructional design models from Kemp’s model (1977) and Yalden’s model (1983). Teaching speaking, indeed, needs purposes and objectives. The purposes and objectives can be reflected from the use of the syllabus. The syllabus can be defined as a document which says what will (or at least what should) be learnt, according to Hutchinson and Waters (1987:80). The writer, in this study, employs Task-Based syllabus as the choice since it provides target tasks of language learning, pedagogical tasks, and programs of language teaching as Long (1985:91) said quoted by Nunan (1988: 47). The designed materials for the fifth grade elementary students at SD Kanisius Tegalmulyo provide several teaching and learning activities which aim at motivating students to learn and practice English more actively as a target language. Since the current curriculum applied in the elementary school is School-Based-Curriculum, the writer considers that the basic competences and the standard competences, as the core of the curriculum, are the target in achieving goals and or objectives of the desired teaching and learning activities.
There are three phases related to the task delivery in Task-Based Learning: pre-task, task phase, and language focus. Willis (1996:52) proposes the three phases into one framework in which the writer believes if such task delivery occurs in the classroom, the designed materials will be able to achieve target competence. The framework of this study can be expressed bellow.
1. Conducting need survey (Yalden)
First, the writer conducts need survey. In this step, the writer distributes questionnaires to the fifth grade elementary students at SD Kanisius Tegalmulyo to gain the data for the designed materials. The writer studies the base competence and standard competence from School-Based-Curriculum to formulate the questions in the questionnaires.
2. Specifying goals, topics, and purposes (Kemp)
Second, the writer employs Kemp’s model that is specifying goals, topics and purposes in teaching and learning process. The writer, in this step, formulates the task-based syllabus. According to Mulyasa (2008:22), the purpose of the teaching English lesson in School-Based-Curriculum is stated as follows:
1. To develop communication ability orally and it is restrictedly to accompany the action in school context.
2. It is to possess the awareness of the essence and importance of English to increase the globalization era competition.
considering the School-Based-Curriculum’s purpose, is to develop the quality of students’ communication ability in English, especially speaking.
The topics of the designed materials are formulated from the questionnaires’ result. After the data have been gathered, the writer specifies topics to design a set of speaking instructional materials.
The purpose of this study is very important since there many topics in the designed materials which probably make confusion for the teacher. In order to overwhelm the case of confusion, the writer formulates purposes in each topic of the designed material in general. The writer applies the term Basic Competences (BC) to each topic of study, so that there is no bias of purposes in every meeting of the English lesson.
3. Specifying learning objectives (Kemp)
Third, the writer specifies learning objectives. In this stage, the writer identifies what should be learned by the fifth grade elementary students at SD Kanisius Tegalmulyo in terms of learning objective. Since the learning objectives affiliate with the applied school-based-curriculum, the writer identifies the appropriate objectives towards the base competence and standard competence. The writer employs Learning Indicators (LI) for what each meeting of the English lesson should achieve.
4. Listing the subject content (Kemp)
5. Selecting teaching/ learning activities and resources (Kemp)
Fourth, the writer adapts Kemp’s model, it is selecting teaching/ learning activities and resources. Referring to the theory of learning in Task-Based Learning from Richards and Rodgers (2001:228) that:
a. Tasks provide both input and output processing necessary for language acquisition.
b. Task activity and achievement are motivational.
c. Learning difficulty can be negotiated and fine-tuned for particular pedagogical purposes.
The writer ponders those three aspects in providing several activities in the designed speaking materials. Most activities which involve in each meeting of the English lesson will be in the form of information-gap activities, proposed by Prabhu which is quoted by Larsen and Freeman (2000: 148) in their book, in which the activities will exchange the information among the students to achieve the target language well. The steps of tasks delivery should cover three phases proposed by Willis (1996) namely pre-task, task phase, and language focus.
The resources of the designed materials can be formulated from the questionnaires. The writer conducts the observation in the classroom to get the information about the media used in teaching and learning activities. The writer decides to create his own media in the designed materials.
6. Conducting evaluation (Yalden and Kemp)
materials. The writer distributes the questionnaires to the respondents for the sake of revising the designed materials.
7. Revising (Kemp)
Last, the writer conducts revision to the designed set of speaking instructional materials adapting Kemp’s model. The use of feedback and evaluation from the respondents is meaningful for the writer to revise the designed materials so that it would be applicable for the learning experiences in the classroom.
Figure 2.4: The Writer’s Framework in Designing Instructional Model
School- Based-Curriculum
Task-Based Learning
Communicative Task
Instructional Design Steps
Revising
Conducting need analysis
Specifying goals, topics, and purposes
Specifying learning objectives
Selecting teaching and
learning activities and
resources
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
In this chapter, the writer is going to divide this section into six (6) parts. They are namely research method, research participants, research instruments, data gathering technique, data analysis technique and research procedure. In order to make the readers understood, the writer tries to explain each part as efficiently as possible.
3.1 Research Method
The goal of this study is to answer two (2) important problems. First, it is to answer how a set of speaking instructional materials by implementing task-based learning for the fifth grade students of elementary school is designed. Second, it is to answer what a set of speaking instructional materials looks like. Therefore, the educational research and development is employed.
According to Borg and Gall (1983:772), the educational research and development (R&D) is a process used to develop and validate educational products. The objective of this educational research is not to develop products, but rather to discover new knowledge (through basic research) or to answer specific questions about practical problems (through applied research). All three-research strategies- basic, applied, and R&D- are required to bring about educational change.
1. Research and information collecting
It includes review literature, classroom observations, and preparation of report of state of the art.
2. Planning
It includes defining skills, stating objectives determining course sequence, and small scale feasibility testing.
3. Develop preliminary form of product
It includes preparation of instructional materials, handbooks, and evaluation devices.
4. Preliminary field testing
It is conducted in from 1 to 3 schools, using 6 to 12 subjects. Interview, observational and questionnaire data collected and analyzed.
5. Main product revision
The revision of the product is suggested by the preliminary field-test results.
6. Main field testing
It is conducted in 5 to 15 schools with 30 to 100 subjects. Quantitative data on subjects’ pre-course and post-course performance are collected. Results are evaluated with respect to course objectives and are compared with control group data, when appropriate.
7. Operational product revision
8. Operational field testing
It is conducted in 10 to 30 schools involving 40 to 200 subjects. Interview, observational and questionnaire data collected and analyzed.
9. Final product revision
The revision of product is suggested by the operational field-test results. 10. Dissemination and implementation
The report on product is at professional meetings and in journals. Work with publisher who assumes commercial distribution. Monitor distribution to provide quality control.
It can be inferred from the characteristics or cycles above that R&D is a method of research that combines both qualitative (interview, observation) and quantitative research to obtain educational product. Thus, the methodology seems to be appropriate by the writer to adapt for the sake of designing a set of speaking instructional materials.
The second and the third step of the writer’s design model were formulating goals, topics, and purposes and also specifying learning objectives. These steps were in accordance with the planning phase of R&D.
The
