DESIGNING A SET OF ENGLISH INSTRUCTIONAL SPEAKING
MATERIALS FOR THE FIRST SEMESTER STUDENTS OF PROGRAM
KHUSUS SARJANA PERKEBUNAN KELAPA SAWIT INSTITUT PERTANIAN STIPER YOGYAKARTA
USING TASK-BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING
A Thesis
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By:
WIDI ARIANTI VALENTINA Student Number: 011214072
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ART EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wholly praise Jesus Christ for His blessing and wonderful touches through all people who have given me strength and spirit to make the best thing in my life. I would also like to express my greatest gratitude to Mother Marry for the guidance and for making my wishes come true.
I am also very much indebted to Caecilia Tutyandari S.Pd., M.Pd., my major sponsor, and Laurentia Sumarni S.Pd., my co-sponsor, for their patient guidance, careful correction, time and thought, advice and encouragement so that I could finish this thesis. I would also like to thank SR. Margaret O’Donohue for the input, encouragement and being so kind to me.
Besides, my deepest gratitude is addressed to Pak Tri, Pak Andre, Mas Wid, Dura and Pisifera classes, and all lecturers and staff of Program Khusus Sarjana Perkebunan Kelapa Sawit Institut Pertanian Yogyakarta who have given me warm welcome and opportunity in doing my research there.
My sincere gratitude goes to my beloved family: Babe Albertus Hadi Suparyo, Ibu’ Yuliana Maria Astuti, Mba’ Renny, Mba’ Lucy, Adien, Jasson, and Elyon who always give me endless love, support, prayer and encouragement to face the world.
My special thanks go to Astrid, Anggi, Ely, Son and Thesada for the sharing, support, love, and laugh. They always support me with their own way and give me beautiful friendship (keep on fighting friends!). It is nice to have them in my life. I am also grateful to my lovely friends: Novi Bali, Henry, Victor, Tonny, Mas Totok, Nino, Prima, Pom2, Suci, Siska and all PBI 2001 students for the wonderful friendship and “the lesson” I have learnt.
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I am grateful to Mas Giwang for the illustrations, Ginting for sharing experiences, Bona (my little brother), Niken and Novi for being great partners, Dani for the margins, Mba’ Andri, and Mas Kiki for always being ready to help me. I thank to Dhika for giving me the “cross” and “wings”. They will always strengthen me.
I would like to give my special thank to Frans Denol Swarse for the love, understanding, patience, support and prayer. “We have learnt many things together so don’t worry, everything will be okay”.
Finnaly, I would also like to thank Sanata Dharma University and all PBI lecturers from whom I have learnt many things including the values of life; and all staff of Sanata Dharma University who have given me their smile and best service. May God bless them.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
TITLE PAGE ……… i
PAGES OF APPROVAL ………. ii
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ……….. iv
PAGE OF DEDICATION ……… v
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ……… vi
TABLES OF CONTENTS ……… viii
LIST OF TABLES ……… x
LIST OF FIGURES ………... xi
LIST OF APPENDICES ………. xii
ABSTRACT ……….. xiii
ABSTRAK ……….. xv
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ……… 1
A. Background ……… 1
B. Problem Identification ……….. 3
C. Problem Limitation ……… 3
D. Problem Formulation ………... 4
E. Objectives of the Research ……… 4
F. Benefits of the Study ……….. 5
G. Definition of Terms ……… 6
CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW ……… 8
A. Theoretical Description ………... 8
1. Instructional Design Model ………... 8
a. Yalden’s Model ………... 8
b. Kemp’s Mode ………... 11
2. English for Specific Purpose ………... 13
a. Criteria of ESP ………... 13
b. Categorization of ESP ………... 14
3. Task-Based Language Teaching ……….. 15
a. The objective of TBLT ………... 15
b. The characteristics of TBLT ……….. 16
c. Types of Tasks ………... 18
d. The procedures ………... 19
e. The learner roles ………... 20
f. The teacher roles ………... 21
g. The role of Instructional Material in TBLT ……….. 22
4. Syllabus ………. 22
a. Syllabus Types ………... 22
b. Reason for having syllabus in ESP ………. 23
5. Speaking Skill ……….. 25
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b. Teaching Techniques ……….. 25
B. Theoretical Framework ……… 29
CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY ……….. 32
A. Research Methodology ………... 32
1. Pre-design Survey ………... 32
2. Material Development ………... 33
3. Post-design Survey ……… 33
B. Respondent of the Survey Study ……… 34
C. Research Instruments ………... 35
1. Questionnaire ……… 35
2. Interview ………... 36
D. Data Gathering ………... 36
E. Data Analysis ………... 37
F. Research Procedures ……….. 38
CHAPTER IV: RESEARCH RESULT AND DISCUSSION .……….... 41
A. The Steps involved in Designing a Set of Materials ………... 41
1. Conducting a Needs Survey ……….. 41
2. Considering the Goals, Listing the Topics and Stating General Purposes ………... 45
3. Specifying the Learning Objectives ……… 46
4. Selecting Syllabus Type ...………... 46
5. Listing the Subject Contents ……… 46
6. Selecting the Teaching or Learning Activities and Instructional Resources ……….. 47
7. Evaluation ………... 48
B. The Result of the Survey Administered to evaluate the Design Set of Materials and Evaluation Instruments ……… 49
1. Description of the Respondents ……….. 49
2. Data Presentation in the Form of Descriptive Statistics ……….. 50
3. Respondents’ Comments on the Designed Set of Materials ……… 52
4. Respondents’ Suggestions on the Designed Set of Materials ……… 53
C. Discussion of the Design Set of Materials Evaluation ………... 53
D. Presentation of the Designed Set of Materials ………... 55
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS ………... 58
A. Conclusions …..……… 58
B. Suggestions …..……… 59
BIBLIOGRAPHY ……… 61
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Stages in Language Program Development ………... 9
Table 3.2: The Description of the Respondents (Blank) ……….. 34
Table 3.3: The Descriptive Statistic of respondents’ Opinion (Blank) ……….. 38
Table 4.4: The Result of the Needs Survey ……… 42
Table 4.5: The Description of the Respondents ……….. 50
Table 4.6: The Descriptive Statistic of Respondents’ Opinions …………... 51
Table 4.7: The Titles and Contents ………... 55
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Yalden’s Model ……… 10
Figure 2.2: Kemp’s Model .……….. 12
Figure 2.3: The Writer’s Model ……….. 31
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LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Letters of Research Permission and Statement ……….. 63
Appendix 2: Research Questionnaire ………. 65
Appendix 3: The Syllabus ………... 72
xiii ABSTRACT
Valentina, Widi Arianti. 2007. Designing a Set of English Instructional Speaking Materials for the First Semester Students of Program Khusus Sarjana Perkebunan Kelapa Sawit Institut Pertanian STIPER Yogyakarta Using Task-Based Language Teaching. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.
Program Khusus Sarjana Perkebunan Kelapa Sawit (Program Khusus SPKS) is a study program of Agricultural Faculty Institut Pertanian STIPER Yogyakarta. This program aims to prepare agricultural experts with special skill to work at oil palm plantations or companies.
Program Khusus SPKS Institut Pertanian STIPER realized that besides giving the students with special knowledge about oil palm, it needs to provide the students with opportunity to practice English speaking. English is much needed for their study or their future job. Task-Based Language Teaching gives the learners abundant opportunity to interact by doing various and purposeful tasks.
There were two problems formulated in this study. The first problem was how to design a set of English instructional speaking materials for the first semester students of Program Khusus SPKS Institut Pertanian STIPER Yogyakarta using Task-Based Language Teaching. The second one was about how to present the designed set of materials.
In order to solve the first problem, the writer adapted the two models of instructional program design suggested by Kemp and Yalden. The outcome of the modification was seven steps used to design the materials. They were: (1) Conducting Needs survey, (2) Considering the Goals, Listing the Topics and Stating General Purposes, (3) Specifying the Learning Objectives, (4) Selecting Syllabus Type, (5) Listing the Subject Contents, (6) Selecting the Teaching or Learning activities and Instructional Resources, and (7) Evaluation.
Moreover, the writer conducted Pre-design survey, Material Development, and Post-design survey. The Pre-design survey was conducted by interviewing the lecturers and distributing questionnaire for the students of Program Khusus SPKS Institut Pertanian STIPER. The result of the pre-design survey was used as the basis for developing English instructional speaking materials which are suitable for the students.
After completing the designed materials, the writer conducted Post-design survey to obtain opinions, comments, and suggestions from the respondents towards the existing materials. The respondents were 3 English lecturers, one English consultant and 2 English instructors. The data obtained were then analyzed. The result of the analysis showed that the means ranged from 4 to 4.5. It means that the designed set of materials is good and acceptable.
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ABSTRAK
Valentina, Widi Arianti. 2007. Designing a Set of English Instructional Speaking Materials for the First Semester Students of Program Khusus Sarjana Perkebunan Kelapa Sawit Institut Pertanian STIPER Yogyakarta Using Task-Based Language Teaching. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.
Program Khusus Sarjana Perkebunan Kelapa Sawit (Program Khusus SPKS) merupakan salah satu program studi yang terdapat di Fakultas Pertanian Institut Pertanian STIPER Yogyakarta. Program ini bertujuan untuk menyiapkan sarjana pertanian dengan kompetensi khusus, yaitu sarjana yang siap bekerja di perkebunan ataupun perusahaan kelapa sawit.
Program Khusus SPKS Institut Pertanian STIPER menyadari bahwa disamping mahasiswa dibekali dengan pengetahuan tentang kelapa sawit, mereka juga perlu memperoleh keterampilan berbicara dalam Bahasa Inggris. Bahasa Inggris sangat diperlukan oleh para mahasiswa baik dalam studi ataupun pekerjaan mereka kelak. Pengajaran Berbahasa Berbasis Tugas memberikan kesempatan bagi para mahasiswa untuk berinteraksi dengan menggunakan bahasa Inggris dalam menyelesaikan tugas-tugas yang beraneka ragam dan bertujuan jelas.
Studi ini membahas dua permasalahan. Yang pertama berkaitan dengan bagaimana merancang seperangkat materi keterampilan berbicara Bahasa Inggris untuk mahasiswa semester 1 Program Khusus SPKS Institut Pertanian STIPER Yogyakarta menggunakan Pengajaran Bahasa Berbasis Tugas. Sedangkan permasalahan yang kedua berkenaan dengan penyajian materi tersebut.
Untuk menyelesaikan masalah yang pertama, penulis memodifikasi model-model perancangan materi yang dikemukakan oleh Kemp dan Yalden. Hasil dari modifikasi tersebut adalah 7 langkah yang digunakan untuk mendesain materi. Langkah-langkah tersebut adalah: (1) Mengadakan analisis kebutuhan siswa, (2) Mempertimbangkan tujuan, membuat daftar topik-topik, menyatakan tujuan di setiap topic, (3) Mengkhususkan tujuan pembelajaran, (4) Memilih jenis silabus, (5) Membuat daftar isi materi pembelajaran, (6) Menyeleksi kegiatan belajar mengajar dan sumber-sumber pengajaran, (7) Mengevaluasi.
Penulis juga mengadakan Survei Pra-desain, Pengembangan Materi, dan Survei Paska-desain. Survei Pre-desain dilakukan melalui wawancara dengan dosen dan membagikan kuisioner kepada mahasiswa Program Khusus SPKS Institut Pertanian STIPER. Hasil dari survei ini digunakan sebagai dasar untuk mengembangan materi yang sesuai bagi mahasiswa.
Setelah menyelesaikan seperangkat materi tersebut, penulis mengadakan survei Paska-desain untuk memperoleh pendapat, komentar, dan saran dari para responden. Para responden terdiri dari 3 dosen Bahasa Inggris, 1 konsultan Bahasa Inggris, dan 2 instruktur Bahasa Inggris. Data yang diperoleh kemudian dianalisa. Hasil dari analisa tersebut menunjukkan bahwa nilai rata-rata berkisar antara 4 sampai 4,5. Ini berarti rancangan materi yang sudah dibuat sudah baik dan dapat diterima.
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ini terdiri dari 8 unit. Isi dari unit-unit tersebut adalah ‘What’s up?’, ‘Try it!’, ‘Do you know about it?’, dan ‘Be active!’.
1 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. Background
Nowadays, English has become a basic requirement for people in Indonesia who are involved in areas or work places where they meet a lot of foreigners. We can find that English is widely used in many aspects of life such as in politics, trade, entertainment, and education.
In this era of globalization, Indonesia often makes cooperation with many foreigners or investors who take roles in various fields, especially trade or business. English, which is used internationally as the language for communication among nations, becomes a compulsory language to master. It is for the reason that now job seekers are expected to show their mastery in English.
Institut Pertanian STIPER, an institute of agriculture in Yogyakarta is concerned with the quality of the students. It tries to develop their human resources by conducting English practice class.
their investors, managers, biologists, and instructors are English speakers. It means that they will often make contacts with foreigners in doing their job. Therefore, it cannot be avoided that they are really expected to be able to speak English so they can communicate with them well.
The writer interviewed some people who have work experiences in the oil palm plantations and companies and found that generally the oil palm plantations and companies’ workers do not have good ability to use English actively and passively. The workers could not use correct English sentences with English speakers. Sometimes, they used sign language in asking and giving information to the instructors or the biologists. Knowing this condition, the companies really expect that their workers have good English ability especially in speaking.
To respond to the need, the writer conducts a study which aims at designing English speaking instructional materials for the first semester students of Program Khusus SPKS Institut Pertanian STIPER Yogyakarta who are expected to work at oil palm plantations and companies. It is expected that English instructional materials, which are presented in this thesis will be relevant to their job.
specific, the English required here is English for Occupational Purposes (EOP), which is one of ESP branches. It can be concluded that the type of English here is English that meets learners’ needs to support their job.
B. Problem Identification
To successfully prepare and participate in the working world, the students of Program Khusus SPKS Insitut Pertanian STIPER Yogyakarta need to have a good ability in speaking English. Since most of them want and are expected to work at oil palm plantations and companies, they do not only have to master English in daily contexts but also in agricultural contexts.
However, lack of information and knowledge about language functions needed by the planters will cause the students to have difficulties in carrying out their duty later. It means that their ability and knowledge of English need to be prepared and improved.
On the other hand, they have different levels of abilities of English basic skills. Therefore, an English course that emphasizes the learners’ needs to achieve necessary language functions should be established.
C. Problem Limitation
working world, the needs should be analyzed. The information gathered from the analysis will be used as the starting point to design an English instructional speaking material for English for Specific Purposes for the first semester students of Program Khusus SPKS Institut Pertanian STIPER to develop their English Speaking ability.
The discussion will focus on designing a set of English instructional materials for the students of Program Khusus SPKS Institut Pertanian STIPER Yogyakarta. The design will focus on the English speaking skill.
D. Problem Formulation
Based on the background and the problem limitation, the problems in this study can be formulated as follows:
1. How is a set of English instructional speaking materials for the first semester students of Program Khusus SPKS Institut Pertanian STIPER Yogyakarta using Task-Based Language teaching designed?
2. What does the set of English instructional speaking materials for the first semester students of Program Khusus SPKS Institut Pertanian STIPER Yogyakarta using Task- Based Language Teaching look like?
E. Objectives of the Research
Pertanian STIPER Yogyakarta using Task-Based Language Teaching is designed. The second objective is to present the set of English instructional speaking materials for the first semester students of Program Khusus SPKS Institut Pertanian STIPER Yogyakarta using Task-Based Language Teaching.
F. Benefits of the Study
The writer hopes that the design will give advantages for the learners who are the students of Program Khusus SPKS Institut Pertanian STIPER Yogyakarta, for the designer, and for further studies. The benefits are:
1. For the lecturers of Program Khusus SPKS Institut Pertanian STIPER Yogyakarta
Since there were no well –prepared materials yet for English speaking practice class in Program Khusus SPKS Institut Pertanian STIPER Yogyakarta, the presentation of the designed materials in this thesis will help the lecturers prepare the teaching learning process.
2. For the students of Program Khusus SPKS Institut Pertanian STIPER
The students learn to speak English in an effective and simple way and they increase the student’s willingness to practice English using interesting materials in order to improve their speaking ability related to their network based on what they need, want, and like.
3. For the writer herself
4. For further studies
This thesis may serve as a base of conducting further research of language teaching method. Hopefully, this research result can provide helpful information and give a stimulus for the further research. Hence, better and more various activities or task through Task-Based Language Teaching will be found.
G. Definition of Terms
To get clear information of this study, here the writer includes some definitions of important terms:
1. Design
Design is to develop plans to guide educational activity in a situation (Houle, 1978: 230). The plan refers to an instructional materials design that will be used in the classroom. Design is purposeful and it is made firstly before one is doing something. A teacher has to make or design a lesson plan in order to facilitate the teaching learning process.
2. Instructional Speaking Materials
The writer formulates instructional speaking materials in this study as materials planned by the designer to be used by the teachers or instructors and learners as the focus of discussion in teaching and learning process. Instructional materials are materials planned by the teacher for instruction using textbook, journal, and newspaper as the example of printed materials (Walters and Reisser A, 1983:3)
the point of departure is not an ordered list of linguistic items, but collection of tasks (Nunan, 1992: 24).
3. Institut Pertanian STIPER
In English, it is called STIPER Agricultural Institute. This institute focuses on the agricultural study. It was founded on December 10, 1958. Institut Pertanian STIPER has two campuses, located at Jl. Nangka II Maguwoharjo, Depok Sleman, Yogyakarta and at Jl. Petung No. 2 Papnngan Yogyakarta. There are three faculties in this institute: they are Agricultural Faculty, Agricultural Engineering Faculty, and Forestry Faculty.
4. Program Khusus Sarjana Perkebunan Kelapa Sawit
8 CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW
In this study, the writer aims to design English instructional speaking materials for the first semester students of Program Khusus SPKS Institut Pertanian STIPER Yogyakarta. In this chapter, the discussion will be divided into two main parts i.e. theoretical description and theoretical framework.
The theoretical description is aimed to give foundation for designing the materials by reviewing related literature. This section consists of five subchapters, which will discuss (1) Instructional Design Model, (2) English for Specific Purposes, (3) Task – Based Language Teaching, (4) Syllabus, and (5) Speaking Skill. The theoretical framework will discuss the significance of the theories to design materials. A. Theoretical Description
1. Instructional Design Model a. Yalden’s Model
Yalden suggests the design of a communicative syllabus. According to Yalden, a syllabus can be considered as communicative since it takes into consideration everything required assuring communication (1987: 87). It suggests ten compositions that can be listed as follows (1987: 86-87):
a. As detailed a consideration as possible of the purpose for which the learners wish to acquire the target language;
c. The socially defined role of the learners that will be assumed in the target language as well as the role of their interlocutors;
d. The communicative events in which the learners will participate in everyday situation, vocational situation or professional situation, academic situation, and so on;
e. The language functions involved the events, or what the learner will need to be able to do with or through the language;
f. The notion involved, or what the learner will need to be able to talk about; g. The skills involved in the “together” of discourse: discourse and rhetorical skills; h. The variety or varieties of the target language that will be needed, and the levels
in the spoken language in which the learners will need to reach; i. The grammatical content that will be needed;
j. The lexical content that will be needed.
Furthermore, Yalden (1987: 88) suggests that having a syllabus is not the same as having the teaching materials and lesson plans. Therefore, after knowing the type of syllabus that will be applied, a teacher should prepare in developing the instructional materials. Yalden suggests eight stages in developing a language program.
The stages can be seen in table 2.1 below:
Table 2.1:
Stages in Language Program Development (Yalden, 1987: 89)
STAGE DESCRIPTION
I
II
Needs survey
III IV V VI VII VIII
a. students’ characteristics
b. students skill entry to and on exit from the program
Selection or development of syllabus type IV and physical constraints on the program.
The proto syllabus: description of language and language use to be covered in the program.
The pedagogical syllabus: development of teaching, learning and testing approaches.
1. development of teaching material (as far as possible)
2. development of teaching sequence and decision and testing instruments
a) Development of classroom procedures
1. selection of exercises type and teaching techniques 2. preparation of lesson plan
3. preparation of weekly schedules
b) Teachers training: briefings or workshop on: 1. principles
2. desired outcome
3. exploitation/creating of teaching material
Evaluation
1. of students 2. of program’ 3. of teaching
Recycling stage
1. congruence or “fit” between goals set and students performance is determined.
2. content is reassessed.
3. materials and methodological procedures are revised.
The steps of the process of designing instructional materials are presented below:
Figure 2.1: Yalden’s Instructional Design Model (1987: 88) Needs Survey Descrip tion of Purpose Selec. of Syllab us Type Produc tion Of Pedago gical Syllab us Producti on Of proto Syllabus Developme nt & Impl. Of classroom procedure
b. Kemp’s Model
Kemp (1977: 8-9) states that a plan is designed to answer three questions, which may be considered the essential element. The three questions are (a) what must be learned?, (b) what procedures and resources will work best to reach this desired learning level? (activities and resources) and (c) how will we know when this required learning has taken place? (evaluation).
Kemp (1977: 8-9) suggests eight elements in designing a program. The eight elements can be started with and then move back and forth to the other steps, so the writer can set her own pattern and in some instances it is unnecessary to treat all eight elements.
The steps are:
1. Consider goals, and then list the topics, stating the general purpose for teaching each topic.
2. Enumerate the important characteristics of the learners for whom the instruction is to be designed.
3. Specify the learning objectives to be achieved in terms of measurable students’ behavioral outcomes.
4. List the subject content to support each objective.
6. Select teaching or learning activities and instructional resources that will treat the subject content so the students will accomplish the objectives.
7. Coordinates such support services as budget, personnel, facilities, equipment, and schedules to carry out the instructional plan.
8. Evaluate students’ learning in terms of their accomplishment of objectives, with a view to revising and re-evaluating any phases of the plan that need improvement.
Figure 2.2
Kemp’s Instructional Design Model: The Relationship of Each Step in the
Plan to the Other Step (Kemp, 1977: 9)
Learning Objectives
Subject content Teaching/
learning activities, resources Support services
Pre - assessment
Revise
Evaluation Learners’
characteris tics Goals,
2. English for Specific Purpose
English for Specific Purposes or ESP is an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and method are based on the learners’ reason for learning (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987: 19). It is important to discuss ESP since English for the first semester students of Program Khusus SPKS Institut Pertanian STIPER Yogyakarta is a part of it. The students may take part in ESP course before embarking on their occupational or educational role, or they may combine their study of English with performance of their role, or they may already be competent in their occupations or discipline but may desire to perform their role in English as well as in their first language (Robinson, 1981: 14). This program can be categorized as English for Occupational Purpose (EOP) which is a branch of ESP because the students of Program Khusus Institut Pertanian STIPER Yogyakarta are learning English to prepare them for their working world.
The discussion of ESP will be divided into two important parts, the criteria of ESP and the categorization of ESP.
a. Criteria of ESP
The following is the criteria of ESP suggested by Robinson (1991): 1. ESP is normally goal-directed.
The students in ESP learn English not because they are interested in but because they need it for study or work.
2. ESP course is based on the need analysis.
or identify the target situation in which the learners will use the language they are learning so the materials will fit the learners needs.
3. ESP course has a very clear specified period of time.
In the specified period of time the goals of the course should be achieved. 4. ESP learners are likely to be adults rather than children.
Since the ESP course is used to help the learners to be able to use English in target situations (academic or occupational field) so the learners are usually adults.
5. ESP course consists of identical learners.
The learners on ESP course are in the same field. They have same needs and purpose to learn English.
b. Categorization of ESP
According to Hutchinson and Waters (1944: 16) the purpose categorization of ESP based on the general nature of the learners and need of specialization.
1. On the learner’s purpose, ESP is divided into two main types, namely, English for work and English for occupational purpose/ English for vocational purpose/ vocational English as a second language or EOP/EVL/VSL that is for working/training.
3. Task-Based Language Teaching
An approach is a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of language teaching and learning (Richard & Rodgers, 1986: 15). Approaches are usually used as the foundation of the various opinions about what language is and how it is learned. There are many approaches underlying second and foreign language teaching, one of them is Task-Based Language Teaching or TBLT that is used in this study.
a. The objective of TBLT
Since TBLT is the development of Communicative Language Teaching so the objective of TBLT is similar with the objective of CLT, i.e. the students have the communicative competence. Richard and Rodgers (2001) state that TBLT emphasizes the central role of meaning in language use.
In addition, Nunan (2004) states that pedagogically, Task-Based Language Teaching has strengthened the following principles:
a. A needs-based approach to content selection.
b. An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language.
c. The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation.
d. The provision of opportunities for learners to focus not only on language but also on the learning process itself.
f. The linking of classroom language learning with language use outside the classroom.
Furthermore, the description of the objective of TBLT is stated by Larsen-Freeman (2000: 144), as in the following:
As with content-based instruction, a task-based approach aims to provide learners with a natural context for language use. As learners work to complete a task, they have abundant opportunity to interact. Such interaction is thought to facilitate language acquisition as learners have to work to understand each other and to express their own meaning.
From the statement above, we can conclude that the learners are provided and expected to accomplish various tasks related to their real world. As a result, the learners will have the ability to communicate accurately and effectively in the most common English language activities they may be involved in (Richard & Rodgers, 1986: 230).
b. The characteristics of TBLT
Feez (1998: 17), as quoted by Richard and Rodgers (2001: 224) summarized the key assumptions of task-based instruction. First, the focus is on process rather than product. By doing various tasks, the learners have abundant opportunity to interact. During the activities, they can use and express their language ability and also understand each other.
Third, learners learn language by interacting communicatively and purposefully while engaged in the activities and tasks. The communicative task is a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is principally focused on meaning rather than form. (Nunan, 1989: 10).
Fourth, activities and task can be either real-world task or pedagogic task. world task is a task that the learners need to perform in their real life. Real-world tasks are designed by conducting need analysis. Furthermore, in pedagogic task the learners doing the activities not because they will do them outside the classroom but because it is assumed that they facilitate the development of a learner’s general language proficiency.
Fifth, activities and tasks of a task-based syllabus are sequenced according to difficulty. The task is designed to interest and challenge the learners to use the target language they have already learnt and some new items provided by input material and the teacher. Thus, the learners will be successful in completing the task.
Sixth, the difficulty of a task depends on a range of factors including the previous experience of the learner, the complexity of the task, the language required to undertake the task, and the degree of support available.
Furthermore, some additional learning principles play a central role in TBLT theory. These are:
2) Task activity and achievement are motivational.
3) Learning difficulty can be negotiated and fine-tuned for particular pedagogical purposes.
Those characteristics of TBLT which generally emphasize its teaching focus on communicative tasks become the foundation of the material design which is conducted in the study.
c. Types of Tasks
There are many different meanings or definitions of a task. Therefore, there are also various descriptions of task types in TBLT. In his 1989 book on task-based language teaching, Nunan divided tasks into two types. The first is real-world tasks, which are designed to practice or rehearse those tasks that are found to be important in a needs analysis and turn out to be important and useful in the real world. The second is pedagogical tasks, which have a psycholinguistic basis in SLA theory and research but do not necessarily, reflect real-world tasks.
Furthermore, Prabhu as quoted by Larsen (2000, 148) identified three types of tasks. Those are Information-gap activity which involves the exchange of information among participants in order to complete the tasks, Opinion-gap activity that requires the students give their personal preference, feeling, or attitudes in order to complete a tasks, and Reasoning-gap activity requires the students to derive some new information by inferring it from information they have been given.
taking on a different role and even identify from his or her usual one, simulation is frequently longer than a role play and can allow the student to maintain his or her normal persona. In the case studies, the learners study the facts of a real-life case, discuss the issues involved and reach some kind of decision or action plan. Group project has a clear target or end-product, is often in the form of a written report. However, the learners will not only have to write, but also use other skills (listening, speaking, and reading) in conducting this type of task. The last type of task which is common in ESP is the oral presentation. Oral presentation is usually a part of the other types of task. For example, the learners in a simulation or project work may have to give an oral presentation as a report.
d. The procedures
There are two kinds of procedures in developing tasks. Davies and Pearse (2000: 196), recommend a three-stage procedure.
1. Pre-task
The activities are introduction to the topic and task, provision of useful input (listening, reading, brainstorming, etc), reactivation/ provision of essential language, or giving definition of the task (objective, process, time limit, etc).
2. Task
3. Post-task
The task/ activities in this stage focus on the language used. The students practice the language as necessary. The activities are in the form of discussions or other activities that require the students’ participation.
Willis (1996: 56-57) recommends a similar sequence of activities: 1. Pre-task
In this stage, the students are introduced to the task. The students may do a pre-task, for example, topic-based odd-word-out games. The teacher may highlight useful words and phrases, but would not pre-teach new structures.
2. The task cycle
This stage consists of task, planning, report, and post-task. 3. The Language focus
The students do some language-focused tasks. Here, the students underline the language items used and practice using the language through communicative tasks.
e. The learner roles
According to Richard and Rodgers (2001: 5), there are three primary roles that are implied by task work. These are:
1) Group participant
2) Monitor
Class activities have to be designed so the students have the opportunity to notice how language is used in communication.
3) Risk-taker and Innovator
The skills of guessing from linguistic and contextual clues, asking for clarification, and consulting with the other learners may also need to be developed.
f. Teacher roles
There are also three roles for the teacher:
1) Selector and Sequencer of tasks: The teacher selects, adapts and/or creates the tasks themselves and then forms into an instructional sequence in keeping with learner needs, interests, and language skill level.
2) Preparing learners for tasks: The teacher has responsibility to prepare the tasks so it can be conducted attractively for all participants. The activities might include topic introduction, clarifying task instructions, helping the students learn or recall useful words and phrases to facilitate task accomplishment, and providing partial demonstration of tasks procedures.
g. The role of Instructional Material in TBLT
Instructional materials have the important role in promoting TBLT. The instructional materials should help the learners in achieving the objective of the program. Materials in TBLT are dependent on a sufficient supply of appropriate classroom tasks. Otherwise, the teacher/ task designer should be able to choose, create, and use the most appropriate task for the learners’ interest and needs.
4. Syllabus
A syllabus is defined as a document or statement of what will core at least what should be learned and taught (Hutcinson and Waters, 1994: 80). Syllabus is very crucial for teachers, because syllabus is a plan of work as well as a guideline and content for class content (Robinson1991: 34).
a. Syllabus Types
Khranke (1987) outlines six types of teaching syllabus. 1) A structural (or Formal) syllabus
A structural syllabus (or formal) is a syllabus in which the content of language teaching is a collection of the form structures, usually grammatical, of the language being taught.
2) A notional (functional) syllabus
3) A situational syllabus
A situational syllabus is a syllabus in which the content of language teaching is a collection of real or imaginary situations in which language occurs or is used.
4) A skill-based syllabus is a syllabus in which the content of language teaching is a collection of specific abilities that may play a part in using language. 5) A task-based syllabus
A task-based syllabus is a syllabus in which the content of the teaching is a series of complex and purposeful tasks that the students want or need to perform with the language they are learning.
6) Content- based syllabus
A content-based syllabus is not really a language teaching syllabus at all. In content based language teaching the primary purpose of the instruction is to teach some content or information using the language whatever content is being taught.
In this study, the writer would like to use the task-based syllabus. It is because the task-based syllabus seems appropriate with the contents of language teaching for the first semester students of Program Khusus Institut Pertanian STIPER Yogyakarta.
b. Reason for having syllabus in ESP
1) Managerial/ Management Reason
A syllabus provides a practical basis for the division of materials, assessment, textbooks, and learning time.
2) Reason of Moral Support
A syllabus makes language learning task appear manageable. 3) Cosmetic role of syllabus
A syllabus can become reassurance meaning to give evidence to convince and impress sponsors, students, or “the outsiders”.
4) Directive Reason
A syllabus serves as statement of projected route of learning direction (goal, aim, the processes, and objectives)
5) Rationale
Syllabus tells the teacher and the students the “what” to be learned and the “why” to learn.
6) Set of criteria for materials selection
A syllabus defines the kind of text to look for or produce the items to flows on in the exercise, etc.
7) Uniformity/ Standardization
8) Basis for test and evaluation
A syllabus becomes the basis for deciding the criteria of evaluating the success and/ or the failure in reaching the state of knowledge or the target desired.
5. Speaking Skill
a. The nature of Speaking
Speaking involves the development of a particular type of communication skill. Spoken language is basically different from written language. Brown and Yule as quoted by Nunan (1989: 26-27) discuss the differences. Written language is characterized by well formed sentences, which are integrated into highly structured paragraphs. On the other hand, spoken language consists of short, often fragmentary utterances, in a range of pronunciations.
b. Teaching Techniques
In learning speaking, the learners should be eager to practice actively in order to achieve the oral production fluency. According to Davies (1988: 261), fluency can only be achieved by actual and frequent use of the language in meaningful context. As a consequence, the teacher should be able to create effective activities and consider whether the learners have achieved the fluency or not. Penny, Ur (1999) states four characteristics a successful activity. They are as follows:
a. Learners talk a lot.
b. Participation is even.
All of the learners have opportunity to participate in each class activities. c. Motivation is high.
The interesting topic and challenging activities can make the learners are motivated to talk.
d. Language is of an acceptable level.
Learners use relevant utterances so that they will comprehend each other easily.
On the other hand, some teachers have difficulties to be successful in teaching speaking. They often find that the learners are not willing to participate in the speaking activities. The following are the problems that often exist during the class:
a. Inhibition.
Learners often doubt to say things in a foreign language. They are afraid of making mistakes or shy of other participants.
b. Nothing to say.
The learners do not have any idea of what they will be talking about. They cannot find any appropriate utterances that can express their meaning.
c. Low or uneven participation.
d. Mother-tongue use.
Since it is easier, the learners tend to speak in their mother tongue. They think that they do not have any barriers to convey their message and accept the others’ as if they talk in foreign language.
Here are some suggestions of what the teachers can do to help solve some of the problems (1996: 121-122):
1) Use group work
The using of group work will give a better chance for the learners to speak. And also lower the inhibitions of learners who are unwilling to speak in front of the class.
2) Base the activity on easy language
In general, the level of language needed for a discussion should be lower than that used in intensive language-learning activities in the same class: it should be easily recalled and produced by the participants, so that they can speak fluently with the minimum of hesitation. It is a good idea to teach or review essential vocabulary before the activity starts.
3) Make a careful choice of topic and task to stimulate interest
On the whole, the clearer the purpose of the discussion the more motivated participants will be.
4) Give some instruction or training in discussion skills
5) Keep students speaking the target language
One way to keep the students speaking the target language is by choosing one of the members of the group as monitor, whose job is to remind participants to use English as the target language. However, the best way to keep students speaking the target language is by modeling them to do so.
There are two main activities suggested by Ur (1996: 123). The two activities are:
1) Topic-based activities, which simply ask the learners to talk about a (controversial) subject. The main objective is the discussion itself.
2) Task-based activities, which ask the learners to perform something, where the discussion is a means to an end.
The experiment conducted by Ur has revealed that ‘the task-centered activity scores higher with most groups on all criteria: there is more talk, more even participation, more motivation and enjoyment” (1996: 124). The learners admitted that when they were doing the task-based activity, they knew where they were going because there was a purpose in speaking. They felt challenged because they were aware that time was running out and they had to get a result (1996: 124).
B. Theoretical Framework
In designing the instructional material for the first semester students of Program Khusus SPKS Institut Pertanian STIPER Yogyakarta, the writer applies a combination of two models from Kemp and Yalden, which have been discussed in the theoretical description. The writer combines two models to make a new framework to conduct the study.
The framework of the design model consists of seven steps. They are: 1. Conducting needs survey
A study on needs of the learners is conducted to find out the significance of English towards their study or work in oil palm plantation. The interview is conducted with some lecturers of Program Khusus SPKS Institut Pertanian STIPER, including the English lecturer in order to find out the materials that the students will need in their study and oil palm plantation. The questionnaires are given to the students in order to find the materials they want and need and their problem in learning English. This step is adopted from Yalden’s model (Yalden, 1987: 101).
2. Considering goals, list topics, and the general purposes for teaching each topic
3. Specifying the learning objectives
This model of objective formulation is adopted from Kemp’s model (Kemp, 1977: 23) in this step, General Instructional Objectives that consists of the general purposes of the English course are presented as specific as possible so that the learners know exactly what should be done to achieve the objective of the course. 4. Selecting syllabus type
A syllabus is essential for instructors and teachers as a guideline of the course. The syllabus, therefore, should match with the instructional materials designed. In this study, the writer chose a task-based syllabus. This step is adopted from Yalden’s model (Yalden, 1987: 108).
5. Listing the subject content
This step is adopted from Kemp’s model (Kemp, 1977:43). The contents of the instructional materials must be closely related to the objectives and the students’ needs.
6. Selecting teaching/ learning activities and instructional resources
It is important to select the most efficient and effective methods and materials to provide teaching-learning activities and instructional materials which are appropriate with the students’ needs and interest in order to accomplish the objectives. This step is adopted from Kemp’s model (Kemp, 1977: 55).
7. Evaluating
Figure 2.3 below represents the steps to design the set of instructional materials, which are conducted in the study.
Figure 2.3: Instructional Design Model Used in this Study Conducting Needs Survey
Considering the Goals, Listing the Topics and Stating General Purposes
Specifying the Learning Objectives
Selecting Syllabus Type
Listing the Subject Contents
Selecting the Teaching or Learning activities and Instructional Resources
32 CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
This research deals with two major problems to be solved as it has been stated in problem formulation. The first is how a set of instructional English speaking materials for the first semester students of Program Khusus Sarjana Perkebunan Kelapa Sawit Institut Pertanian STIPER Yogyakarta is designed. Secondly, what the designed material will look like. It will cover Research Methodology, Respondents, Research instruments, Data Gathering, Data Analysis and Research Procedures. A. Research Methodology
This thesis used educational research and development. Borg and Gall (1983: 772) state that educational research and development (R & D) is a process used to develop and validate educational products. The steps of this process are usually referred to as R & D cycle, which consists of studying research findings pertinent to the product to be developed, developing the product based on these findings, field testing it in the setting where it will be used eventually, and revising it to correct the deficiencies found in the field-testing stage.
As thesis used educational research and development, the writer conducted pre-design survey for needs analysis/ research and information collecting, material development, and evaluation on the designed materials/main product revision (post-design survey).
1. Pre-design Survey
Program Khusus SPKS who had experiences at oil palm plantation and distributing the questionnaires for the students of the Program Khusus SPKS as a study program in which the designed materials was applied. The interview was about the program itself, the aims of the program and the needs of the students according to the lecturers. Next, the writer distributed questionnaires to the students of Program Khusus Institut Pertanian STIPER. It is done in order to obtain necessary information about the students’ English learning experience, their English mastery so far, their strength and weaknesses, and what kind of learning will be likely to challenge them.
2. Material Development
From the result of the survey study, the writer would be able to design English instructional speaking materials which are suitable for the learners’ needs and interests. In developing the materials, the writer also had to consider goals and list the topics and general purposes for teaching each unit. Then, the writer specified the learning objectives and selected the syllabus type. After that, the subject content was listed. In addition, it was important to select the teaching/learning activities and instructional resources.
3. Post-design Survey
already well developed. The survey was conducted by distributing and gathering questionnaires to English lecturers, instructors, and language consultant. The data gathered from this survey research was used as guidance in revising and improving the design materials.
B. Respondents of the Survey Study
The respondents of the survey research were grouped into two groups based on the purpose of the survey. The first group was the students and the lecturers of Program Khusus SPKS Institut Pertanian STIPER Yogyakarta
The second group consists of lecturers and language consultant of English Department of Sanata Dharma University, lecturer of Program Khusus SPKS Institut Pertanian STIPER, and English instructors. Their inputs were very useful in the stage of revising and adjusting the designed materials so that the final version would be much more improved. Table 3.2 below is to describe the respondents who evaluate the designed materials.
Table 3.2: The Description of the Respondents (Blank)
Gender Educational Background
Teaching Experiences (year)
Groups of Respondents
M F S1 S2 1-5 6-10 >10
English Lecturers
English Instructors
C. Research Instruments
This study employed two types of instruments, namely questionnaires and interview. 1. Questionnaire
In implementing this study, the writer used questionnaires both in pre-design survey and post-design survey. The questionnaire in the pre-design survey used to obtain the opinions from the respondents about the students’ needs, background, interest and characteristics. The questionnaire was used in the post-design survey to obtain feedback on the designed set of materials. According to Ary, Jacobs, and Razavieh, there are two types of questionnaires, namely structured and unstructured questionnaires (1990: 424).
The questionnaire in the pre-design survey is classified into the structured questionnaires in which the respondents, in this case the students of Program Khusus SPKS Institut Pertanian STIPER Yogyakarta, had to answer the questions provided in the questionnaire only by choosing the best option for them. The questionnaire consisted of questions which revealed the needs of the students including their interest. To inform, the need analysis was written in Bahasa Indonesia instead of English to avoid misinterpretation which might lead to irrelevant answers.
agreement. The second part is the written opinions, comments and suggestion on the designed set of materials.
2. Interview
Interview is an instrument which allows flexibility since the interviewer is able to observe the subject as well as the situation and paraphrase the questions when needed (Ary et al, 1990: 418).
In this study, interview was used in pre-design study. It was done informally to the lecturers of Progam Khusus SPKS Institut Pertanian STIPER Yogyakarta to gain information about the program itself and to know the needs and characteristic of the students from the point of view of the lecturers.
On the other hand, the informal interview was also done to the second year students who have experienced work training at the oil palm plantation. It was used to gain the information about their needs which emerge in the course of the studies. As stated by Robinson that having identified the features of their target community, they may be more aware of what is needed to help them prepare for it (1999: 15).
D. Data Gathering
questionnaires to the first semester students of Program Khusus SPKS Institut Pertanian STIPER Yogyakarta. In order to get the final version of the materials, questionnaires on the developed materials was distributed to English lecturers, English instructors, and English consultant who have the educational background of at least S-1 degree.
E. Data Analysis
The data was taken from the questionnaire and the interview. Next, the data result was analyzed in order to improve the designed materials. The data result taken from the questionnaire was expressed in numbers of five points of agreement as follows:
1 : Strongly disagree with the statement 2 : Disagree with the statement
3 : Uncertain
4 : Agree with the statement
5 : Strongly agree with the statement
Table 3.3: The Descriptive Statistic of Respondents’ Opinion (Blank)
Frequency of the Points of Agreement
Respondents’ opinions presented in
the form of Central Tendency No Statements
1 2 3 4 5
Numbers of Respondents
F. Research Procedures
As stated earlier in the background of this study, the writer has been aware of the need of Program Khusus SPKS Institut Pertanian STIPER Yogyakarta to have a well set material. Therefore, the writer did a research and information collecting. This step included observations, interview, and distributing questionnaire to gain the students’ needs. The analysis of the survey was used as the basis of designing the materials.
include the theory of material designs, English for Specific Purpose, and Task-Based Language Teaching.
The design of the materials surely needs an evaluation from credible and experienced people. Therefore, the next step was preliminary field testing by gaining feedback from English lecturers and instructors. Along with the feedback and evaluation, they also gave their comments as well as suggestion on how to improve the designed materials. After feedback on the designed materials was obtained, the data was analyzed.
Based on the result of the analysis data, the writer would be able to improve and adjust the materials to produce the best version of the materials. This was the final step of the research procedures. Figure 3.4 on the next page is the diagram on the research procedures employed in this study.
Figure 3.4: The Research Procedures/ R & D cycle Research and Information Collecting
Planning
Develop Preliminary Form of Product
Preliminary Field Testing
41
CHAPTER IV
RESEARCH RESULT AND DISCUSSION
This chapter describes the results and discussion of the findings of the survey study conducted to evaluate the design set of materials. Systematically, there are four parts covered in this chapter. The first part is the step involved in designing a set of materials. The second one is the elaboration of the result of the designed set of materials. The third part classifies the discussion on the designed set of materials and finally the last part describes the presentation of the designed materials.
A. The Steps Involved in Designing a Set of Materials
In total, there are seven steps involved in designing a set of instructional speaking materials using the Task-Based Language Teaching for the first semester students of Program Khusus SPKS Institut Pertanian STIPER Yogyakarta. The seven steps are the answer to the first problem presented in the problem formulation in Chapter I. Here are the explanations of each step:
1. Conducting a Needs Survey
In order to identify the needs of the students and the aims of the program, the writer used two ways of collecting data. The first one was by interviewing the lecturers of the Program Khusus SPKS Institut Pertanian STIPER. The second one was by distributing questionnaires to the students of Program Khusus SPKS Institut Pertanian STIPER Yogyakarta
some foreign staffs so they have to use English to communicate. He also said that speaking skill should be built as early as possible to develop the students’ confidence. It will help the students since they are expected to be an expert or leader in their work places. Moreover, some students who were interviewed said that the lack of English speaking skill caused some problems on their training because there was a trainee who is English speaker. Therefore, an English speaking practice class which is allotted in the first semester would be the best time to practice and develop the students’ English speaking skill and confidence.
The second way of collecting the data was by distributing questionnaires to the students of Program Khusus SPKS Institut Pertanian STIPER. From the total number of 110 students registered in this program, there were 50 students chosen randomly to fill in the questionnaires. The data produced by the survey research is presented in the table 4.4 below, followed by a brief explanation of the result.
Table 4.4: The Result of the Needs Survey
No. Questions Responses Number Percentage
1. Was speaking skill taught in English subject at your high school?
a.Yes b. No
38 12
76% 24%
2. Do you think that speaking skill was taught in sufficient time? a.Yes b.No 4 46 8% 92%
3. What do you feel when practicing English speaking?
a.Very interested. b. Interested. c.Less interested. d. Uninterested. 14 27 9 0 28% 54% 18% 0% 4. In your opinion, how
important is English speaking skill for you?
a. Very important b. Important c. Less important d. Unimportant 36 13 1 0 72% 26% 2% 0% 5. What difficulties you most
often get in speaking?
6. What activities are interesting for you and do you think can develop your speaking skill? (you can choose more than one)
a.Games b.Discussion c.Role-play d.Others (singing,
presentation, outdoor activities) 22 33 10 5 44% 66% 20% 10%
7. From five topics below, what topic/s do you think agree to your needs and is/are interesting for you? (you can choose more than one)
a. Planning in oil palm plantation
b. Weather
c. Measurement/Scale d. Giving planting
instruction
e. Describing oil palm manufacture process. f. Others ( Greetings,
Introduction, Giving opinion, Describing pest, Describing oil palm) 10 12 0 20 37 5 20% 24% 0% 40% 74% 10%
The table above has uncovered some facts about the needs of the students. 38 respondents said that they learnt/ practiced English speaking at their high school and 24% of them said that they did not practice English speaking in English subject at their high school. However, only 8% of them stated that English speaking was taught in sufficient time. It means that most of them agreed that English speaking skill did not get enough proportion of time in learning process. This finding suggests that the students need to have more opportunities and sufficient time to practice their speaking skill.
26% stated that it is important and the rest stated that it is less important. This fact showed that although some of the students are not interested in English speaking practice, most of them realize that it is important to develop their English speaking skill.
Topics are also important things that could motivate the students to learn. Even the most carefully planned activities will normally motivate the learners only if they are related to their interest, needs and aspirations (Pearse, 2000:14). 37 respondents chose Describing oil palm manufacturer process as an interesting topic to learn. In addition 20 respondents expected to learn about Giving planting instruction, 12 respondents are interested in Weather, 10 respondents want Planning in oil palm plantation, and 5 respondents expected to have other topics such as Greeting, Introduction, Giving Opinion, Describing pest, and Describing oil palm.
The result above suggests that the students need a teaching technique that provides them with various activities to interact. Consequently, the writer employed all of those activities in the designed materials since those are in line with the methodology used in this study. Besides that, the methodology used in this study would help the students to overcome their worries about grammar. As quoted by Nunan (2004), the Hong Kong Ministry of Education stated that the task-based approach aims at providing opportunities for learners to experiment with and explore both spoken and written language through learning activities that are designed to engage learners in the authentic, practical, and functional use of language for meaningful purposes.
2. Considering the Goals, Listing the Topics and Stating General Purposes The goal of this designed material is that the students are able to communicate using English in various contexts; in social life, study and work. It is expected that after experiencing the learning process the students’ confidence in speaking English will develop and they will be able to use English in their study and their future job.
After deciding the goal, the writer selected the topics. Topics are usually sequenced according to a logical organization most often from simple or concrete levels to complex and more abstract levels (Kemp, 1977: 15). The writer chose eight topics that might be interesting for and needed by the students. They are ‘Hello!’, ‘Nice day, isn’t it?’, ‘I don’t think so…’, ‘It’s going to…’, ‘What is it?’, ‘Does it eat people?’, ‘What should I do?’, and ‘Here is the process…’.
for the topic or unit. The general purposes of this set of designed materials are stated as basic competencies. Furthermore, the table of the goal, topics and general purposes of the set of designed materials is presented on appendix 3.
3. Specifying the Learning Objectives
Specifying learning objectives is the essential job. Learning requires active effort by the learner. Thus all objectives must be stated in terms of activities that will best promote learning (Kemp, 1977: 23). There are more than one learning objectives for each unit in the designed materials. The specific objectives are stated as indicators, as were mentioned in the table 4.5 above.
4. Selecting Syllabus Type
Since the designed materials consist of collections of tasks, the writer chose the Task-Based syllabus to be applied. Task-based syllabus helps the writer to order the tasks according to the topics and difficulties. The tasks are arranged to help the students attain the indicators, basic competencies and then the competency standard or the goal.
5. Listing the Subject Contents
The contents of the designed materials were determined according to the needs survey, the competencies and the indicators which have been developed and selected. There were four subjects contents that every unit has, namely ‘What’s up?’, ‘Try it!’, ‘Do you know about it?’, and ‘Be active!’. The next page are the entire contents in this designed s
