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T H E E F F E C T S O F E N V I R O N M E N T R IS K , CAPITAL STRUCTURE, AND CORPORATE STRATEGY ON ASSETS PRODUCTIVITY, FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE AND CORPORATE VALUE: A STUDY ON GO PUBLIC COMPANIES REGISTERED AT JAKARTA STOCK EXCHANGE

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Membagikan "T H E E F F E C T S O F E N V I R O N M E N T R IS K , CAPITAL STRUCTURE, AND CORPORATE STRATEGY ON ASSETS PRODUCTIVITY, FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE AND CORPORATE VALUE: A STUDY ON GO PUBLIC COMPANIES REGISTERED AT JAKARTA STOCK EXCHANGE"

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The International Journal o f Accounting and Business Society' 35

T H E E F F E C T S O F E N V I R O N M E N T R I S K ,

C A P I T A L S T R U C T U R E ,

A N D C O R P O R A T E S T R A T E G Y O N A S S E T S P R O D U C T I V I T Y ,

F I N A N C I A L P E R F O R M A N C E A N D C O R P O R A T E V A L U E :

A S T U D Y O N G O P U B L I C C O M P A N I E S R E G I S T E R E D

A T J A K A R T A S T O C K E X C H A N G E

TEDDY CHANDRA

A B S T R A C T

T h i s s tu d y w a s a i m e d at: (1) e x a m i n i n g th e e ffe c ts o f

environment risk

* c o n s is te d

oi financial risk

,

business risk

and

market risk

on

corporate

strategy,

ca p ita l stru ctu re ,

asset

pro d u c tiv ity ,

financial performance

and c o r p o ra te value. (2 ) e x a m in in g the effects o f

corporate strategy'

co n s is te d o f

liquidity, sales growth, assets growth

a n d

growth potential

o n c a p ita l stru ctu re , asS&s pro d u c tiv ity , fin a n c ia l p e r f o r m a n c e a n d c o r p o ra te v alu e. (3) e x a m i n i n g capital o n a sse ts p ro d u c tiv ity , fin a n c ia l p e r fo r m a n c e a n d c o r p o ra te value. T h e re search w a s an e x p la n a to r y study. T h is s tu d y w a s an e x p la n a to ry research. All c o m p a n ie s re g istered in J a k a rta S to c k E x c h a n g e in 2 0 0 0 -2 0 0 4 periods w e re used as s am p les. T h e y w e r e d i v id e d into m a in b o a rd c a te g o ry c o n s is te d o f 71 e m itte rs , d e v e l o p m e n t b o a r d 62 emitters-, and total b o a r d 134 e m itte rs . S tr u c tu ra l E q u a tio n M o d e ! w a s u sed as a n a ly s is m e t h o d . S P S S 11.5 a n d A M O S 5.0 w e re u sed for p ro c e s s in g d ata an d a l lo w i n g h y p o th e tic a l tests to b e p e r fo rm e d . T h e results indicated that: (1 ) in v esto rs e x p e c t m a in b o a rd c o m p a n i e s to a d o p t free cash flo w w h e re a s d e v e lo p m e n t b o a r d c o m p a n ie s w e r e e x p e c te d to be m o re c o n s e r v a tiv e b y a d o p t in g p e c k i n g o r d e r th e o ry . M o s t In d o n e sia n c o m p a n ie s w e re e x p e c te d to a d o p t th e latter. A n d , in fact, m o st o f m ain, d e v e lo p m e n t, a n d total bo a rd c o m p a n i e s in In d o n e s ia tend to ad o p t p e c k in g o r d e r th eory. (2) In g en e ra l, th e in c re a se o f c o m p a n y 's value w a s in flu en c ed b y th e in cre ase o f c o r p o ra te s tra te g y a n d capita l d e d u c tio n , but the in c re a se w o u ld be m u c h m o r e h ig h e r i f a c c o m p a n i e d by raisin g asse ts p ro d u c tiv ity . F or d e v e lo p m e n t b o a r d c o m p a n i e s in p articular, the in c re a se o f c o m p a n y 's v alu e s h o u ld be a c c o m p a n i e d by c o m p a n y 's fin an c ia l p e r f o r m a n c e . (3) C r e d i to r s d o n o t c o n s i d e r c o m p a n y 's fin a n c ial risk in g i v i n g lo an s, this im p lie s th e in c re a s e o f s ta c k e d credit. (4) In v e s to rs d o n o t tru st c o m p a n y 's fin a n c ia l p e r f o r m a n c e report. (5) S trateg ic m a n a g e m e n t m a y p ro v id e h elp in e x p la in in g capital structure p h e n o m e n a w ith sig n ific a n t in flu e n c e o f c o r p o ra te strategy on both capital s tru c tu re an d c o m p a n y 's value.

K e y W o r d s : C o r p o r a te S trateg y , E n v iro n m e n t R isk, C ap ita l S tru ctu re, A s s e ts P ro d u c tiv ity , F inancial P e rf o rm a n c e , C o m p a n y 's V a lu e ,

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36 The Effects o f Environment Risk, Capital Structure,

fin a n c ia l risk, b u s in e s s risk m a r k e t risk, sales g r o w t h , as s e ts g r o w t h , g r o w t h p o ten tia l, liquidity, d e b t to e q u ity ratio, d e b t to a s s e ts ra tio , e q u ity to A s s e ts ratio, re tu rn to a s s e ts ratio, basic e a r n i n g ratio, p e c k in g o r d e r T h e o r y , free ca sh flo w th eo ry .

I N T R O D U C T I O N

S m a ll c o m p a n i e s in I n d o n e s i a h a v e a c o n s i d e r a b l e t e n d e n c y o n c o n v e n t i o n a l m e t h o d in o r d e r t o d e d u c t t h e i r d e b t r i s k b y u s i n g t h e i r o w n i n t e r n a l c a p i t a l . C o n v e r s e l y , l a r g e c o m p a n i e s t e n d to r a is e a n d m u l t i p l y t h e i r d e b ts . A c c o r d i n g t o H a r i

' C o m p u te r S cience C ollege Pelita Indonesia, Jl. A .Y ani N o .78-88 P ek an b aru 2 8 1 2 7 T e l p . 0 7 6 1-24418 Faks. 0 761-35508 e-mail:teddy 8 8 8 6 @ y ah o o .co m

P u r n o m o ( 1 9 9 9 : 7 ) t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l r e a s o n s f o r c o m p a n i e s t o m a k e d e b ts : ( 1 ) W h e n t h e r e is t a x , b y m a k i n g d e b t s , c o m p a n i e s m a y t a k e b e n e f i t s . B e c a u s e , p a y i n g t h e i n t e r e s t c o s t s w i ll l o w e r t a x p r i c e t h e y m u s t p a y a n d a t t h e s a m e t i m e l e v e r u p t h e i r v a l u e s . ( 2 ) C o m p a n i e s t r y t o t a k e a d v a n t a g e f r o m " e a s y b e l i e v e " a n d i m p r u d e n t c r e d i t o r s . B a n k s d o n o t o f t e n s e r v e a s p r u d e n t e v a l u a t o r w h e n q u a l i f y i n g c r e d i t p r o v i s i o n . T h e y a r e n o t u s e d t o c a r r y o u t 5 C 's a n a l y s i s

(

C h a ra c te r

,

C ollateral, C apital

,

C apacity, C ondition)

a s th e b a s i c s f o r t h a t p r o v i s i o n , b u t a d v e r s e l y c r e a t i n g a n d g r o w i n g t h e c u l t u r e o f c o r r u p t i o n , c o l l u s i o n , a n d n e p o t i s m . ( 3 ) R a i s i n g d e b t s d o e s n ' t m e a n o w n e r s ' s h a r e s d i l u t i o n . I f t h e m a r k e t is in a

bearish

c o n d i t i o n , f o r c i n g a c a p it a l ra is e b y s e l l i n g s h a r e s w ill o n l y l o w e r its o w n m a r k e t p r i c e a n d t h i s w ill c a u s e

c o m p a n y 's g r e a t lo ss. .

H o w 'e v e r t h e f i r s t p r o p o s i t i o n h a s f o u n d its c o u n t e r - a r g u m e n t . In y e a r 1 9 5 8 , M o d i g l i a n i a n d M i l l e r , ( in B r e a l e \ a n d M y e r s , 1 9 9 6 : 4 4 9 - 4 5 6 ) , h a d p r o p o s e d s o m e e v i d e n c e s t h a t w i th " n o - t a x a s s u m p t i o n , " c o i p o r a t e v a l u e w o u l d b e i n d e p e n d e n t . N o m a t t e r w h e t h e r it o p e r a t e s w i t h d e b t s o r f u n d e d b y t h e i r o w n i n t e r n a l c a p i t a l , a n y c a p i t a l s t r u c t u r e c h a n g e w o u l d n o t b r i n g a n y e f f e c t s o n its v a l u e . B u t in y e a r 1 9 6 3 , M o d i g l i a n i a n d M i l l e r ( M M ) t u r n e d to r e v is e t h e i r a r g u m e n t r e g a r d i n g t h e i r c a p it a l s t r u c t u r e t h e o r y w i t h t h e a s s u m p t i o n

o f co rp o ra te incom e tax.

M M a r g u e d t h a t

le v e ra g e

w o u l d r a i s e c o r p o r a t e v a l u e s i n c e . d e b t i n t e r e s t c o s t d e f i n e d a s

a tax d e d u c tib le expense.

T h e s e c o n d M o d i g l i a n i - M i l l e r t h e o r y s u p p o r t s c o m p a n y ' s t e n d e n c y t o r a i s e t h e i r d e b t s f o r f u n d i n g c o m p a n y ' s i n v e s t m e n t . B u t, l a r g e r d e b t m a k e s it m o r e s u s c e p t i b l e o n b a n k r u p t c y , w h i c h is a v o i d a b l e i f it o n l y u s e s t h e i r i n t e r n a l f u n d . T h i s r i s k w i l l b r i n g c e r t a i n i m p a c t o n s t o c k p r i c e a s w e l l a s c o r p o r a t e v a l u e . W i t h all o f t h e s e r i s k s , w h y s h a r e h o l d e r s let th is to h a p p e n ?

(3)

+

S h a r e h o l d e r s g i v e a n i m p r e s s i o n t h a t t h e y let t h e c o m p a n y t o m a k e d e b t s f o r a r e a s o n k n o w n a s t h e

agency problem .

A c c o r d i n g t o t h i s t h e o r y , s h a r e h o l d e r s a r e s u s p i c i o u s o n m a n a g e r 's v e s t e d i n te r e s t: t h a t t h e y m a k e d e c i s i o n s b a s e d o n t h e i r o w n p e r s o n a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n , n o t f o r t h e s a k e o f c o m m o n b e n e f i t s . I f t h e r e a r e s o m e o p p o r t u n i t i e s to m a k e a n i n v e s t m e n t , s h a r e h o l d e r s a s k t h e i r m a n a g e r t o p i c k o n e o f t h e m , b u t w h i c h i n v e s t m e n t c o n s i d e r e d p r o f i t a b l e , it is v e r y h a r d to d e f in e . In t h e o r y , t h e l a r g e r t h e p r o f i t r a te , t h e b i g g e r t h e r i s k s t h a t a p p e a r

(high return, high risk).

T h a t o n c e a r i s k y i n v e s t m e n t d e c i s i o n h a d b e e n m a d e a n d r e s u lt e d in a g r e a t lo s s , it w o u l d b e d i f f i c u l t f o r t h e s h a r e h o l d e r s t o c l a i m t h e i r m a n a g e r 's r e s p o n s i b i l i t y .

M a n a g e r s a l w a y s w a n t to m a k e d e b t s f o r t h e s a k e o f " b u s i n e s s e x p a n s i o n " t o o t h e r t y p e s o f b u s i n e s s a r e a . T h e m a i n o b j e c t i v e h e r e is fc d e d u c t p r e v i o u s d e b t s b y d i v e r s i f y i n g t h e b u s i n e s s its e lf. E v e n t h o u g h t h i s n e w b u s i n e s s is v e r y m u c h d if f e r e n t f r o m t h e a l r e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d o n e

(core

business),

c o n f i d e n c e o n h o w p o w e r f u l th i s s t e p c o u l d b e , m a y w i n th e i n f e r io r r e a s o n i n g o f h i g h e r r i s k s i f d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n is t o o f a r u n s i m i l a r f r o m its c o r e b u s i n e s s . T h e f a c t t h a t tffere is n o r o b u s t r e g u l a t i o n in i n v e s t m e n t m a k e s l a r g e c o m p a n i e s in I n d o n e s i a t o m a k e h u g e i n v e s t m e n t by m a k i n g d e b t s . M u c h o f t h o s e d e b t s t a k e n in f o r m o f f o r e i g n c u r r e n c y w h i c h p r o v i d e q u i t e t e m p t i n g d i f f e r e n c e o n

cost o f debt.

In 1 9 6 3 , a t t h e t i m e " t a x " b e c a m e o n e o f d e t e r m i n i n g f a c t o r in M o d i g l i a n i & M i l l e r 's n e w m o d e l , t h e i m p a c t s o f t a x a n d b a n k r u p t c y h a d a l r e a d y c o m p l i c a t e d t h e p r o c e s s to f in d t h e b e s t f o r m a t o f a n o p t i m u m c a p i ta l s t r u c t u r e . T h i s s t u d y w a s a i m e d a t c a r r y i n g o u t a n e m p i r i c e x a m i n a t i o n : w h e t h e r t h a t o p t i m u m c a p i ta l s t r u c t u r e re a l ly e x i s t in I n d o n e s i a n s t o c k m a r k e t . D o e s t h e s t r u c t u r e h a v e s i g n i f i c a n t i n f l u e n c e o n c o r p o r a t e v a l u e ?

T o p r o v i d e a n s w e r s r e g a r d i n g u n c o n s i s t e n t c a p i t a l s t r u c t u r e w h i c h i n f l u e n c e c o r p o r a t e v a l u e , w e c a n n o t r e ly o n f i n a n c i a l t h e o r i e s o n l y . T h e r e is a n o t h e r f a c t o r i n v o l v e d , n a m e l y : m a n a g e r i a l b e h a v i o r . ( B a r t o n & G o r d o n .

1 9 8 7 & 1 9 8 8 ). P r e v i o u s s t u d i e s f o u n d t h e i n f l u e n c e o f

co rp ora te stra te g y

o n c a p i t a l s t r u c t u r e ( B a r t o n & G o r d o n , 1 9 8 7 & 1 9 8 8 ; L o w e ,

et a l

1 9 9 4 ; C h a t h o t h , 2 0 0 2 ) . C o r p o r a t e S t r a t e g y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f i n a n c i a l t h e o r y a n d i n f l u e n c e c a p i t a l s t r u c t u r e a r e g r o w t h s t r a t e g y a n d l i q u i d i t y . ( K i m

et al,

1 986: B a r t o n & G o r d o n , 1 9 8 8 ; B a l a k r i s h n a n & F o x , 1 9 9 3 ; h a t f i e I d

et al,

1 9 9 4 ; L o w e

et al,

1 9 9 4 ; M c C o n n e l l

et al,

1 9 9 5 ; J u n g

et al,

1 9 9 6 ; C h e n , 2 0 0 2 : C h a t h o t h , 2 0 0 2 ; T i a n P a o

et al,

2 0 0 3 ; E l d o m i a t y , 2 0 0 3 ) . L e l a n d a n d P y l e ( 1 9 9 7 ) a n d R o s s ( 1 9 7 7 ) a s s u m e d t h a t m a n a g e r s u t i l i z e J h e r a t i o o f c a p i t a l s t r u c t u r e a s s ig n a l . A s a m a t t e r o f fa c t, h ig h

leverage

w ill r e s u l t in la r g e r e x p e n s e a n d l a r g e r r is k s o f b a n k r u p t c y p a r ti c u la r l y f o r l o w q u a l i f i e d c o m p a n i e s .

S t u l z ( 1 9 9 0 ) c o n f i r m s t h a t d e b t s m a y b r i n g p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e i m p a c t o n c o r p o r a t e v a l u e ( e v e n i f t a x a n d b a n k r u p c y c o s t a r e n o t i n c l u d e d ) . H e saw a m a n a g e r a s a p e r s o n t h a t d o e s n o t h a v e a n y s h a r e o f h i s o w n . It's o n l y h is p o w e r t h a t m a k e s h i m r e c e i v i n g p r o j e c t s w i th n e g a t i v e

p rese n t value.

A s a c o n s e q u e n c e , s h a r e h o l d e r s w ill f o r c e h im to m a k e d e b t s . B u t i f t h e y f o r c e h im

Vol. 17, No. / / Agustus 2009

© Centre f o r Indonesian Accounting and M anagem ent Research

Postgraduate Program, Brawijaya University

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38 The Effects o f Environment Risk, Capital Structure,

t o o h a r d , m a n a g e r w ill n e g l e c t h is o b l i g a t i o n t o t a k e p r o j e c t s w i t h p o s i t i v e p r e s e n t v a l u e . T h a t 's w 'h y it is n e c e s s a r y t o ' p u t

agency cost o f debt

a n d

agency cost o f m anagerial discretion

s t a y in b a l a n c e . T h i s

51 ie s t h a t c o m p a n i e s w i t h h i g h g r o w t h r a te w ill h a v e n e g a t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n w i tn

erage,

w 'h e r e a s c o m p a n i e s w i t h l o w g r o w t h r a te w i ll h a v e p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n w i th

•erage

( M c C o n n e l l

&

S e r v a e s : 1 9 9 5 ).

In

s tr a te g ic

m a n a g e m e n t,

r i s k s t h a t c o m e f r o m s u r r o u n d i n g e n v i r o n m e n t : q u e n t l y c a l l e d a s

u n ce rta in ty, co m p lexity, d yn a m ism

a n d

illib e ra lity

( O l s e n ,

et,

1 9 9 8 ; S i m e r l y & L i, 2 0 0 0 ; C h a t h o t h , 2 0 0 2 ) . In f i n a n c i a l t h e o r y , r i s k s a r e c l a s s i f i e d i to

fin a n c ia l risk, business ris k

a n d

m arket risk

( B a r t o n & G o r d o n , 1 9 8 8 ; L o w 'e ,

et

/.,

1 9 9 4 ; S e t y a n i n g s i h , 1 9 9 6 ; P r a s a d ,

et ai,

1 9 9 7 ; K o c h h a r & H i t t , 1 9 9 8 ; B o o t h ,

etd.,

2 0 0 0 ; H a n S h i n , e f

ai,

2 0 0 0 ; R a t n a w a t i , 2 0 0 1 ; C h a t h o t h , 2 0 0 2 ; T i e n P a o , 2 0 0 3 ; i I d o m ia t y , 2 0 0 3 ; S u d a r m a , 2 0 0 4 ; I n d a h w a t i , 2 0 0 4 ) . T h e d e f in i ti o n o f r i s k in

strategic m anagem ent

a n d f i n a n c i a l t h e o r y a r e a l m o s t s im il a r . T h a t t h e r is k s i t s e l v e s r i s e f r o m e f f o r t s to g a i n o p p o r t u n i t i e s w h i l e r e d u c i n g t h r e a ts . T h e r e f o r e , a p r o p e r f o r m u l a t i o n o f c o r p o r a t e s t r a t e g y is n e e d e d . R e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n r i s k a n d

strategic

m anagem ent

— in p a r t i c u l a r

corporate strategy

— h a s e v e r b e e n r e p o r t e d b y s o m e s c h o l a r s ( B a r t o n & G o r d o n , 1 9 8 8 ; L o w e ,

et

a/., 1 9 9 4 ; C h a t h o t h , 2 0 0 2 ) .

In t h e f r e e

ca sh flow

t h e o r y , J e n s e n ( 1 9 8 6 ) a s s e r t s t h a t m a n a g e r h a v i n g f r e e

cash flo w

t e n d s to m a k e le s s b e n e f i c i a l i n v e s t m e n t . M a n a g e r t h i n k s t h a t it is b e t t e r t h a n i f h e r e t u r n s t h e m o n e y t o t h e s h a r e h o l d e r s . M a n a g e r w o u l d p r e f e r i n v e s t m e n t t h a t m a y r e t a i n c o r p o r a t e g r o w 'th , t h o u g h t h e g r o w t h w o n 't r a i s e its v a l u e . A c c o r d i n g t o t h i s t h e o r y , s h a r e h o l d e r s f o r c e m a n a g e r to m a k e d e b t s a s m u c h a s p o s s i b l e : in o r d e r t o d e d u c t a g e n c y c o s t , a n d t o d i s c i p l i n e t h e m a n a g e r in m a n a g i n g t h e i r f u n d a n d f o r c e h i m t o a c h i e v e c e r t a i n p r o d u c t i v i t y l e v e l a s t h e y e x p e c t . J e n s e n s a i d t h a t 'd e b t s w o u l d e n c o u r a g e m o r e e f f i c i e n t m a n a g e m e n t , t h a t a s s e t s u t i l i z a t i o n b e c o m e m o r e p r o d u c t i v e . H e n c e , t h e

fr e e cash flo w

t h e o r y p r e d i c t s p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n c a p i ta l s t r u c t u r e w i th i n v e s t m e n t a n d a s s e ts p r o d u c t i v i t y ( S u n i h e n .

2 0 0 3 ) . "

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t h e o r y a s a n o p t i m u m f i n a n c i a l s t r a t e g y . T h e b a s i c r e a s o n f o r t h i s t h e o r y is i f m a n a g e r s e r v e s a s a h a l f - o w n e r , h e w o u l d e x e r t s a ll h is e f f o r t s t o g a i n h i g h e r s t o c k p r i c e e x c e e d i n g its r e a v a l u e

(over price). C ost o f eq uity ca p ita l

a s a s e n s i t i v e i s s u e w o u l d b e t h r o w n t o tb m a r k e t to g iv e a n i m a g e t h a t t h e s t o c k p r i c e ha d b e e n t o o h ig h .

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Vol. 17, No. 1/ Agustus 2009

© Centre f o r Indonesian Accounting and M anagem ent Research

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p r o d u c t i v i t y , f i n a n c i a l p e r f o r m a n c e a n d c o r p o r a t e v a l u e . ( 3 ) e x a m i n i n g c a p i t a l o n a s s e t s p r o d u c t i v i t y , f i n a n c i a l p e r f o r m a n c e a n d c o r p o r a t e v a l u e .

R E S E A R C H M E T H O D

T h i s s t u d y is a n e x p l a n a t o r y o b s e r v a t i o n a l e x - p o s t f a c t o r e s e a r c h t h a t p r e s e n t s c a u s a l e x p l a n a t i o n o r r e l a t i o n s h i p s a m o n g v a r i a b l e s t h r o u g h h y p o t h e t i c a l e x a m i n a t i o n . A s p o p u l a t i o n w e r e g o p u b l i c c o m p a n i e s r e g i s t e r e d a t J a k a r t a S t o c k E x c h a n g e ( J S E o r B u r s a E f e k J a k a r t a , B E J ) . S a m p l e s w e r e t a k e n p u r p o s i v e l y , in a c c o r d w i th c r i t e r i o n s a s f o l l o w : 1) T h e y m u s t h a d b e e n r e g is t e r e d a t J S E s i n c e 1 9 9 8 . T h o s e r e g i s t e r e d in 1 9 9 9 o r t h e n e x t y e a r s w o u l d n o t b e c l a s s i f i e d a s s a m p l e s . T h i s is in o r d e r t o p r e v e n t b i a s t h a t m a y c o f n e f r o m a g e d i f f e r e n c e a m o n g c o m p a n i e s a s l o n g a s t h e y b e c o m e " p u b l i c . " 2 ) T h e i r f i n a n c i a l r e p o r t s e n d u p o n 3 1 D e c e m b e r . C o m p a n i e s t h a t d o n o t h a v e f i n a n c i a l r e p o r t s c l o s e d 31 D e c e m b e r w e r e e x c l u d e d . T h i s is in o r d e r t o a v o i d m i s - p e r c e p t i o n o n t h e i r p e r f o r m a n c e . 3 ) B a n k s a n d f i n a n c e i n s t i t u t i o n s ( b a n k s , M u l t i F i n a n c e a n d I n s u r a n c e ) w e r e e x c l u d e d f o r a v o i d i n g b i a s c a u s e d by d i f f e r e n c e in t y p e s o f b u s i n e s s a n d c r i t e r i o n s o f s t a n d a r d m e a s u r e m e n t . 4 ) In t h e p r e s e n t e d f i n a n c i a l r e p o r t s , n e g a t i v e e q u i t y b a l a n c e is n o t p e r m i s s i b l e , fo r th is w o u l d c a u s e d i s o r d e r s i f i n c l u d e d in to r a ti o a n a ly s i s .

J S E c l a s s i f i e d e m i t e n t s i n to t w o g r o u p s :

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board.

M a i n b o a r d i n c l u d e s g r e a t e m i t e n t s w i t h g o o d t r a c k r e c o r d , w h e r e a s d e v e l o p m e n t b o a r d h a n d l e s s m a l l e r e m i t e n t s . D e v e l o p m e n t b o a r d a l s o i n c l u d e s c o m p a n i e s ( e m i t e n t s ) t h a t a r e in p r o c e s s o f r e s t r u c t u r i z a t i o n a n d p e r f o r m a n c e r e c o v e r y . C o n c e r n i n g t h a t t h e s e e m i t e n t s c o m e f o r m v a r i o u s s e c t o r s in J S E , a n d in o r d e r t o a v o i d b i a s r e s u l t e d f r o m u n i f i c a t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t s e c t o r s , t h i s s t u d y h e l d s e c t o r a l a n a l y s i s w i th g r o u p i n g a s f o l lo w s :

The International Journal o f Accounting and Business Society

T a b l e 1 . S e c t o r a l A n a l y s i s O n C o m p a n i e s A t J a k a r t a S t o c k E x c h a n g e

N O S E C T O R M E M B E R S

1 B a s i c a n d c h e m i c a l s I n d u s t r i e s 2 6 E m i t e n t s

2 M u l t i v a r i o u s I n d u s t r i e s 2 6 E m i t e n t s

3 C o n s u m p t i o n G o o d s I n d u s t r i e s 2 1 E m i t e n t s 4 P r o p e r t y & R e a l E s t a t e a n d

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T h e r e w a s o n l y 9 e m i t e n t s o r 4 5 d a t a f o r A g r i c u l t u r e a n d m in in g . T h i s n u m b e r is i n s u f f i c i e n t t o fu lf ill m i n i m u m S E M r e q u i r e m e n t ( 1 0 0 D a ta ). T h e r e f o r e b o t h s e c t o r s c a n n o t b e i n c l u d e d f o r f u r t h e r a n a l y s i s .

T h e n u m b e r o f s a m p l e s w a s 1 0 0 m i n i m a l l y , s i n c e a n a l y s i s i n s t r u m e n t u s e s S t r u c t u r a l E q u a t i o n M o d e l i n g . D a t a w e r e o f p r i m a r y a n d s e c o n d a r y at J S E a n d g o p u b l i c c o m p a n i e s a t J S E . D o c u m e n t a t i o n w a s c a r r i e d o u t in o r d e r to c h e c k : f i n a n c i a l r e p o r t s , s t o c k p r i c e , C o m b i n e d S t o c k P r i c e I n d e x , a n d t h e list o f e m i t e n t s c l a s s i f i e d a s m a i n b o a r d a n d d e v e l o p m e n t b o a r d . C o n c e r n i n g t h a t s o m a n y v a r i a b l e s i n v o l v e d a n d t h e n e e d t o f i n d o u t r e l a t i o n s h i p s a m o n g v a r i a b l e s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , a s t a t i s t i c m u l t i v a r i a t e m e t h o d is n e c e s s a r y f o r a n a l y z i n g m o r e t h a n t w o v a r i a b l e s . S t r u c t u r a l E q u a t i o n M o d e l ( S E M ) w a s u s e d w i t h t h e h e l p o f s o f t w a r e S P S S a n d A M O S 4 .0 .

R E S U L T S A N D D I S C U S S I O N S

E n v i r o n m e n t r i s k o n c o r p o r a t e s t r a t e g y . In g e n e r a l , c o m p a n i e s s a w

E nvironm ent R isk

h a d n o t s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s o n

C orp orate S tra teg y

w i t h f a u lt t o l e r a n c e o f 8 7 % . T h e s a m e d e s c r i p t i o n f o u n d a t M a i n b o a r d a n d D e v e l o p m e n t b o a r d . F a u l t t o l e r a n c e o f e a c h g r o u p a r e 9 8 , 3 % a n d 5 1 , 4 % , r e s p e c t i v e l y . A f a ir e x c e p t i o n a p p l i e d t o c h e m i c a l a n d b a s ic i n d u s t r i e s , m u l t i v a r i o u s i n d u s t r ie s , a n d c o n s u m p t i o n g o o d I n d u s t r i e s , w h e r e f o r t h e s e t h r e e s e c t o r s ,

e n v iro n m e n t R isk

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C o rp o ra te Strategy.

W i t h f a u l t t o l e r a n c e o f 2 , 1 % , 4 % , a n d " F i x , " r e s p e c t i v e l y . O n l y P r o p e r t y &

R e a l e s ta t e , T r a n s p o r t a t i o n & I n f r a s t r u c t u r e , a n d C o m m e r c e a n d S e r v i c e d id n o t a g r e e w i t h t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p s .

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h a d n o t a n y e f f e c t s o n

C orporate Strategy.

W i t h f a u l t t o l e r a n c e o f 1 4 , 9 % f o r P r o p e r t y & R e a l e s t a t e a n d T r a n s p o r t a t i o n & I n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d 5 3 , 6 % f o r - c o m m e r c e a n d s e r v ic e s e c to r s .

E n v i r o n m e n t r i s k o n C a p i t a l S t r u c t u r e . T h e r e w a s s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t o f e n v i r o n m e n t r i s k o n c a p i t a l s t r u c t u r e a t M a i n b o a r d c o m p a n i e s w i th fa u lt t o l e r a n c e o f 0 , 2 % . T h e f i n d i n g s in m a i n b o a r d c o m p a n i e s w e r e n o t f o l l o w e d b y D e v e l o p m e n t B o a r d c o m p a n i e s w h i c h f o u n d n o s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s o f

E nvironm ent R isk

o n c a p i t a l S t r u c t u r e , w i t h f a u l t t o l e r a n c e o f 1 1 , 9 % . W h e r e a s f o r t h e T o t a l B o a r d ( M a i n B o a r d p lu s D e v e l o p m e n t B o a r d ) t h e r e w a s s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s o f

E nvironm ent R isk

o n c a p i ta l s t r u c t u r e , w i t h f a u lt t o l e r a n c e o f 0 , 5 % o n l y . F o r B a s i e a n d C h e m i c a l s I n d u s t r i e s a n d C o m m e r c e a n d S e r v i c e t h e r e w a s a F i x r e l a t i o n s h i p . W 'h ile f o r m u l t i v a r i o u s i n d u s t r i e s a n d c o n s u m p t i o n g o o d I n d u s t r i e s t h e r e w a s s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s o f

environm ent risk

o n c a p i ta l s t r u c t u r e , w i t h f a u l t t o l e r a n c e o n l y 1 ,8 % a n d 2 , 7 % , r e s p e c t i v e l y . T h e r e v e r s e a p p l i e d t o p r o p e r t y & R e a l E s t a t e a n d T r a n s p o r t a t i o n & I n f r a s t r u c t u r e S e c t o r s w i t h f a u l t t o l e r a n c e o f 4 6 . 7 % .

40 The Effects o f Environment Risk, Capital Structure...

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The International Journal o f Accounting and Business Society

E n v i r o n m e n t R i s k o n A s s e t s p r o d u c t i v i t y .

E nvironm ent risk

h a d s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s o n a s s e ts p r o d u c t i v i t y a s f o u n d o n m a i n b o a r d c o m p a n i e s w i th f a u lt t o l e r a n c e o n l y o f 0 , 2 % . W h e r e a s D e v e l o p m e n t B o a r d s t r o n g l y c o n f i r m e d fix r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n

environm ent risk

a n d a s s e t s p r o d u c t i v i t y . T h e s a m e r e s u l t s r e f l e c t e d f r o m t h e T o t a l B o a r d w h i c h f o u n d F i x r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n

E n v iro n m e n t R is k

a n d a s s e t s p r o d u c t i v it y . T h e r e s u l t s o f t h e s e t h r e e s e c t o r s m a y b e f o u n d o n B a s i c a n d . C h e m i c a l s S e c t o r w h i c h h a d f i x r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n

environm ent risk

a n d a s s e ts p r o d u c t i v i t y . T h i s r e s u l t s w e r e f o l l o w e d b y C o n s u m p t i o n G o o d s I n d u s t r i e s a n d P r o p e r t y & R e a l E s t a t e a n d T r a n s p o r t a t i o n & I n f r a s t r u c t u r e S e c t o r s w h i c h f o u n d s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s o f

enviro nm en t R isk

o n a s s e t s p r o d u c t i v i t y . F a u l t t o l e r a n c e o f b o t h s e c t o r s w a s o n l y 0 , 5 % a n d 3 , 6 % r e s p e c t i v e l y . W h e r e a s M u l t i v a r i o u s I n d u s t r i e s anti C o m m e r c e a n d S e r v i c e S e c t o r s f o u n d n o s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f

environm ent risk

o n a s s e t s p r o d u c t iv i t y . F a u lt t o l e r a n c e o f e a c h s e c t o r r e a c h e d 7 2 , 4 % f o r M u l t i v a r i o u s I n d u s t r i e s a n d 5 7 , 3 % f o r C o m m e r c e a n d S e r v i c e S e c t o r .

y

E n v i r o n m e n t r i s k o n F i n a n c i a l P e r f o r m a n c e . In M a i n b o a r d c o m p a n i e s ,

en v iro n m en t risk

h a d n o s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s o n F i n a n c i a l P e r f o r m a n c e w i t h f a u l t t o l e r a n c e o f 2 5 , 7 % . W h e r e a s t h e r e s u lt s f o u n d in D e v e l o p m e n t b o a r d g r o u p s e e m e d to b e d i f f e r e n t :

environm ent risk

h a d s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s o n F i n a n c i a l P e r f o r m a n c e w i th f a u lt t o l e r a n c e s e b e s a r 0 . 7 % . B u t. th is r e s u lt w a s n o t r e f l e c t e d in t h e r e s u l ts o f T o t a l B o a r d s h o w i n g t h a t

en v iro n m en t risk

h a d n o s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s o n F i n a n c i a l P e r f o r m a n c e w i th f a u lt t o l e r a n c e o f 7 6 , 7 % . P r o p e r t y & R e a l E s t a t e , T r a n s p o r t a t i o n & I n f r a s t r u c t u r e f o u n d t h a t

environm ent risk

h a d s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s o n F i n a n c i a l P e r f o r m a n c e w i t h f a u l t t o l e r a n c e o n l y o f 7 % . B a s i c a n d C h e m i c a l s S e c t o r , M u l t i v a r i o u s I n d u s t r i e s , C o n s u m p t i o n G o o d s I n d u s t r i e s a n d C o m m e r c e a n d S e r v i c e S e c t o r s s h o w e d t h e r e v e r s e :

en viro n m en t risk

h a d n o s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s o n f i n a n c i a l p e r f o r m a n c e . F a u l t t o l e r a n c e o f e a c h s e c t o r w a s 7 7 , 4 % f o r B a s i c a n d C h e m i c a l s , 4 6 , 4 % f o r M u l t i v a r i o u s I n d u s t r i e s , 9 8 . 3 % f o r C o n s u m p t i o n G o o d s I n d u s t r i e s a n d 4 6 , 4 % fo r C o m m e r c e a n d S e r v i c e S e c t o r .

E n v iro n m e n t risk

o n C o r p o r a t e V a l u e . F o r m a i n b o a r d ,

e n v iro n m en t risk

h a d s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s o n c o r p o r a t e v a l u e w i t h f a u l t t o l e r a n c e o n l y o f 2 , 8 % . T h i s w a s f o l l o w e d b y D e v e l o p m e n t b o a r d w h i c h f o u n d s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s o f

environm ent risk

o n c o r p o r a t e v a l u e , w i th fa u lt t o l e r a n c e o n l y o f 8 , 6 % . T h u s , t h e T o t a l b o a r d s h o w e d c o n v i n c i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n

en viro nm ent risk

o n c o r p o r a t e v a l u e , w i t h f a u l t t o l e r a n c e o n l y o f 0 , 3 % .

S e c t o r a l a n a l y s i s s h o w e d d i f f e r e n t r e s u lt s , s o m e o f t h e m s u p p o r t e d h y p o t h e s i s a n d s o m e o f t h e m d i d n o t . B a s i c a n d C h e m i c a l s S e c t o r f o u n d a F ix r e l a t i o n s h i p o f

enviro nm en t risk

o n c o r p o r a t e v a l u e . T h i s w a s f o l l o w e d b y C o n s u m p t i o n G o o d s I n d u s t r i e s a n d C o m m e r c e & S e r v i c e S e c t o r t h a t f o u n d

Vol. I 7, No. / / Agustus 2009

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42 The Effects o f Environment Risk, Capital Structure,

S i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s o f

e n v ir o n m e n t r is k

o n c o r p o r a t e v a l u e , w i t h f a u l t t o l e r a n c e o n l y o f 9 , 8 % f o r C o n s u m p t i o n G o o d s I n d u s t r i e s a n d 4 , 9 % f o r C o m m e r c e a n d S e r v i c e S e c t o r . O t h e r s e c t o r s s u c h a s M u l t i v a r i o u s I n d u s t r i e s a n d P r o p e r t y & R e a l E s t a t e a n d T r a n s p o r t a t i o n & I n f r a s t r u c t u r e f o u n d n o s i g n i f i c a n r r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n

en viro nm ent ris k

a n d c o r p o r a t e v a l u e . E a c h f a u l t t o l e r a n c e r e a c h e d 5 5 % f o r M u l t i v a r i o u s I n d u s t r i e s a n d 2 6 % f o r P r o p e r t y & R e a l E s t a t e a n d T r a n s p o r t a t i o n & I n f r a s t r u c t u r e .

C a p i t a l S t r u c t u r e o n A s s e t s P r o d u c t i v i t y . In l in e w i t h

fre e ca sh flo w

t h e o r y o f J e n s e n ( 1 9 8 6 ) i n v e s t o r s w o u ld f o r c e t h e m a n a g e m e n t t o u t i li z e a s s e ts p r o d u c t i v e l y , b y m a k i n g m u c h m o r e d e b t s a n d d e b t s . T h a t c a p i t a l s t r u c t u r e w o u l d b r i n g p o s i t i v e i m p a c t o n a s s e t s p r o d u c t i v i t y . T h i s is in a c c o r d w i t h t h e f i n d i n g s o f L i c h t e n b e r g a n d S i e g e l ( 1 9 9 0 ) ; N i c k e l l & N i c o l i t s a s ( 1 9 9 9 ) ; F i l b e c k & G o r m a n ( 2 0 0 1 ) ; I n d a h w a t i ( 2 0 0 4 ) . T h e r e is a c o n v i n c i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n c a p i t a l s t r u c t u r e a n d a s s e t s p r o d u c t i v i t y b o th f o r t h e m a i n b o a r d a n d d e v e l o p m e n t b o a r d . B u t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p w a s n e g a t i v e : o p p o s e d a g a i n s t w i t h h y p o t h e s i s

a n d fr e e cashflow

t h e o r y . In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e i n c r e a s e o f c a p i ta l s t r u c t u r e w o u l d l o w e r a s s e t s p r o d u c t i v i t y . C o m p a n i e s p r e f e r r e d to u t il iz e i n t e r n a l f u n d ( l i q u i d i t y ) t o i m p r o v e a s s e t s p r o d u c t i v i t y t h a n m a k i n g d e b t s w h i c h o n l y b l o a t e x p e n s e s t h a t in t u r n l o w e r i n g t h e i r a s s e t s p r o d u c t i v i t y . P r i o r i t y o n t h e u t i l i z a t io n i f i n t e r n a l f u n d r e f l e c t s

the p eckin g

order theory

o f M y e r s ( 1 9 8 4 ) r a t h e r

ihanfree cashflow

t h e o r y . T h o u g h i n v e s t o r s t e n d t o e m b r a c e

the fr e e cashflow

t h e o r y b y e n c o u r a g i n g m a n a g e m e n t t o m a k e d e b t s , b u t in f a c t , m a n a g e m e n t s b o t h in m a i n a n d d e v e l o p m e n t b o a r d t e n d t o b e h a v e c o n s e r v a t i v e ! ) t o w a r d s d e b t s . T h e n ­ c a r e f u l n e s s is s o m e k i n d o f t r a u m a o n t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e d u r i n g t h e p a s t 1 9 9 8 c r i s i s . T h e r e s u l t in s e c t o r s s h o w e d t h a t o n l y B a s i c a n d C h e m i c a l s S e c t o r a n d P r o p e r t y & R e a l E s t a t e a n d T r a n s p o r t a t i o n & I n f r a s t r u c t u r e t h a t f o u n d c o n v i n c i n g e f f e c t s o f c a p i t a l s t r u c t u r e o n a s s e t s p r o d u c t i v i t y , w h i l e o t h e r s e c t o r s d i d n o t f i n d a n y c o n v i n c i n g o n e . O n l y C o n s u m p t i o n G o o d s I n d u s t r i e s t h a t e m b r a c e s

fr e e cash flo w theory

o f J e n s e n ( 1 9 8 6 ) , w h e r e m a n a g e m e n t w a s f o r c e d t o m a k e d e b t s to u t ili z e a s s e t s a s e f f i c i e n t a s p o s s i b l e . T h i s w o u l d r e s u l t in n e g a t i v e e f f e c t s o f l i q u i d i t y o n a s s e t s p r o d u c t i v i t y . In o t h e r w o r d s , m a n a g e m e n t d i d n o t i n v e s t o n

liq u id assets

a s i n t e r n a l f u n d r e s e r v e , b u t t e n d s t o u s e d e b t s . O t h e r s e c t o r s s t ill s h o w e d p o s i t i v e e f f e c t s a c c o r d i n g t o

the p ec kin g order theory.

C a p i t a l s t r u c t u r e o n F i n a n c i a l P e r f o r m a n c e . In l i n e w i t h

p e c k in g order

theo ry

o f M y e r s ( 1 9 8 4 ) t h a t p u t p r i o r i t y o n i n t e r n a l s o u r c e f u n d i n g , d e b t s w o u l d o n l y b r i n g n e g a t i v e i m p a c t o n f i n a n c i a l p e r f o r m a n c e , in a c c o r d w i t h t h e f i n d i n g s o f K e s t e r ( 1 9 8 6 ) ; T i t m a n & W e s s e l s ( 1 9 8 8 ) ; B a r t o n & G o r d o n ( 1 9 8 8 ) ; F r i e n d & L a n g ( 1 9 8 8 ) ; H a r r i s ( 1 9 9 1 ) ; R a j a n & Z i n g a l e s ( 1 9 9 4 ) ; J o h n s o n ( 1 9 9 7 ) : J o r d a n , e t a/.( 1 9 9 8 ); M o h ’d. e t a / . ( 1 9 9 8 ) ; W a l d ( 1 9 9 9 ) ; W i w a t t a n a k a n t a n g ( 1 9 9 9 ) ; B o o t h ,

et

a / . ( 2 0 0 0 ) ; E l a s h k e r & W a t t a n a s u w a n n e e

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+

( 2 0 0 0 ) ; H u a n g & S o n g ( 2 0 0 2 ) ; A n t o n i o u ( 2 0 0 2 ) ; C h e n , e t a / . ( 1 9 9 8 ) ; C h a t h o t h ( 2 0 0 2 ) ; T i e n p a o ( 2 0 0 3 ) ; B u n k a n x v a n i c h a , e t a / . ( 2 0 0 3 ) ; C h e n ( 2 0 0 3 ) ; A k h t a r ( 2 0 0 5 ) , R a t n a w a t i ( 2 0 0 1 ) a n d I n d a h w a t i ( 2 0 0 3 ) . T h e r e s u l t f o u n d in m a i n b o a r d c o m p a n i e s s h o w e d n o c o n v i n c i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n c a p i t a l s t r u c t u r e a n d f i n a n c i a l p e r f o r m a n c e . O n c o n t r a r y , f o r d e v e l o p m e n t b o a r d t h e r e w a s c o n v i n c i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n c a p i t a l s t r u c t u r e a n d F i n a n c i a l P e r f o r m a n c e , t h e d i r e c t i o n r e s u lt e d f o r m a i n b o a r d w a s p o s i t i v e , w h e r e a s f o r d e v e l o p m e n t b o a r d w a s n e g a t i v e . T h i s s h o w e d t h a t f o r m a i n b o a r d , r a i s i n g d e b t s w o u l d p r o v i d e a d d i t i o n a l b e n e f i t s t h a t w o u l d i m p r o v e c o m p a n y ' s F i n a n c i a l P e r f o r m a n c e , w h i l e , f o r d e v e l o p m e n t b o a r d r a i s i n g d e b t s m a y b e c a m e n e w b u r d e n w h i c h o n l y d e d u c t c o m p a n y ' s F i n a n c i a l P e r f o r m a n c e . T h i s is in l i n e w i t h t h e f i n d i n g s o f D a m o d a r a n ( 1 9 9 7 ) . S e c t o r s t h a t fo u rfd s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s o f c a p it a l s t r u c t u r e o n F i n a n c i a l P e r f o r m a n c e ' w e r e o n ly M u l t i v a r i o u s I n d u s t r i e s a n d c o n s u m p t i o n g o o d s . N e g a t i v e d i r e c t i o n w a s f o u n d o n l y o n M u l t i v a r i o u s I n d u s t r i e s a n d C o m m e r c e a n d S e r v i c e S e c t o r . W h i le , o t h e r s e c t o r s f o u n d p o s it iv e d ir e c tio n

C a p i t a l s t r u c t u r e o n C o r p o r a t e V a l u e . In a c c o r d w i t h

p e c k in g o rder

th eo ry

o f M y e r s ( 1 9 8 4 ) r a i s i n g d e b t s m a y g i v e n e g a t i v e s i g n a l t o i n v e s t o r s f o r i n t e r n a l f u n d is i n s u f f i c i e n t t o m a k e i n v e s t m e n t . T h i s is in l i n e w i t h t h e f i n d i n g s o f J e n s e n & M e c k l i n g ( 1 9 7 6 ) ; M y e r s ( 1 9 7 6 ) ; M y e r s ( 1 9 8 4 ) ; M y e r s & M a j l u t ( 1 9 8 4 ) ; D a m o d a r a n ( 1 9 9 7 ) ; F a m a & F r e n c h ( 1 9 9 8 ) ; R o s s ,

et at

( 1 9 9 9 ) ; A n t o n i o u ( 2 0 0 2 I n d a h w a t i " ( 2 0 0 4 ) ; S u g i h e n ( 2 0 0 3 ) a n d S u d a r m a ( 2 0 0 4 ) . T h e r e s u l t s h o w e d t h a t o n l y m a i n b o a r d c o m p a n i e s t h a t c o n v i n c i n g l y fo u n d t h e e f f e c t s o f c a p it a l s t r u c t u r e o n c o r p o r a t e v a l u e , w h i l e d e v e l o p m e n t b o a r d c o m p a n i e s d i d n o t f i n d t h e s a m e . In g e n e r a l in all s e c t o r w e c a n n o t f i n d a n y s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s o f c a p i t a l s t r u c t u r e o n c o r p o r a t e v a l u e . T h e d i r e c t i o n w a s p o s i t i v e , w h i c h m e a n s t h a t r a i s i n g d e b t s w o u l d g i v e p o s i t i v e s i g n a l to i n v e s t o r s t h a t in t u r n w o u l d i m p r o v e c o r p o r a t e v a l u e . T h i s is in a c c o r d w i th

signaling th e o ry

o f R o s s ( 1 9 7 7 )

f r e e cash flo w

t h e o r y o f J e n s e n ( 1 9 8 6 ) . O n l y B a s i c a n d C h e m i c a l s S e c t o r , C o n s u m p t i o n G o o d s I n d u s t r i e s a n d P r o p e r t y & R e a l E s ta t e , T r a n s p o r t a t i o n & I n f r a s t r u c t u r e f o u n d c o n v i n c i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f c a p i t a l s t r u c t u r e a n d c o r p o r a t e v a l u e . T h e d i r e c t i o n is n e g a t i v e , w h i l e o t h e r s s e c t o r s is p o s i t i v e . H i s i m p l i e d t h a t

p e c k in g order

theory

is a p p l i e d m o r e o f t e n o n m u l t i v a r i o u s i n d u s t r i e s , C o n s u m p t i o n G o o d s I n d u s t r i e s , p r o p e r t y & r e a l e s t a t e a n d T r a n s p o r t a t i o n & I n f r a s t r u c t u r e . W h i l e , B a s i c a n d C h e m i c a l s S e c t o r , C o m m e r c e a n d S e r v i c e S e c t o r t e n d t o .

signaling theory

o f R o s s ( 1 9 7 7 )

an d fr e e cashflow

t h e o r y o f J e n s e n ( 1 9 8 6 ) .

Corporate S tra teg y

o n C a p i t a l s t r u c t u r e . B a r t o n & G o r d o n ( 1 9 8 7 ) f o u n d a s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n

co rporate stra te g y

a n d c a p i t a l s t r u c t u r e . T h e y w e r e s u p p o r t e d b v C h a t h o t h ( 2 0 0 2 ) w h o f o u n d a fix r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n

co rp o ra te stra te g y

a n d c a p i t a l s t r u c t u r e . T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n

C o rp o ra te stra te g y

a n d c a p i t a l s t r u c t u r e in m a i n b o a r d

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44 The Effects o f Environment Risk, Capital Structure,

a n d s e c o n d ( d e v e l o p m e n t ) b o a r d s h o w e d q u i t e h i g h v a l u e o f 4 7 , 6 % f o r t h e m a i n b o a r d a n d 5 3 , 1 % f o r d e v e l o p m e n t b o a r d . T h e n u m b e r s s h o w e d a v e r y c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p . T h i s r e l a t i o n w a s a l s o r e f l e c t e d in h y p o t h e s i s a n a l y s i s o n m a m b o a r d c o m p a n i e s t h a t s h o w e d a f ix i n f l u e n c e o f

co rporate stra teg y

o n c a p i t a l s t r u c t u r e . T h e s a m e t h i n g a p p l i e d t o s e c o n d b o a r d c o m p a n i e s th a t s h o w e d s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s o f

corporate strategy

o n c a p i t a l s t r u c t u r e . T h i s m e a n s t h a t in t a k i n g p o l i c y r e g a r d i n g c a p i t a l s t r u c t u r e , c o m p a n i e s a l w a y s c o n s i d e r c o r p o r a t e s t r a t e g y . In g e n e r a l , c o m p a n i e s in I n d o n e s i a a l s o s h o w e d c a p i t a l s t r u c t u r e p o l i c y t h a t c o u n t s c o r p o r a t e s tra te g y .

O n l y B a s i c a n d C h e m i c a l s S e c t o r a n d C o m m e r c e a n d S e r v i c e S e c t o r d i d n o t s h o w a n y r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n

co rp o ra te stra te g y

a n d c a p i t a l s t r u c t u r e . W h i l e , m u l t i - v a r i o u s i n d u s t r i e s , C o n s u m p t i o n G o o d s , P r o p e r t y & R e a l E s t a t e , a n d T r a n s p o r t a t i o n & I n f r a s t r u c t u r e s h o w e d a c o n v i n c i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n

corporate strategy’

a n d c a p i t a l s t r u c t u r e . C o m p a n i e s in B a s i c & C h e m i c a l s S e c t o r , a n d C o m m e r c e & S e r v i c e S e c t o r g a v e le s s a t t e n t i o n o n e s t a b l i s h e d c o r p o r a t e s t r a t e g y in t a k i n g c a p i t a l s t r u c t u r e p o l ic i e s .

Corporate Strategy

o n A s s e t s p r o d u c t i v i t y . H a ll & W e i s s ( 1 9 8 3 ) a n d C a p o n ( 1 9 9 0 ) f o u n d t h a t s t a b l e g r o w t h m a y i m p r o v e c o m p a n y ' s F in a n c i a l P e r f o r m a n c e . A s s e t s p r o d u c t i v i t y is o n e f o r m o f f i n a n c i a l p e r f o r m a n c e . T h e e l e m e n t o f c o r p o r a t e s t r a t e g y w e m e a n h e r e is g r o w t h s t r a t e g y . M a i n b o a r d a n d d e v e l o p m e n t b o a r d s h o w e d a c l o s e a n d c o n v i n c i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n c o r p o r a t e s t r a t e g y a n d a s s e t s p r o d u c t i v i t y . T h e s a m e r e s u l t r e f l e c t e d in all c o m p a n i e s in I n d o n e s i a . T h i s m e a n s t h a t to o p t i m i z e a s s e t u t i l i z a t i o n , m a n a g e m e n t m u s t p u t a t t e n t i o n o n t h e a l r e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d c o r p o r a t e stra te g y .

O n l y B a s i c a n d C h e m i c a l s S e c t o r a n d P r o p e r t y & R e a l E s t a t e a n d T r a n s p o r t a t i o n & I n f r a s t r u c t u r e t h a t s h o w e d c o n v i n c i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n c o r p o r a t e s t r a t e g y w i t h a s s e t s p r o d u c t i v i t y . T h i s i m p l i e s t h a t o t h e r s e c t o r s g a v e l e s s a t t e n t i o n o n a l r e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d c o r p o r a t e s t r a t e g y in o r d e r to a c h i e v e e f f i c i e n c y in a s s e t s u t i li z a t i o n .

Corporate Strategy-

o n F i n a n c i a l P e r f o r m a n c e . S t u d y o n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n

co rp o ra te s tr a te g y

a n d F i n a n c i a l P e r f o r m a n c e w a s p i o n e e r e d b y B a r t o n & G o r d o n

( 1 9 8 7 ) . T h e i r s t u d y w a s f o l l o w e d a n d s u p p o r t e d b y C a p o n ,

et ai

( 1 9 9 0 ) a n d H ill & J o n e s ( 1 9 9 8 ) . T h e r e s u l t o f c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t a n a l y s i s s h o w e d a c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n

corporate stra te g y

a n d F i n a n c i a l P e r f o r m a n c e , in f i rs t c l a s s , s e c o n d c l a s s , a n d c o m p a n i e s in all s e c t o r s in g e n e r a l . B u t. f r o m h y p o t h e t i c a l a n a l y s i s o n l y s e c o n d c l a s s c o m p a n i e s th a t f o u n d s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s o f

corporate stra teg y

o n f i n a n c i a l p e r f o r m a n c e , w h e r e a s f o r t h e m a i n b o a r d c o m p a n i e s a n d all s e c t o r s d i d n o t f o u n d a n y r e l a t i o n s h i p . T h i s i m p l i e s t h a t c o r p o r a t e s t r a t e g y d o n o t h a v e o p t i m u m r o l e f o r i m p r o v i n g f i n a n c i a l p e r f o r m a n c e , e x c e p t in d e v e l o p m e n t b o a r d c o m p a n i e s . It

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The International Journal o f Accounting and Business Society'

w a s o n l y m u l t i - v a r i o u s i n d u s t r i e s s e c t o r t h a t h a d c o n v i n c i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n c o r p o r a t e s t r a t e g y a n d f i n a n c i a l p e r f o r m a n c e , w h e r e a s o t h e r s e c to r s d id not.

C o r p o r a t e S t r a t e g y o n C o r p o r a t e V a l u e . C o n v i n c i n g c o r p o r a t e s t r a t e g y is v ita l, to m a k e i n v e s t o r s t o p e r c e i v e t h a t t h e c o m p a n y h a d a g o o d c o r p o r a t e v a l u e . R a t n a w a t i ( 2 0 0 1 ) a n d S u d a r m a ( 2 0 0 4 ) f o u n d s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n c o r p o r a t e g r o w t h a n d c o r p o r a t e v a l u e . T h e r e s u l t s o f c o r r e l a t i o n a n a l y s i s s h o w e d t h a t t h e r e is a c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n c o r p o r a t e s t r a t e g y w ith c o r p o r a t e v a l u e , b o t h f o r m a i n b o a r d , d e v e l o p m e n t b o a r d c o m p a n i e s , a n d all s e c to r s . T h e s a m e r e s u l t w a s a l s o r e f l e c t e d f r o m h y p o t h e t i c a l a n a l y s i s w h i c h f o u n d a s i g n i f i c a n t i n f l u e n c e o f c o r p o r a t e s t r a t e g y o n c o r p o r a t e valife. T h is s h o w e d t h a t p r o p e r c o r p o r a t e s t r a t e g y m a y b e c o m e a p o s i t i v e s i g n a l f o r i n v e s t o r s , t h a t in t h e f u t u r e it w o u l d b e r e a l i z e d in f o r m o f i m p r o v e d c o r p o r a t e v a l u e .

' C O N C L U S I O N S

1. I n v e s t o r s in I n d o n e s i a t e n d t o e n c o u r a g e m a i n b o a r d c o m p a n i e s to m a k e d e b t s b a s e d o n c o n f i d e n c e t h a t t h e m a n a g e m e n t s a r e a b l e in m a n a g i n g d e b t s . T h i s p r o v e d t h a t i n v e s t o r s t e n d t o a g r e e w ith

f r e e ca sh flo w

m e o r y o f J e n s e n ( 1 9 8 6 ) . R e v e r s e l y , f o r d e v e l o p m e n t b o a r d c o m p a n i e s , i n v e s t o r s t e n d t o r e c o m m e n d i n t e r n a l f i m d i n g r a t h e r t h a n m a k i n g d e b t s , w h i c h is in lin e w i t h

p e c k in g ord er th eo ry

o f M y e r s ( 1 9 8 4 ) . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , m a n a g e m e n t o f m a i n a n d d e v e l o p m e n t b o a r d s h a d a c o n s e r v a t i v e a t t i t u d e o n d e b t s . T h e y a r e m o r e c o n v i n c e d o n th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f

p e c k in g order theory

a n d

asym m etric inform ation theory

b y p u t t i n g p r i o r i t i e s o n i n t e r n a l c a p i ta l f u n d i n g r a t h e r t h a n t h e e x t e r n a l o n e . M a n a g e m e n t o f m a i n b o a r d c o m p a n i e s p r e f e r t o m a k e i n v e s t m e n t s o n

liq u id assets

a s t h e i r a n t i c i p a t i o n o n b u s i n e s s ris k i n c r e a s e . S e c o n d b o a r d m a n a g e m e n t , o n t h e c o n t r a r y d i d n o t t a k e t h e s a m e p o l i c y , t h o u g h t h e y w e r e

c o n c e rn e d

o n

p e c k in g o rd er th eo ry

a n d

a sym m etric in fo rm a tio n th e o ry

a n d r e c o g n i z e d p o s i t i v e i m p a c t o f t h e r a i s e o f

liq u id assets

o n f i n a n c i a l p e r f o r m a n c e .

2. C o r p o r a t e v a l u e t h a t i n d i r e c tl y d e s c r i b e s c o m p a n y 's s t o c k p r i c e w a s i n f l u e n c e d b y a s s e t s p r o d u c t i v i t y , c a p i t a l s t r u c t u r e ,

co rpo ra te strategy

a n d

en viro n m en t risk

In t h e e r a o f g l o b a l i z a t i o n p r e s e n t l y c o m p a n i e s a r e r e q u i r e d t o b e m o r e p r o d u c t i v e t o c o m p e t e w i t h e a c h o t h e r . T h a t 's w h y t h e i n c r e a s e o f a s s e t s p r o d u c t i v i t y w a s r e s p o n d e d p o s i t i v e l y b y i n v e s to r s . D e d u c t i n g n e w d e b t s m a y b e e f f e c t i v e to r a i s e c o r p o r a t e v a l u e w h e n a c c o m p a n i e d b y p r o d u c t i v e a s s e t s u t i l i z a t i o n . F o r m u l a t i n g a n d u t i l i z i n g g o o d c o r p o r a t e s t r a t e g y m a y a l s o r a i s e c o r p o r a t e v a l u e , but it w o u l d b e s t r o n g e r i f a c c o m p a n i e d b y r a is i n g p r o d u c t i v e a s s e t s u t il iz a t i o n . H e n c e , r i s k i n c r e a s e w o u l d still b e r e s p o n d e d p o s i t i v e l y b y i n v e s t o r s f o r

Vol. 17, No. / / Agustus 2009

© Centre f o r Indonesian Accounting and M anagement Research

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t h e y s e e t h e c o m p a n y i i a b l e t o u t i l i z e a s s e t s p r o d u c t i v e l y t h r o u g h a p r o p e r f o r m u l a t i o n o f c o r p o r a t e s t r a t e g y a n d s t r o n g c a p i t a l s t r u c t u r e . W h e n c o m p o s i n g c a p i t a l s t r u c t u r e , m o s t o f I n d o n e s i a n c o m p a n i e s a l w a y s c o n s i d e r a c o r p o r a t e s t r a t e g y t h a t is a b l e t o e l i m i n a t e r is k s . In s h o r t , p r o d u c t i v e a s s e t s u t i l i z a t i o n is t h e b e s t p r e l u d e s t e p r e c o m m e n d e d f o r l e v e r i n g u p c o r p o r a t e v a l u e .

3. C o r p o r a t e v a l u e o f m a i n b o a r d c o m p a n i e s w a s a l s o i n f l u e n c e d b y a s s e t s p r o d u c t i v i t y , c a p i t a l s t r u c t u r e ,

c o rp o ra te s tr a te g y

a n d

e n v iro n m e n t r is k

P r o d u c t i v e a s s e t s u t il iz a ti o n w a s h i g h l y a p p r e c i a t e d b y i n v e s to r s . B u t th e y a l s o e x p e c t t h a t m a n a g e m e n t w o u l d b e m o r e f r e q u e n t in u t i l i z i n g d e b t s . P r o p e r c o r p o r a t e s t r a t e g y w o u l d i m p r o v e c o r p o r a t e v a l u e . B u t t h i s i m p r o v e m e n t w o u l d h a v e b e e n b e t t e r i f f o l l o w e d b y p r o d u c t i v e a s s e t s u t i l i z a t i o n . T h i s a t o n c e w o u l d m a k e i n v e s t o r s t o p e r c e i v e r is k s p o s i t i v e l y . P r o p e r a r r a n g e m e n t o f c a p i t a l s t r u c t u r e c o m p o s i t i o n w a s a l s o i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e f o r m u l a t i o n o f . c o r p o r a t e s t r a t e g y a n d t h e ris k s c o m p a n y w o u l d d e a l w i th .

4. C o r p o r a t e v a l u e o f d e v e l o p m e n t b o a r d c o m p a n i e s w a s a l s o i n f l u e n c e d by t h e i r f i n a n c i a l p e r f o r m a n c e , a s s e t s p r o d u c t i v i t y , c a p it a l s t r u c t u r e ,

corporate

strategy

d a n

e n v ir o n m e n t r is k

I t 's o n l y t h a t in t h i s g r o u p t h e m a i n f o c u s t o l e v e r u p c o r p o r a t e v a l u e w a s p u t o n its f i n a n c i a l p e r f o r m a n c e . G o o d f i n a n c i a l p e r f o r m a n c e w o u l d r a i s e c o r p o r a t e v a l u e w h e n s u p p o r t e d w i t h a s s e t s p r o d u c t i v i t y , g o o d c o m p o s i t i o n o f c a p it a l s t r u c t u r e , p r o p e r f o r m u l a t i o n o f c o r p o r a t e s t r a t e g y a n d t h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f r i s k s . C o m p a n y 's a s s e t s p r o d u c t i v i t y h a d s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s o n c o r p o r a t e v a l u e i f c o m p a n y 's f i n a n c i a l p e r f o r m a n c e w a s i m p r o v e d . G o o d c o m p o s i t i o n o f c a p i t a l s t r u c t u r e w o u l d b r i n g p o s i t i v e i m p a c t s o n c o r p o r a t e v a l u e i f it c o u l d j u s t i m p r o v e ' c o m p a n y ' s F i n a n c i a l P e r f o r m a n c e . T h e r o l e o f c o r p o r a t e s t r a t e g y is p i v o t a l f o r r a i s i n g c o r p o r a t e v a l u e , b u t t h e v a l u e w o u l d h a v e b e e n l a r g e r i f c o m p a n y ' s F i n a n c i a l P e r f o r m a n c e w a s i m p r o v e d . T h a t 's w h y i n v e s t o r s h o l d t h e i r a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e i n c r e a s e o f f i n a n c i a l r i s k s m a y b e e l i m i n a t e d b y t h e c o m p a n y . A s c o n c l u s i o n , to i m p r o v e c o r p o r a t e v a l u e o f d e v e l o p m e n t b o a r d c o m p a n i e s , m a n a g e r i a l e f f o r t s a r e a b s o l u t e l y n e c e s s a r y fo r i m p r o v i n g c o m p a n y ' s f i n a n c i a l p e r f o r m a n c e .

5. R i s k s d e d u c t i o n m a k e s m a n a g e r s b e c o m e m o r e a g g r e s s i v e b y l a u n c h i n g h i g h e r g r o w t h a n d l i q u i d i t y s t r a t e g y t o o b t a i n h i g h a s s e t s p r o d u c t i v i t y . S a m e c o n d i t i o n a p p l i e d t o c o m p a n i e s in d e v e l o p m e n t b o a r d . 6. C o r p o r a t e s t r a t e g y a l l t h i s t i m e h a d i m p o r t a n t r o l e in i m p r o v i n g

c o r p o r a t e v a l u e ( f o r t h e s h a r e h o l d e r ) a n d c r e d it o r s ' v a l u e ( f o r t h e

b o n d h o l d e r ) .

7. C r e d i t o r s f e a r o f l e n d i n g t h e i r f u n d to c o m p a n i e s w i t h h i g h r is k b u s i n e s s . B u t , t h e y a r e a s s u r e d o f g o o d c o r p o r a t e s t r a t e g y t h a t w o u l d i m p r o v e c o m p a n y ' s a s s e t s p r o d u c t i v i t y a n d f i n a n c i a l p e r f o r m a n c e . In t h i s m a t t e r , c r e d i t o r s w e r e c o n v i n c e d w i t h l i q u i d i t y s t r a t e g y . T h i s m e a n s t h a t i f

Vol. I 7, No. 1/ Agustus 2009 © Centre f o r Indonesian Accounting and M anagem ent Research Postgraduate Program, Brawijaya University

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m a n a g e m e n t w a s q u i t e c o n s e r v a t i v e t o w a r d s d e b t s a n d t e n d s t o m a k e i n v e s t m e n t o n

liq u id assets,

d e b t s g i v e n b y t h e c r e d i t o r s w o u l d b e s a f e r . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , in g i v i n g l o a n s , c r e d i t o r s d o n o t a l w a y s c o n s i d e r f i n a n c i a l r i s k t h a t l e a d s t o b a n k r u p t c y

(financial distress)

in o r d e r t o a n t i c i p a t e s t u c k c r e d i ts .

R i s k i n c r e a s e - in p a r t i c u l a r m a r k e t r i s k s c a u s e d b y t u r b u l e n c e in t h e m a r k e t - w a s r e s p o n d e d p o s i t i v e l y b u t i n v e s t o r s , s i n c e t h e y a r e c o n v i n c e d t h a t t h e m a n a g e m e n t w a s a b l e t o c o p e w i t h it. I n v e s t o r s a r e a s s u r e d o f c o r p o r a t e s t r a t e g y , e s p e c i a l l y a s s e t g r o w t h a n d p o te n t i a l g r o w t h s t r a t e g i e s . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e m a n a g e m e n t g a v e r e s p o n s e a c c o r d i n g t o i n v e s t o r s ' e x p e c t a t i o n b y l a u n c h i n g a s s e t g r o w t h s t r a t e g y , p o t e n t i a l g r o w t h s t r a t e g y , a n d l i q u i d i t y s t r a t e g y . T h e s e s t r a t e g i c s w o u l d r a i s e c o m p a n y ' s f i n a n c i a l p e r f o r m a n c e a n d e v e n t u a l l y i n c r e a s e its c o r p o r a t e v a l u e . Li o t h e r w o r d s , t h e r e is s t r o n g a n d u n - s e p a r a b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n s t r a t e g i c m a n a g e m e n t a n d f i n a n c i a l m a n a g e m e n t a s f o u n d b y B a r t o n & G o r d o n ( 1 9 8 7 & 1 9 8 8 ).

The International Journal o f Accounting and Business Society

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48 The Effects o f Environment Risk, Capital Structure,

R E F E R E N C E S

A n d e r s o n , R o n a l d W . , 2 0 0 2 , C a p i t a l S t r u c t u r e , F i r m L i q u i d i t y a n d

G r o w t h ,

N a t i o n a l B a n k o f B e l g i u m W o r k i n g P a p e r - R e s e a r c h S e r i e s , N o . 2 7 M a y 2 0 0 2 . A k h t a r , S h u m i , 2 0 0 5 , T h e D e t e r m i n a n t s o f C a p i t a l

S t r u c t u r e f o r A u s t r a l i a n

M u l t i n a t i o n a l a n d D o m e s t i c C o r p o r a t i o n s , A u s t r a l i a n J o u r n a l m a n a g e m e n t .

V o l . 3 0 , N o . 2 D e c e m b e r 2 0 0 5 , A n t o n i o u , A n t o n i o s , Y i l m a z G u n e v , K r i s h n a P a u d y a l , 2 0 0 2 , D e t e r m i n a n t s o f

C o r p o r a t e C a p i t a l S t r u c t u r e : E v i d e n c e f r o m E u r o p e a n C o u n t r i e s ,

C e n t e r f o r E m p i r i c a l R e s e a r c h in F i n a n c e , D e p a r t m e n t o f E c o n o m i c s a n d

. F i n a n c e , U n i v e r s i t y o f D u r h a m , V e r s i o n 1.2, M a r c h , 2 0 0 2 B a l a k r i s h n a n , S r i n i v a s a n & I s a a c F o x , 1 9 9 3 , A s s e t S p e c i f i c i t y , F i r m H e t e r o g e n e i t y

a n d C a p i t a l S t r u c t u r e , S t r a t e g i c M a n a g e m e n t J o u r n a l , V o l . 14, p . 3 - 1 6 . B a p e p a m , 1 9 9 9 , L a p o r a n T a h u n a n 1 9 9 9 , B a d a n P e n g a w a s P a s a r M o d a l , J a k a r t a .

... , 2 0 0 0 , L a p o r a n T a h u n a n 2 0 0 0 , B a d a n P e n g a w a s P a s a r M o d a l . J a k a r t a .

— ... , 2 0 0 1 , L a p o r a n T a h u n a n 2 0 0 1 , B a d a n P e n g a w a s P a s a r M o d a l , J a k a r ta .

--- , 2 0 0 2 , L a p o r a n T a h u n a n 2 0 0 2 , B a d a n P e n g a w a s P a s a r M o d a l , J a k a r ta .

--- - 2 0 0 3 , L a p o r a n T a h u n a n 2 0 0 3 , B a d a n P e n g a w a s P a s a r M o d a l ,

J a k a r t a . .

---, 2 0 0 4 , L a p o r a n T a h u n a n 2 0 0 4 , B a d a n P e n g a w a s P a s a r M o d a l , J a k a r ta .

B a r t o n S L , G o r d o n P J . , 1 9 8 7 , C o r p o r a t e S t r a t e g y : U s e f u l P e r s p e c t i v e

f o r t h e

s t u d y o f C a p i t a l S t r u c t u r e ?, A c a d e m i c M a n a g e m e n t R e v i e w 12: p . 6 7 - 7 5 . B a r t o n S L , G o r d o n P J . , 1 9 8 8 , C o r p o r a t e S t r a t e g y a n d C a p i t a l

S t r u c t u r e , S t r a t e g i c m a n a g e m e n t J o u r n a l . V o l . 9 p . 6 2 3 - 6 3 2 . B o o t h , L a u r e n c e , V a r o u j A i v a z i a n , A s l i D e m i r g u c K u n t & V o j i s l a v M a k s i m o v i c ,

2 0 0 0 , C a p i t a l S t r u c t u r e i n D e v e l o p i n g C o u n t r i e s , T e n t h D r a f t M a y 2 0 0 0 . B u n k a n w a n i c h a , P r a m u a n , J y o t i G u p t a , R o f i k o h R o k h i m , 2 0 0 3 ,

D e b t a n d

E n t r e n c h m e n t : E v i d e n c e f r o m T h a i l a n d a n d I n d o n e s i a , R O S E S - C N R S

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