MOTIVATION, LEARNING STRATEGY, AND LEARNING
ACHIEVEMENT OF THE STUDENTS AT DEPOK 2 STATE
VOCATIONAL SCHOOL (SMK NEGERI 2 DEPOK) SLEMAN
A THESIS
Presented as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Magister Humaniora (M.Hum) Degree
in English Language Studies
By
Tri Suko Bambang Wiyono 056332022
THE GRADUATE PROGRAM IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA 2008
STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY
This is to certify that all ideas, phrases, sentences, unless otherwise stated, are the ideas,
phrases, and sentences of the thesis writer. The writer understands the full consequences
including degree cancellation if he took somebody else's ideas, phrases, or sentences
without proper references.
Yogyakarta, December 11, 2008
Tri Suko Bambang Wiyono 056332022
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Many people had contributed to the completion of this thesis of my post graduate study program at Sanata Dharma University, Yogyakarta.
First of all, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to God the Almighty for His great blessings, graces, love and mercy. Without Him, I am but nothing.
My special gratitude goes to LPMP (The Institute of Education Quality Assurance) of Yogyakarta and BKD (The Regional Office of Human Resources) Sleman for granting me a golden opportunity to study with a full scholarship.
I would like to acknowledge my indebtedness to all my lecturers of the post graduate study program, Sanata Dharma University: Prof. Soepomo., Dr. J. Bismoko., Dr. B.B. Dwijatmoko. M.A., Dr. Drs. Mukarto, Dr. Novita Dewi, M.S., M.A (Hons), and Drs. Barli Bram, M.Ed.
From the very sincerest bottom of my heart, I am thankful to Dr. J. Bismoko, my adviser, for his enormous guidance, advice, suggestions, corrections and patience that the thesis could have finished. This thesis largely had resulted from his great ideas and wonderful suggestions. What a piece of luck to be supervised by him during my thesis writing.
My greatest gratitude flows to my dearest father and mother, Hadimartono. I would not have been to thank them enough for their unconditional and undying love, care, kindness, support, sacrifices and prayers. My gratitude is also extended to my deceased beloved mother in law, Tukinem Noto Wardoyo. I would not have been to thank to her enough for her love and prayers. Although she is no longer in the world to see my accomplishments, I believe she is happy in her FATHER's Arms.
Another deep gratitude of mine flies to the 2nd year students of Depok 2 State Vocational School (SMK Negeri 2 Depok) in the academic year of 2006-2007 for helping me answer the given questionnaire and participate in the interviews so that the required data could be collected.
My sincere gratitude also flies to colleagues, Mrs. Anna Maria Isyana, M.A., Mrs Endang Listyandari, S.Pd., Mrs Dra. Yohana Umiyati, and all the classmates of S2 program whom I do not mention here one by one for their support, prayers and making the world a better place for me during my study, with their friendly personalities, smiling faces, helpful minds and loving hearts. May they eternally bloom and be fragrant like flowers.
With all my grateful heart, I thank my wife Suprihati; my son Wawan, and my daughter Candra for their great love, care, kindness, encouragement, time, and everything they share together to support me. They all are very loving and wonderful persons. They are always by my side especially when I am in need of help. They are the ones who always lift me up when I am down. Again, I heartily thank them for everything they have done for me.
Finally, I would like to thank all my benefactors seen and unseen, and known and unknown. May God bless them all.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE ………. i
APPROVAL PAGE ………... ii
DEFENSE APPROVAL PAGE ...………. iii
STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY ………... iv
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH………… ……. v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ………... vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS ………... vii
LIST OF TABLES ………. x
LIST OF FIGURES ……… xi
LIST OF APPENDICES ……… xii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS………. xiii
ABSTRACT ………. xiv
CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW ……….. 11
A. Theoretical review ………. 11
1. Motivation ………. 11
a. Motivation ……… 11
b. Achievement Motivation ……….. 12
2. Language Learning Strategy ………. 17
a. Learning ………... 17
b. Language Learning ………. 20
c. Learning English as a Foreign Language ……… 21
d. Strategy ………... 24
e. English Language Learning Strategy ……….. 24
4. Learning Achievement ……….. 35 1. The Correlation between Learning Motivation, Learning Strategy and
Learning Achievement………... 42
2. The Correlation between Students’ Achievement Motivation and 42
English Learning Strategies ……….. 3. The Correlation between Students’ Achievement Motivation and
English Learning Achievement……….. 44
4. The Correlation between English Learning Strategies and English Learning Achievement………...
D. Data Gathering Instruments and Data Presentation……….. 50
E. Procedure of Data Collection ……… 57
F. Data Analysis and Interpretation ………... 57
1. Descriptive Statistics ……… 57
2. Inferential Statistics……….. 58
CHAPTER IV: RESEARCH FINDINGS ……… 59
A. Main Findings ……… 59
1. Data Description ……….. 59
a. The Student’s Achievement Motivation ……… 60
b. The Student’s English Learning Strategy………... 61
1. Memory Strategy ……… 63
2. Cognitive Strategy ……….. 64
3. Compensation Strategy ……….. 65
4. Metacognitive Strategy ……….. 67
5. Affective Strategy ……….. 68
6. Social Strategy ……… 69
c. The Student’s English Learning Achievement ………. 71
2. Testing of Hypothesis ………. 72
a. The Correlation between Students’ Achievement Motivation and English learning Strategy and English learning Achievement……… 72 b. The Correlation between Students’ Achievement Motivation and their English Learning Strategies ……… 73 c. The Correlation between Students’ Achievement Motivation and English Learning Achievement ……….. 74 d. The Correlation between Students’ English Learning Strategy and English Learning Achievement ………. 75 3. Data Interpretation ………. 76
a. Correlation between Students’ Achievement Motivation and
English Learning Strategy and English Learning Achievement …… 76
b. Correlation between Students’ Achievement Motivation and their English Learning Strategies ………..
78
c. Correlation between Students’ Achievement Motivation and
English Learning Achievement ………. 78
d. Correlation between Students’ English Learning Strategy and
English Learning Achievement ……….. 79
B. Other Findings ……….. 80
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSIONS, SUGGESTIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS... 82
A. Conclusion ………. 82
B. Suggestion ………. 83
1. To Teachers ……… 84
2. To Students ……… 85
3. To Researchers ………... 85
C. Implication ………. 86
BIBLIOGRAPHY ……….. 88
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 Types of Learning Theory and their Taxonomy 20
Table 2.2 Diagram of the Strategy System (Oxford, 2003: 7)……… 34
Table 3.1 Research Respondents by Students’ Class and Number of Students ……….. 50 Table 3.2 Questionnaire Blueprint of the Students Achievement Motivation 51 Table 3.3 Result of Validity Test of Achievement Motivation Variable…… 52
Table 3.4 Result of Reliability Test of Achievement Motivation Variable… 53 Table 3.5 Scoring Grades of Questionnaire………. 56
Table 3.6 Framework of Learning Strategies According to Items, Concepts, and Numbers……….. 56 Tabel 4.1 The Norm of Achievement Motivation ………. 59
Table 4.2 Percentage of Students’ Achievement Motivation Categories ….. 60
Table 4.3 The norm of Achievement Motivation ……….. 61
Table 4.4 Percentage of Students’ English Learning Strategies Categories... 61
Table 4.5 The Summary Table of Scores on SILL ……… 62
Table 4.6 The Norm of Memory Strategy Calculation ……….. 63
Table 4.7 Percentage of Memory Strategy ……….... 63
Table 4.8 The Norm of Cognitive Strategy Calculation ……… 64
Table 4.9 Percentage of Cognitive Strategy………... 64
Table 4.10 The Norm of Compensation Strategy Calculation ………... 65
Table 4.11 Percentage of Compensation Strategy ………. 66
Table 4.12 The Norm of Metacognitive Strategy Calculation ……… 67
Table 4.13 Frequency of Metacognitive Strategy ……….. 67
Table 4.14 The Norm of Affective Strategy Calculation ………... 68
Table 4.15 Frequency of Affective Strategy ……….. 69
Table 4.16 The Norm of Social Strategy Calculation ……… 70
Table 4.17 Frequency of Social Strategy ………... 70
Table 4.18 Frequency of English Learning Achievement ………. 71
Table 4.19 The Result of the Multiple Regression Analysis ………. 73
Table 4.20 The Result of the Second Hypothesis Testing ………. 74
Table 4.21 The Result of the Third Hypothesis Testing ……… 75
Table 4.22 The Result of the Fourth Hypothesis Testing ……….. 76
Table 4.23 Descriptive Statistics ………... 80
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 The Interrelationship of Variables in Language Learning …… 7
Figure 3:1 Research Paradigm... 49
Figure 4.1 Histogram of Frequency of Scores of Students’ Achievement Motivation ……….
60
Figure 4.2 Histogram of Frequency of Scores of English Learning
Strategies ……….. 62
Figure 4.3 Histogram of Frequency of Scores of Memory Strategy …… 64
Figure 4.4 Histogram of Frequency of Scores of Cognitive Strategy ……. 65
Figure 4.5 Histogram of Frequency of Scores of Compensation Strategy.. 66
Figure 4.6 Histogram of Frequency of Scores of Metacognitive Strategy.. 68
Figure 4.7 Histogram of Frequency of Scores of Affective Strategy …….. 69
Figure 4.8 Histogram of Frequency of Scores of Social Strategy ………. 70
Figure 4.9 Histogram of Frequency of Scores of English Learning Achievement ………
72
Figure 4.10 Correlation between X1, X2 Variables and Y Variable ……… 80
LIST OF APPENDICES
I. Questionnaire of the Students’ Achievement Motivation (English Version) ………
92
II. Questionnaire of the Students’ Achievement Motivation
(Indonesian Version) ……… 95
III. Data of Achievement Motivation Score……… 99 IV. Strategy Inventory for Language Learning/SILL (English
Version) ………
100
V. Translated Strategy Inventory for Language Learning/SILL (Indonesian Version) ………
103
VI. Data of Students’ Learning Strategy Score ……… 106 VII. Data of Students’ Learning Achievement ……… 107 VIII. Transcript of Students’ Interview (Indonesian Version) ……… 108
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
BKD = Badan Kepegawaian Daerah
LPMP = Lembaga Penjaminan Mutu Pendidikan SILL = Strategy Inventory for Language Learning
SMK = Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan
ABSTRACT
Tri Suko Bambang Wiyono. 2006. Motivation, Learning Strategy, and Learning Achievement of the Students at Depok 2 State Vocational School (SMK Negeri 2, Depok), Sleman. Yogyakarta: The Graduate Program in English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University
The objectives of this research were to find out: (1) the correlationship of students’ achievement motivation and English learning strategy with their English learning achievement; (2) the correlationship of achievement motivation with their English learning strategy; (3) the correlationship of achievement motivation with their English learning achievement; and (4) the correlationship of English learning strategy with their English learning achievement. In addition, the research was also to acquire preliminary description and interpretation about students’ learning experience of their motivation and learning strategy application.
The population of this research was the second year students of Depok 2 State Vocational School (SMK Negeri 2, Depok), Sleman in the Academic Year of 2006/2007. The population of this study consisted of 190 students. The sampling technique of this research was random sampling. The result of the tossing was the class of Network Computer Technician Program (Teknik Komputer Jaringan). The instruments used in this study were a questionnaire, score documents and interviews. The technique of analysis used in this study was statistical in nature using Multiple Regression Analysis and Product Moment Analysis.
The results of the data analysis showed that: (1) there was a correlation of the students’ achievement motivation and English learning strategy with their English learning achievement (0.843 > 0.361, at the significant level of 5%). This agrees with the result of interview with a student who had a high English learning achievement, a high achievement motivation, and a high learning strategy; (2) there was not a correlation of students’ achievement motivation with their English learning strategies (0.156 < 0.361, at the significance level 5%). This goes along with the result of interview with a student who had a high achievement motivation scores and a medium English learning strategy scores. She said that she liked learning English and was aware that English was needed to learn in the global era but she could not use appropriate English learning strategies; (3) there was not a correlation of students’ achievement motivation with English learning achievement (0.350 < 0.361, at the significance 5%). The finding was therefore the same as the result of interview with a student who had a high achievement motivation scores, but a low English learning achievement. He said that learning English was not only for getting a good achievement but for better communication in English; and (4) there was a correlation of students’ English learning strategy with English learning achievement (0.703 > 0.361, at significance 5%).
To summarize, it was confirmed that achievement motivation and learning strategy were simultaneously and positively correlated with learning achievement, and so was learning strategy alone with learning achievement. On the other hand, it was somewhat controversial in that achievement motivation was not correlated either with learning strategy or learning achievement.
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ABSTRAK
Tri Suko Bambang Wiyono. 2006. Motivasi, Strategi Belajar dan Hasil Belajar Siswa SMK Negeri 2 Depok, Sleman. Yogyakarta: Kajian Bahasa Inggris, Program Paska Sarjana, Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui; (1) apakah terdapat hubungan antara motivasi berprestasi dan strategi belajar bahasa Inggris dengan prestasi belajar bahasa Inggris; (2) apakah terdapat hubungan antara motivasi berprestasi dan strategi belajar bahasa Inggris; (3) apakah terdapat hubungan antara motivasi berprestasi dan prestasi belajar bahasa Inggris; dan (4) apakah terdapat hubungan antara strategi belajar bahasa Inggris dengan prestasi belajar bahasa Inggris. Selain itu, penelitian ini juga bertujuan untuk memperoleh deskripsi dan interpretasi awal tentang pengalaman belajar siswa mengenai aplikasi motivasi dan strategi belajar mereka.
Populasi penelitian ini adalah siswa kelas dua SMK Negeri 2 Depok Sleman tahun ajaran 2006/2007 yang berjumlah 190 siswa. Teknik sampling yang digunakan adalah cluster sampling. Hasil undian jatuh pada kelas Teknik Kompter Jaringan. Instrumen penelitian yang digunakan adalah kuestioner, dokumen nilai dan wawancara. Teknik analisis data yang digunakan adalah analisis Multiple Regression Analysis dan Product Moment Analysis.
Hasil analisis data menunjukkan bahwa: (1) terdapat korelasi antara motivasi berprestasi dan strategi belajar bahasa Inggris dengan prestasi belajar bahasa Inggris (0.843 > 0.361, pada tingkat signifikansi 5%). Hal ini sama dengan hasil wawancara dengan seorang siswa yang memiliki prestasi belajar bahasa Inggris, motivasi berprestasi, dan strategi belajar yang tinggi. Dengan memiliki motivasi belajar yang tinggi dan menggunakan strategi belajar bahasa Inggris yang cocok, siswa akan dapat memperoleh prestasi belajar yang tinggi; (2) tidak terdapat korelasi antara motivasi berprestasi dengan strategi belajar bahasa Inggris (0.156 > 0.36, pada taraf signifikansi 0,05). Hasil ini diperkuat oleh wawancara dengan seorang siswa yang memiliki motivasi berprestasi tinggi, namun strategi belajarnya sedang. Siswa menyukai belajar bahasa Inggris dan sadar bahwa bahasa Inggris diperlukan di era global seperti saat ini, akan tetapi dia tidak menggunakan strategi belajar bahasa Inggis dengan baik; (3) tidak terdapat korelasi antara motivasi berprestasi dengan prestasi belajar bahasa (0.350 < 0.36, pada taraf signifikansi 0,05). Hasil tersebut diperkuat oleh wawancara dengan seorang siswa yang memiliki motivasi berprestasi tinggi, namun prestasi belajar bahasa Inggris yang rendah. Siswa tersebut beranggapan bahwa belajar bahasa Inggris tidak hanya untuk mendapat nilai bagus, tetapi untuk dapat berkomunikasi dalam bahasa Inggris; dan (4) terdapat korelasi antara strategi belajar bahasa Inggris dengan prestasi belajar bahasa Inggris(0.703 > 0.361, pada taraf signifikansi 0,05).
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. Background
Common daily classroom settings prove that only a few students can be
categorized as good learners. They are those who are willing and accurate
guessers with strong drive to communicate, often not inhibitor, prepared to attend
to form and practice, monitors their own speech and the speech of others, and
attends to meaning (Rubin (1975). Some students are moderately involved while
some others are passive as shown by their being silent, cheerless, low motivation,
no confidence, slow responses, and low achievement.
Motivation is at the heart of many of the most important concerns of
teachers. Weiner et al. (1978) in Woolfolk and McCune-Nicholich (2003: 275)
state that in the classroom, the greatest problems of motivation are likely to arise
when students attribute failures to internal, stable, and uncontrollable
characteristics such as ability. They may seem apathetic, depressed, helpless, or
unmotivated.
Within the field of education during the last two decades, a gradual but
significant shift has taken place, resulting in less stress on teachers and teaching
and greater emphasis on learners and learning (Nunan, 2004). One consequence of
this shift was an increasing awareness and interest in resources for learning styles
2
learning. Researchers such as Oxford (2003); O'Mallay and Chamot (1990) have
stressed that effective learners use a variety of different strategies and techniques
in order to solve problems that they face while acquiring or producing the
language. One focus of research in the area of EFL has been that of the
identification of how learners process new information and what kinds of
strategies they employ to understand, learn or remember the information.
In addition, achievement of excellence in the learning is an ambition for all
educational communities. Students, given the appropriate time and support, can
achieve academic success. It is up to their teachers to ensure that, regardless of
individual circumstance, they all receive the support they require to achieve the
highest standards possible. Achievement is what learners do with what they learn;
it is the outward and visible sign of progress. It may take the form of passing an
examination, but it is observable in the actions, products and/or behavior of
learners wherever active learning takes place. Achievement in learning shows the
increased skills, knowledge and understanding. The richness of a successful
learning experience and the gains to individuals and groups cannot all be defined.
Teachers recognize the impact in use and enjoyment. While a sense of
achievement and the potential to do more come with successful learning, learners
sometimes underrate their achievements and do not gain the confidence they need
to move on. Assessment is a means of analyzing learning, and it enables learners
to see their progress, gains confidence and build to recognize it more fully.
Vocational education has played an important role in the Indonesian
career-3
oriented, with the goal of training manpower to meet the demands of national
economic growth, industrial changes, social needs, and technological
advancement. During the past decades, the vocational system in Indonesia has
already successfully cultivated many professionals who contribute greatly to their
organizations and society. However, due to the system of university entrance
examinations and the high value Indonesian culture places on academic
performance, most of the students who choose to attend vocational colleges tend
to be those who do not perform well in academic subjects. Better performing
students usually do not choose vocational education schools, but instead choose
general universities to continue their higher education. Although the vocational
education system has contributed much to the Indonesian economy and
successfully cultivated much human resources, it is still not students' first choice.
According to the researcher's experience teaching in the vocational education
system, students in this system possess low confidence and motivation in learning.
Many of them even suffer low self-esteem because they think they are inferior to
those in the universities. From this point of view, the researcher suggests that
teaching students how to learn on their own, find the most effective way to learn,
and raise their own interest and motivation in learning are very important issues
that require special attention. Applying this to language learning, motivation and
language learning strategy are certainly the tool and the shortcut to help the
vocational students learn English, not only for the present but also for lifelong
4
English at vocational schools is taught from the first grade to the third
grade. It is expected that at the end of the learning process, students are able to use
English; they are able to read, to listen, to speak, and to write in English through
themes that are selected based on the level of students’ development and interest.
McClelland et al. (1953) in Woolfolk and McCune-Nicholich (2003: 279)
studied in achievement motivation for the first time. They said that people who
struggle for excellence in a field for the sake of achieving and not for some reward
are considered to be high in the need for achievement, and people who have a
high learning achievement, they use appropriate learning strategies.
In this study the researcher intends to investigate the achievement
motivation, learning strategy, and learning achievement of the students of Depok
2 State Vocational School (SMK Negeri 2) Sleman, Yogyakarta.
B. Problem Identification
When we talk about language learning, we cannot cast aside the fact that
language learning is a complex phenomenon. There is a set of variables that are
involved in it and each of them has important contribution to the degree of
language learning outcome, including English learning outcome. Stern
(1987: 338) points out five variables that are involved in language learning. They
are (1) social context, (2) learner characteristics, (3) learning conditions, (4)
learning process, and (5) learning outcome.
The first variable, the social context of language learning, involves
5
the language situation or the language background involving the target language
and the learner’s own language. These aspects closely relate to the degree of the
supportiveness of the learner’s language to the target language learning. Besides,
we have to be equally aware of the differences in social classes and occupations,
as well as culture and religion because these aspects will affect the attitudes of the
society, including the learners, towards learning a new language.
The second variable is learner characteristics. The learner brings to the
language learning certain characteristics: age and sex, cognitive characteristics
which cover general learning abilities, language learning aptitude, previous
learning experiences and cognitive learning styles, as well as affective
characteristics such as attitude, motivation, and personality.
In considering the third variable, the condition of learning, Stern makes a
basic distinction whether the new language is learnt in a supportive language
environment, or, in a specific sense, as a second language, or whether it is learnt
in a language class in a non-supportive language environment, or as a foreign
language. In foreign language learning, instruction is likely to be the major or
even the only source of the target language input.
Learning process is the next variable that should be taken into account.
This leaning process, as has been stated before, can be looked upon as consisting
of strategies, techniques, and mental operations employed by students which have
the function to enhance their learning (Oxford, 2003: 1) and to cope with
difficulties that arise as a result of the different linguistic and cultural features that
6
The last variable is the learning outcome. From the learning process, the
outcome that is expected is a change in the learner’s disposition or capabilities
(Gagne, 1976: 3). In terms of language learning, it is generally agreed that what is
expected to be mastered by the students is the communicative competence.
However, in order to master this competence the students have to have sufficient
knowledge of the language to be learned. Stern (1987 : 346), in detail, even states
that in language learning a person should have the mastery of the forms of the
language, the linguistic, cognitive, affective and sociocultural meanings that are
expressed by the language forms, the capacity to use the language with maximum
attention to communication and minimum attention to form, and the creativity of
language use.
These capabilities are, in fact, not instantly acquired. It takes time to be in
such conditions. However, in the context of language learning and teaching, an
evaluation on the learning progress over a period of time is really needed in order
to know whether the learner’s achievement corresponds with the objective of the
instruction or not. In turn, the inferred information will be useful for improving
the learning outcome.
Those five variables form a general sequence of learning elements. The
social context affects the learner and the learning conditions. These three variables
then are the determinants of the learning process, and through it, of the learning
7
Learner characteristics
Learning process Social context
Learning conditions
Learning outcomes
Figure 1.1 The Intercorrelationship of variables in language learning (Stern: 1983)
C. Problem Limitation
Considering that there were so many aspects related to the English learning
outcome while the writer’s time, ability, and fund were limited, the writer limited
the problem of his research only to the learning achievement and its relation to
students achievement motivation and their English learning strategies. This
limitation was based on his assumption that the responsibility for the success of
language learning rests with the individual students who had to take full
advantage of the opportunities to learn. In other words, learning was autonomous
and because of this autonomy the students’ motivation to achieve as high as
possible a success from their learning is essential. This assumption implied that
students had different levels of achievement motivation and employ different
English learning strategies. These differences eventually made their achievements
different.
The limitation was also done with regard to the population of the research.
Because of the writer’s limited time, fund, and ability, it was only the second year
8
students was not wise because it distracted their preparation for the national final
exam. Meanwhile, the inclusion of the first year students was not an appropriate
decision either because these students were still in the process of adjustment to the
new learning environment so that their psychological condition was still under
pressure of the process.
D. Research Questions
The study intended to do research on the correlation of achievement
motivation and learning strategies with learning achievement among students of
Depok 2 State Vocational School, Sleman. It was specifically addressed to seek
answers to the following questions:
1. Is there a positive correlation between students’ achievement motivation,
English learning strategy and their English learning achievement?
2. Is there a positive correlation between students’ achievement motivation and
their English learning strategy?
3. Is there a positive correlation between students’ achievement motivation and
their English learning achievement?
4. Is there a positive correlation between students’ English learning strategy and
their English learning achievement?
E. Research Objectives
In line with the presented research questions, the research objectives were
to find out whether:
1. There is a correlation between students’ achievement motivation, English
9
2. There is a correlation between students’ achievement motivation and their
English learning strategy.
3. There is a correlation between students’ achievement motivation and their
English learning achievement.
4. There is a correlation between students’ English learning strategy and their
English learning achievement.
In addition, the objectives are also going to verify previous researches on
similar issues in the following ways:
1. The higher the scores of the students’ achievement motivation and learning
strategy are, the higher of their learning achievement results are.
2. The higher the scores of the students’ achievement motivation are, the higher
of their learning strategy scores are.
3. The higher the scores of the students’ achievement motivation are, the higher
of their learning achievement results are.
4. The higher the scores of the students’ learning strategy are, the higher of their
learning achievement results are.
F. Research Benefit
1. For scientific contribution, the interpreted narratives or the meanings revealed
by the research participants, the study may contribute to the development of
education in general, language teaching, and the teaching of English as a
foreign language.
2. For others researchers, the result of the study hopefully inspire them to
10
analysis. For scientific contribution, the interpreted narratives or the meanings
revealed by the research participants, the study may contribute to the
development of education in general, language teaching, and the teaching of
English as a foreign language.
3. For teachers, this study will help them make understand the description of a
factual classroom setting as indicated by their achievement motivation,
11
CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW
A. Theoretical Review
In this part, some related theories which become the theoretical
background of this study are presented. They are related to the variables involved
in the study.
1. Motivation
a. Motivation
Motivation according to Lefton (2004:137) is defined as any internal
condition within an organism that appears to produce goal – directed behavior.
The condition may develop because of physiological needs and drives, or because
of more complex desires. A quite similar definition with Lefton’s is put forward
by Davidoff (2004: 287) who states that motivation refers to an internal state that
may result from a need. From these two definitions, it can be inferred that the key
of motivation is the needs that function as an inner active force that affects an
individual’s thinking, feeling, behavior, and interpretation of values.
Mc Donald (2002: 83) states that humans’ need can be differentiated into
two categories: basic needs (physiological needs) and social needs. Basic needs
can be identified as hunger, thirst, and sex while social needs which involve
feeling about oneself, other, and relationship (Lefton, 2004: 138) are, for instance,
abasement need, achievement need, affiliation need, autonomy need. Maslow, as
12
cited by Morgan, (2001: 233), states that humans universally have needs or drives
which range from the fundamental physical necessities (hunger, thirst, and sex) to
higher needs of safety (security, stability, and order), belongingness and love
needs (affiliation, affection, and identification), and esteem needs (prestige,
success, and self-respect), the fulfillment of which leads to self-actualization.
These needs which give direction and intensity to behaviors become a part of
individuals in every face of life, including education.
b. Achievement Motivation
One objective of education is to assist students to achieve knowledge and
skills (Klausmeier and Goodwin, 2005: 222). A related objective is to encourage
the students to achieve success in their learning. According to Atkinson as cited
by Gorman (2004: 134) the tendency to achieve success in an individual in
connection with any task or activity, or in other words, achievement motivation, is
a function of three variables. They are an intrinsic motive to achieve success,
expectancy that the performance of a task will be followed by a success and an
incentive value after achieving the success. Thus, whether or not a person will
strive to reach a goal depends on:
1) basic need for achieving a degree of excellence.
2) how certain (or probable) that they will be successful.
3) how attractive reaching the goal is, i.e. the degree of satisfaction they
13
The degree of excellence that a student will achieve can be associated with
three criteria (Heckhausen, 1968 in Haditono, 2003: 19). The first is task-related
degree or standard of excellence which refers to the excellence in the
accomplishment of a task. The second is a self-related standard of excellence.
Here, the student’s achievement is compared with their own previous
achievement. The third is other-related standard of excellence which refers to the
comparison with other achievements: that is in competition.
Those standards of excellence accordingly become the reference of
attitudes or behaviors that are put forth by the students. A student, for example,
has a desire or need to achieve success from a competition of accomplishing a
task against his friends. Satisfaction, for them is regarded to be achieved if they
get a better mark than the others. In order to achieve that satisfaction, they are
willing to do any efforts that they expect will result in a success. Once these
aspects accumulate within them, they are ready to do goal-keeping activities. In a
more specific sense, these internal changes direct them to behave.
From the illustration above, it can be concluded that the degree of
students’ achievement motivation can be inferred from their behaviors. However,
as the essence of motivation is basically an internal condition, clues for it are often
minimally observed from behaviors. That is why students’ achievement
motivation can also be inferred from their interests, aspirations, feelings, and
likings toward certain objects which prompt to behaviors (Munn et al, 2002: 329).
In the context of this research, student’s achievement motivation therefore will be
14
In line with the attempt to infer the degree of students’ achievement
motivation, experts have identified certain attitudes and behaviors that are
regarded to characterize students’ achievement motivation. Hudgins (2003: 389)
state that motivated students have high hopes for success and positive attitudes
toward goal attainment and they do not think too much about the possibility of
failure. This means that students who have high achievement motivation will
always be dynamic and optimistic or self-confident in attaining their goals. They
are so sure that with their own capabilities, every task will be accomplished well.
In turn, success in doing the tasks will give them satisfaction if it results from
their own efforts. Such appreciation to one’s own capabilities will also prevent
them from the fear of failure since whatever the results they get, they show the
best things they can do.
In case of failure, Haditono (2003: 16), citing Weiner (1972), states that
high achievement-motivated individuals are more likely to be persistent. Persons
of high achievement motivation usually ascribe success to high ability and effort.
Consequently, they ascribe failure to lack of effort. High achievement-motivated
individuals therefore work hard after a failure to attain future success. They also
tend to keep determining for finding solutions whenever they are blocked with
difficulties that may appear. Their persistence can also be identified from their
desires to keep participating in learning activities though they have ever
experienced unpleasant situation.
Individuals who are low in achievement motivation, on the other hand,
15
failure is considered to be followed by continuous failures. Even because of a
slight constraint, achievement efforts are often ceased early among these low
achievement-motivated individuals.
The next characteristic of achievement-motivated individuals deals with
risk preference. Individuals who are high in achievement motivation will prefer
tasks of intermediate difficulties where the probability of success or failure is
50/50. Tasks with such kind of probability in fact require efforts to accomplish.
Low achievement-motivated individuals, who are afraid of failure, in contrast,
usually like to select either too easy tasks (where failure is unlikely) or extremely
difficult tasks where it is not embarrassing to fail. For this type of persons, though
they are not able to accomplish the extremely difficult tasks, recognition for
choosing the difficult tasks is thought to be achieved.
Besides those three characteristics, i.e. self-confidence, persistence in case
of failure, and risk preference, high achievement motivated individuals also look
upon time as a-valuable thing (Heckhausen, 1968 in Haditono, 2003: 21-22). They
put high value on it because they know time as a fast and straight-forward motion.
In turn, they get worried when losing or wasting it. In classroom setting, students
with high achievement motivation give high value not to miss the lessons. With
regard to this objective, whenever they find that the lessons are not held for one
reason or another, they substitute for them by other useful activities such as going
to the library or reviewing previous lessons.
Heckhausen further states high achievement motivated subjects choose
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to the expectation that high achievement motivated individuals prefer a good
accomplishment of the tasks rather that good social contacts. Thus, it can be stated
that achievement motivation is higher than affiliation motivation.
Even though a high achievement-motivated person sets cooperation with
others, especially the capable ones, it does not mean that cast aside competition.
This can be attributed directly to the standards of excellence stated before. Darley
(2004: 337) point out that the need for achievement cannot be separated from the
desire to outperform other. Competition with themselves sometimes also happens
as a way of testing and improving their performance. Competition, according to
Watson and Lingren (2004: 543-544), provides opportunities to show one’s best.
High achievement-motivated students, therefore, are those who are highly
willing to engage in a competitive situation. These situations are regarded to be
good opportunities to monitor their learning progress in comparison with their
classmates’. In fact it is not only the desire to engage in competitive situations that
occurs but also a high desire to outperform the other by being the first and the best
in any tasks. In order to be so, they always tend to compare their own
achievements with the other. In other words, they have high curiosity concerning
the position of their own achievements among the others’.
Summarizing the theories above, it can be concluded that students’
achievement motivation is the tendency to increase or keep as high as possible
students’ capabilities in all their learning activities that lead to success. Students’
achievement motivation contains the following aspects:
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2) Persistence in case of failure,
3) Preference for levels of difficulties,
4) Preference for partners in doing achievement-related tasks,
5) Competition with others.
Those aspects will be used as the basis for the construction of the
achievement motivation measurement.
2. Language Learning Strategies
As it has been mentioned before, when learning a language, including
learning English, students face a set of complexities concerning linguistic,
sociocultural, and process aspects. To cope with these complexities, students will
eventually make reactions in order to take their learning activities run well. The
students’ reactions are generally in the form of strategies or techniques of
learning.
a. Learning
In psychology and education, a learning theory is an attempt to describe
how people and animals learn, thereby helping us understand the inherently
complex process of learning. There are three main categories or philosophical
frameworks under which learning theories fall: behaviorism, cognitivism, and
constructivism. Behaviorism focuses only on the objectively observable aspects of
learning. Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning.
And constructivism views learning as a process in which the learner actively
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Bower and Hilgrad (1987: 12) state that learning is the process by which
an activity originates or is changed through reacting to an encountered situation,
provided that the characteristics of the change in activity cannot be explained on
the basis of native response tendencies, maturation, or temporary states of the
organism.
Meanwhile, Kimble and Garmezy (1963: 133) define learning as a
relatively permanent change in a behavioral tendency that occurs as a result of
reinforced practice. In line wit the above statements, Gary and Kingsley (1970:
15) state that learning is a process by which behavior is originated or changed
though practice or training.
According to Winkel (1991: 36), Learning is a mental activity which
happens in active interaction with the environment that results changes in
understanding of knowledge, skill, and attitudes. The changes are relatively
constant and they can be traced. It means that learning can only happen if there is
an active interaction between the learner and his environment. Learning is the
lawful and somewhat predictable process by which behavioral tendencies are
introduced or altered through experience. The term lawful implies that the process
has some regularity and it can be described in rational ways.
More clearly, Brown (2000: 6) breaks down the definition of learning as
follows:
1) Learning is acquisition of information or skill. 2) Learning is retention of information or skill.
3) Retention implies storage systems, memory, and cognitive organization. 4) Learning involves active, conscious focus on and active upon events
outside or inside the organism.
5) Learning is relatively permanent, but subject to forgetting.
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In line with Brown’s statement, Mahmud (1989: 121-122) clarifies that
learning is behavioral change, which can be or cannot be traced directly and it
happens in someone’s life through experience.
From all definitions of learning above, it can be conclude that learning is a
process which is experienced by an individual to get behavioral changes which are
the results of training or experience from the interaction with environment. In fact,
nearly all the definitions of learning include the concepts of change, behavioral,
and experience.
Learning involves some sorts of change in an organism in which this
change makes some changes in behavior. These changes are bought about by
experience. As a result, learning can be define as a relatively stable, unspecified
change within an organism that a change in behavior. That is due to experience.
Although there are many different approaches to learning, there are three
basic types of learning theory: behaviorism, cognitive constructivist, and social
constructivist. The theories are treated in four basic parts and their taxonomies as
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Table 2.1 Types of Learning Theory and their taxonomy
Behaviorism Cognitive
Constructivist
Social Constructivist
Knowledge Repertoire of behavioral responses
Learning Passive absorption of predefined body of of new information to existing cognitive Motivation Extrinsic, reward and
punishment (positive and negative
reinforces).
Intrinsic. Learners set their own goals and motivate Instruction Correct behavioral
responses are teacher. Group work.
(Source: http://gsi.berkeley.edu/resources/learning/introduction.html)
b. Language Learning
Byrne in Brown (2000: 17)states that language is not knowledge, but a set
of skills. The learning of it, therefore must be different from the learning of a
science that is a set of concepts of varying degrees of abstraction. This is studies
of language.
Kingsley and Gary (1965:130) state that there are many variables affect
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individual variables, task variables, and methods variables. The individual
variables are maturation, sex, previous experience, motivation and capacity. Tasks
refer to the length, difficulty, and meaningfulness of the material being learned.
The methods include knowledge of results, incentives, guidance, and degree of
learning.
Brown (2001: 56) states that learning a new language involves the mastery
of the sound system to understand and to approximate their production, the
mastery of the features of arrangement that constitute the structure of the
language, and the mastery of sufficient to operate the structures and represent the
sound system in actual use.
Learning a new language, according to Nunan (2004: 62) means learning
the expression, the content, and their association for rapid use both in speaking
and listening to the target language. Besides, these aspects there are another aspect
that should be taken account that is the cultural items of the new language.
c. Learning English as a Foreign Language
The knowledge of foreign language is nowadays regarded to be essential
needed. It is to engage in the interactive affairs. However, every person has
different reason. For a businessman, for instance, need master English in order he
gets a success in his transactional with his partners from other countries. A student
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in reading comprehension of some English resources. In short, everyone has his
own compelling reason to learn a foreign language (Nunan, 2004: 77).
Oxford (2003: 6) states that foreign language learning is often viewed as a
process of acquiring a language that does not have immediate social and
communicative function in the society where it is learned with regard to the status
of the new language in the society. When a person learns a foreign language is
faced with set of complexities. The complexities do not relate only to the aspects
of the language that should be acquired but also to the language within the
environment of one’s own culture. Brown (2000: 136) states that the learning
language can be defined as learning a language in one’s own culture with few
immediate and under spread opportunities to use the language within the
environment of one’s own culture.
Meanwhile, in the mode of any learning, including foreign language
learning, Stern (1983: 338) proposes that the learning process is determined by
learner characteristics, the social context, and the condition of learning. Learning
characteristics according to him are age and sex, cognitive characteristics.
Cognitive characteristics in this case, involve general learning abilities, language
learning aptitude, previous learning experiences and cognitive learning styles, as
well as affective characteristics such as attitudes, motivation, and personality.
Meanwhile the social context according to him involves linguistics,
sociocultural, and socioeconomic factors. The linguistics factor concerns the
language situation or the background involving the target language and the
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classes and occupations as well as culture and religion. These aspects according to
him will affect the attitudes of the society. Then, learning condition are language
learning that includes inside the target language environment and language
learning in the classroom.
Besides, the current issue related to the coming of the twenty-first century
is the fast development of science, technology, and art. The development of
technology in information and electronic devices, for instance, will make students
feel and realize that the world gets smaller and the interdependency among
nations grows up. In line with it, it required to provide human resources that have
the ability to communicate in English.
Why should it be English? Being spoken by at least one billion and a half
users all over the world (Stevens, 1987: 56), English becomes the language for
many aspects of human life. In terms of transferring science, technology, and art,
it is regarded as a window to see every development that happens. A number of
activities in trade, political affairs, art and culture, and even in sports are done in
English. These facts show the predominant role or this language so that every
nation should learn and master it in order not to be left behind by other nations.
Because of its importance in the economic, scientific, and political worlds,
our government gives English a special status in school curricula. English is the
first foreign language which is taught as a compulsory subject vocational or SMK
schools. This policy is aimed at enabling students to communicate in English so
that they are able to absorb and develop science and technology, arts and culture,
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d. Strategy
The word ‘strategy’ comes from the ancient Greek word ‘strategia’, which
means steps or actions taken for the purpose of winning a war. The warlike
meaning of ‘strategia’ has fortunately fallen away, but the control and
goal-directedness remain in the modern version of the word (Oxford, 2003: 4). A given
strategy is neither good nor bad; it is essentially neutral until the context of its use
is thoroughly considered.
Dobrovolny (2003: 25) uses learning strategies to mean the techniques or
devices which a learner may use to acquire knowledge. Dobrovolny goes on to
delineate strategies; Dobrovolny asserts good language learner use. Good
language learners, according to him, are willing and accurate guessers who have a
strong desire to communicate, and will attempt to do so even at the risk of
appearing foolish. However, even though the learners are highly motivated to
communicate, they also should attend to from and meaning.
e. EnglishLanguage Learning Strategy
“Learning strategies”, according to Oxford (2003: 1) refers to steps take by
students to enhance their own learning. In a more specific sense, learning
strategies are defined as “specific actions, behaviors, steps, or techniques – such
as seeking out conversation partners, or giving oneself encouragement to tackle a
difficult language task – used by students to enhance their own learning”
(Scarcella & Oxford, 1992, in Oxford, 2003: 6). When the learner consciously
25
strategies become a useful toolkit for active, conscious and purposeful
self-regulation of learning. Learning strategies can be classified into six groups:
cognitive, metacognitive, memory-related, compensatory, affective, and social.
Each of these is discussed later in this chapter.
O’Malley and Chamot (1990: 1) define learning strategies as the special
thoughts or behaviors that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or
retain new information. So, in this case, learning strategies are basically composed
of not only real activated behaviors’ mind. Learning strategies also concern
individuality. This means a student will employ certain strategies that are
relatively different from those of the others.
The difference is affected by many factors such as degree of awareness,
stage of learning, age, sex, nationality, general learning styles, personality traits,
motivation level, and purpose for learning the language (Oxford, 2003: 13).
Besides these personal factors, Oxford also states that there are external factors
which affect the way the learners choose the learning strategies. They are task
requirements and teacher expectations. These factors, although need to be more
thoroughly analyzed, seem to significantly affect the choice of learning strategies.
Learners that are more advanced or older, for example, with regard to their
experiences seem to use better or more complex strategies than the less advanced
or younger learners do. Task requirements, as another example, seem also to
determine the strategies for listening as for speaking. The differences of learning
strategy choices which are caused by those factors will eventually make the range
26
From the two definitions above, it can also be inferred that learning
strategies have a function to enhance learning and specifically to help the learners
comprehend, learn, or retain new information. Learning strategies, in this sense,
therefore can be regarded as tools in learning. As tools they are employed
whenever the learners want to prevent and to face difficulties that have to be
overcome, to accomplish tasks, or to attain goals in learning. In turn, the
employment will make their learning easier, faster, and more effective.
It has been mentioned before that the range of learning strategies can be
very large. In spite of the large range of learning strategies, attempts have been
made by experts to identify and classify them (Stern, 1987:347). Without
underestimating other identifications and classifications, in this section the
presentation of learning strategies will be limited only to Oxford’s. The choice is
merely because of practical reasons. In the researcher’s view, Oxford’s
identification and classification is detailed and comprehensive, uses less technical
terminology, and can be applied in four language skills.
Oxford (2003: 39-147) presents an identification and classification that
consist of two main categories which are called direct strategies and indirect
strategies. Direct strategies which deal with the language it self are divided into
the memory strategies, cognitive strategies, and compensation strategies. On the
other hand, indirect strategies which are for the general management of learning
comprise metacognitive, affective, and social strategies.
Memory strategies (Memory-related strategies), sometimes called
27
information. These strategies help learner link one L2 item or concept with
another but do not necessarily involve deep understanding. Various
memory-related strategies enable learners to learn and retrieve information in an orderly
string (e.g., acronyms), while other teaching create learning and retrieval via
sound (e.g., rhyming), image (e.g., a mental picture of the word itself or the
meaning of the word), a combination of sounds and images (e.g., the flashcards),
or location (e.g., on page or blackboard) (Oxford, 2003: 6). These strategies fall
into four sets: creating mental linkages, applying images and sounds, reviewing
well and employing actions. Creating mental linkages are essential because, as it
is known, the aspects of the new language that should be learnt are very large in
number. Vocabulary, for example, is by far the most sizeable and unmanageable
component in the learning of a new language. In this case, an action like making
associations of words or expressions that have close meaning will help the learner
deal with the difficulty.
The difficulty to remember large amounts of vocabulary can also be
overcome by linking them with the visual or aural images. On one occasion, for
example, when hearing or reading a certain word the learner can imaging what the
word looks like if it is visualized. Such image sometimes is more easily
transferred to the memory. While many language learners can get benefit from
visual or aural imagery, other may apply structured reviewing. The reason is that
looking at the new language information once is not enough; it must be reviewed
in order to be remembered. Meanwhile, those who enjoy tactile modes of learning
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Cognitive strategies are the strategies that enable the learners to
understand and produce a new language by many different means. Four sets of
cognitive strategies exist. They are practicing, receiving and sending messages,
analyzing and reasoning, and creating structure for input and output.
Strategies for practicing are among the most important cognitive
strategies. As it is known, practice is usually or even always needed to reach
acceptable proficiency, a goal which actually requires hundreds or thousands of
hours of practice. So, the practicing strategies, including repeating, formally
practicing with sounds and writing systems, recognizing and using formulas and
patterns, recombining, and practicing naturalistically, take on a special value.
Strategies for receiving and sending messages are necessary tools. One
such strategy, known as getting the idea quickly, helps the learner locate the main
idea through skimming or the key points of interest through scanning. This
strategy implies that is not necessary for learner to focus on every single word.
Another strategy in this group, using resources, is useful for both comprehension
and production. It helps learners take advantages of a variety of resources, printed
or nonprinted, to understand and produce messages in the new language.
Analyzing and reasoning strategies concern logical analyzing and
reasoning as applied to various target language skills. Often learners can use these
strategies, such as applying general rules in a new context on reasoning
deductively, analyzing expressions to find their meanings, comparing the elements
of a new language with those of their own language, translating a new expression
29
situation. Language learners often feel confused or worried about the large
amount of material that should be learnt. To learnt more easily they need to
structure the materials into manageable form by using strategies such as taking
notes, summarizing, and highlighting.
Cognitive strategies enable the learner to manipulate the language material
in direct ways, e.g., through reasoning, analysis, note-taking, summarizing,
synthesizing, outlining, reorganizing information to develop stronger schemas
(know structure), practicing in naturalistic settings, and practicing structures and
sound formally (Oxford, 2003: 6).
Compensation strategies, the last group in direct strategy category, are the
strategies that enable learners to use the new language for either comprehension or
production despite the limitations in knowledge. These strategies are intended to
make up for an inadequate repertoire of grammar and, especially, vocabulary.
Compensation strategies are divides into two sets: guessing intelligently and
overcoming limitations in speaking and writing.
Guessing strategies, sometimes called inferring, involve using a variety of
clues, to guess the meaning then the learners do not know all the words. Good
language learners when faced with unknown expressions make educated guesses
by using the existing clues that they have already been familiar with. On the order
hand, less expert language learner often panic or try to look up every word in the
dictionary.
Compensation strategies occur not only in understanding the new
30
written expressions in the new language without complete knowledge. To
overcome these limitation learners may use mime or gestures, switch the
expression on the mother tongue, get help from others, select topic, coin words
avoid communication partially or totally, and adjust or approximate the message.
Compensatory strategies (e.g., guessing from the context in listening and
reading; using synonyms and “taking around” the missing word to aid speaking
and writing; and strictly for speaking , using gestures or pause words) help the
learner make up for missing knowledge (Oxford, 2003: 7).
It has already been mentioned that besides direct strategies there are also
indirect strategies which are made up of metacognitive, affective, and social
strategies. Metacognitive strategies, according to Oxford (2003: 139), are actions
which go beyond purely cognitive devices and which provide a way for learners to
coordinate their own learning. With regard to the function to enhance learning,
metacognitive strategies then enable learners to optimalize their learning through
focusing, planning, evaluating their progress. These strategies include three
strategy sets: centering learning, arranging and planning learning, and evaluating
learning.
Language learners often face too much newness in their
learning-unfamiliar vocabulary, confusing rules, a different writing system and others.
With all this novelty, many learners lose their focus, which can only be regained
by the conscious use of metacognitive strategies such playing attention and over
viewing/linking with already familiar material. Other metacognitive strategies,
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planning for a language task, help the learners to arrange and plan their language
learning in an efficient, effective way. The metacognitive strategy of seeking
opportunities for practice is especially important. Learners who are seriously
interested in learning a new language must take responsibility to seek as many
practice opportunities as possible.
Metacognitive strategies (e.g., identifying one’s own learning style
preference and needs, planning for an L2 task, gathering and organizing materials,
arranging a study space and a schedule, monitoring mistakes, and evaluating task
success, and evaluating the success of any type of learning strategy) are employed
for managing the learning process overall. Among native English speakers
learning foreign languages, Purpura (1999) in Oxford (2003: 6) found that
metacognitive strategies had “a significant, positive, direct effect on cognitive
strategy use, providing clear evidence that metacognitive strategy use has an
execution over cognitive strategy use in task completion”.
Realizing that learning a new language is a difficult activity, students
occasionally make mistakes or errors. When they do so, they usually become
traumatized. In fact they do not have to be so because from the errors they will be
able to progress. Therefore, self-monitoring and self-evaluating is essential.
Dobrovolny (2003: 1) states that metacognition is the process of
self-assessment and self-correction. It includes evaluating progress, correcting errors,
and implementing and perhaps changing learning strategies. In metacognitive
strategy, learners engaged think about implementing their preferred learning
32
practice questions, and determining the degree to which the instruction meets their
needs or expectations, and implementing remedial learning strategies such as
re-reading instructional information.
The affective strategies which are the second group of indirect strategies
are those for regulating emotions: lowering anxiety, encouraging oneself, and
taking emotional temperature.
The first set, lowering anxiety, can be attributed to the fact that too much
anxiety may block language learning. Harmful anxiety presents itself in many
forms: worry, self-doubt, frustration, helplessness, insecurity, fear and physical
symptoms. In this regard, anxiety reducing strategies like laughter and deep
breathing are therefore necessary. However, strategies directly targeted at anxiety
reduction are not the only ones that help learners to calm down.
Self-encouragement through positive statements can change one’s feeling and attitude
and can indirectly reduce anxiety, including the tension which surrounds test
taking. In addition, listening to bodily signals is a helpful strategy for discovering
and controlling anxiety.
Affective strategies, such as identifying one’s mood and anxiety level,
talking about feelings, rewarding oneself for good performance, and using deep
breathing or positive self-talk, have been shown to be significantly related to L2
proficiency in research by Dreyer and Oxford (1996) among South African EFL
learners and by Oxford and Ehrman (1995) among native English speakers
33
In considering the social strategies, there is a fact that should be taken into
account: that language is a form of social behavior; it is communication, and
communication occurs between and among people. Learning a language thus
involves other people, and appropriate social strategies are very important in this
process. Three sets of social strategies are included here: asking questions,
cooperating with others, and empathizing with other.
One of the most basic social interactions, according to Oxford, is asking
questions, an action from which learners can gain great benefit. Asking questions,
either for clarifications or correction, help the learner get closer to the meaning
and therefore aids understanding. It also helps them encourage conversation
partners to provide large quantities of input in the target language and indicates
interest and involvement. Moreover, the conversation partners’ responses to the
learners’ questions indicate whether the questions are well understood, hence
providing indirect feedback about the learners’ production skill.
Social strategies (e.g., asking questions to get verification, asking for
clarification of a confusing point, asking for help for in doing a language task,
talking with a native-speaking conversation partner, and exploring cultural and
social norms) help the learner work with other and understand the target cultural
as well as the language (Oxford, 2003: 7).
In addition to asking questions, cooperating with peers and with more
proficient users of the target language is useful. However, cooperative strategies
