THE USE OF SIMPLE SENTENCES IN THE DIRECT
SPEECHES IN ERNEST HEMINGWAY’S SHORT STORY
THE UNDEFEATED
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra
in English Letters
By
AJENG GALIH PRASASTHA SEKARWATI
Student Number: 03 4214 005
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS
FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA 2007
“Happiness”
Being happy doesn’t mean
everything is perfect…
It means you have decided
to look beyond the imperfectness
For my lovely family: my parents,
My sisters and brother,
and
Especially my late grandfather,
I love you grandpa…
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My highest gratitude goes to Jesus Christ for all of His blessings in every step of my life and every second of my day. I will never reach into this level without His guidance.
Many people gave contribution to me in the process of composing this under graduate thesis. First of all, I am profoundly grateful to my major sponsor, Dr. Fr. B. Alip, M. Pd., M. A., who has given me a guidance and encouragement during his busy schedules. His professionalism and expertise have given a very big support for me from the beginning of the process of composing this under graduate thesis.
I would also express my gratitude to my Co-Advisor, J. Harris H. Setiajid, S. S., M. Hum., who has given his advice and guidance in finishing this under graduate thesis.
My deepest gratitude goes to my beloved father, Wasono, and my mother, Rudatiningtyas. Their patience, guidance and advice are the most important thing that I need to do anything. I would like to thank my sisters, Lia and Naning, and also my brother, Jalu, for all wonderful time at home which is full of happiness.
Special thanks go to Sanata Dharma University for giving me the opportunity to develop my intellectuality. I would like to express my profound gratitude for the generous assistance extended to me by all lecturers, and for all of the staffs and librarians. Lots of gratitude I give to Mbak Ninik, staff at the secretariat, for her patience to help me in dealing with all matters related to the campus. I must also thank Ms. Anna Fitriati S. Pd., M. Hum. for all of her time for helping me to finish this under graduate thesis.
I am grateful to Yongki Ragil Kuncoro Jati, whose fingers are always locked with my fingers, for giving me all his time. Special thanks go to Mrs. Yosephine, Oga and Ully for giving me supports to finish my duty.
I express my gratitude to all my friends in Lunatic society for giving me the unforgettable moment of friendship. Thanks also to all my dearest friends Renzie, Widhy, Frida, Prita, Tyas, Jhony, Djatipz, Dhanang, Vall, Yeri, Superbay, Susiet at campus. Thanks for my friends at Ben’s Cell for all happy moments that I have got.
I would also give my profound gratitude for everyone whose names I cannot mention one by one for their contributions given to me so that I can complete this undergraduate thesis.
Ajeng Galih Prasastha Sekarwati
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS………. viii
ABSTRACT……….. x
ABSTRAK ……… xi
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ……….. 1
A. Background of the Study ……… 1
1. An Analysis of Clause Structures in Hemingway’s A Clean, Well Lighted Place………. 7
2. Toward a Speech Acts Theory of Literary Discourse…... 8
3. The Said and the Unsaid: Mind, meaning and Culture…. 8 B. Review of Related Theories ……….. 9
1. Theories of Simple Sentences……… 9
a. Theory of Clause Elements………... 10
b. Theory of Seven Types of Clause Structure………… 13
c. The Classification of the Simple Sentences…………. 14
2. Theories of Pragmatics……….. 15
a. Theories of Cooperative Principle of Conversation…. 15 b. Theories of Hedges………. 17
c. Theories of Conversational Implicatures………. 19
d. Theories of Speech Acts……….. 21
3. Theories of Sociolinguistics……….. 21
C. Ernest Hemingway and His Short Story The Undefeated… 24 D. Theoretical Framework ……… 25
CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS RESULT ……… 30
A. Analysis Result on the Pattern of the Simple Sentences ….. 30
B. Analysis Result on the Relation of the Pattern with the Responses... 37
1. Analysis Result by Using the Theories of Pragmatics….. 38
2. Analysis Result by Using the Theories of Sociolinguistics 45 CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION ……….. 51
BIBLIOGRAPHY ……… 54
APPENDICES ………. 56
1. The Classification of the Simple Sentences……….. 56
2. Summary of The Undefeated………. 61
ABSTRACT
AJENG GALIH PRASASTHA SEKARWATI. The Use of Simple Sentences in the Direct Speeches in Ernest Hemingway’s The Undefeated. Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma University, 2007.
Language can be formed in written or spoken. Each has its own characteristics. In the written form, spoken language is called the direct speech form. Although this direct speech is written but its use is still the same as in the spoken form. The direct speech which uses the simple sentence form might indicate politeness related to its responses when it is used in certain community as it is seen in Hemingway’s The Undefeated.
The problems to be answered can be formulated into two issues. The first problem is the patterns of the simple sentences in the direct speeches form found in the short story. The second problem is the pattern of the sentences which helps the characters in the short story to produce the correct responses related to politeness although it uses the simple sentence form.
This study is descriptive. The method of the study used in this under graduate thesis is based on the characteristic of scientific study which covers two steps. First, data collection, the writer made lists on the direct speech form found in the short story. Second, data analysis, the writer did the analysis to answer the problems formulated in chapter 1. To answer the first problem, the writer identified the sentences which is in the form of simple sentence and classifies them into its pattern. To answer the second problem, the writer analyzed the sentences using the theories of Pragmatics to find out whether the sentences violate the rules in the conversation or not then the writer uses the theories of Sociolinguistics to find out the relation between the response and the form of the sentence. The object of this study is Hemingway’s short story entitled The Undefeated.
The findings can be described as follows: the percentage for the simple sentences found in the study is 72,44%, that for the complex and compound sentences is 22,44% and the rest is the special construction which has the percentage of 5,10%. Among the simple sentences there are only six types out of seven found in the short story. They are SVC, SVO, SVA, SVOA, SV and SVOO. None of those simple sentences violate the rules in the conversation, and in fact the use of simple sentence form might imply the solidarity among the characters.
The general conclusion of this under graduate thesis is that Hemingway uses mostly two or three elements only in producing the sentences in the dialogue to make it simple but understandable. The simple patterns of the sentences do not violate the rules in conversation and they imply the solidarity among the characters in the short story.
ABSTRAK
AJENG GALIH PRASASTHA SEKARWATI. The Use of Simple Sentences in the Direct Speeches in Ernest Hemingway’s The Undefeated. Yogyakarta: Jurusan Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Sanata Dharma, 2007.
Bahasa dapat berbentuk tulisan dan lisan. Keduanya memiliki karakteristik tersendiri. Dalam bentuk tulisan, bahasa lisan disebut juga kalimat langsung. Meskipun kalimat langsung ini berbentuk tulisan fungsinya masih tetap sama seperti ketika kalimat ini berbentuk lisan. Kalimat langsung yang menggunakan bentuk kalimat sederhana dapat mengindikasikan adanya norma kesopanan terkait dengan respon yang timbul saat digunakan di dalam komunitas tertentu seperti yang terlihat pada karya Hemingway yang berjudul The Undefeated.
Rumusan permasalahan yang akan dibahas meliputi dua pokok permasalahan. Masalah pertama mengenai pola kalimat sederhana pada kalimat langsung yang terdapat pada cerita pendek. Masalah kedua mengenai peran pola-pola kalimat sederhana untuk membantu para pelaku dalam cerita pendek untuk membuat respon yang tepat terkait dengan norma kesopanan meskipun hanya menggunakan pola kalimat sederhana.
Penelitian ini bersifat deskriptif. Metodologi yang digunakan dalam skripsi ini berdasar pada karakteristik penelitian ilmiah yang meliputi dua langkah. Langkah pertama, pengumpulan data, penulis membuat daftar kalimat langsung dari cerita pendek. Langkah kedua, analisis data, penulis melakukan analisis untuk menjawab permasalahan yang dirumuskan pada bab 1. Untuk menjawab masalah yang pertama, penulis mengidentifikasi kalimat yang memiliki pola kalimat sederhana lalu mengklasifikasikan menurut pola-polanya. Untuk menjawab masalah kedua, penulis menganalisis kalimat tersebut menggunakan teori Pragmatik untuk mengetahui apakah kalimat tersebut melanggar kaidah percakapan atau tidak lalu penulis menggunakan teori Sosiolinguistik untuk menemukan hubungan antara respon dengan pola kalimat yang digunakan. Objek skripsi ini adalah cerita pendek karya Hemingway yang berjudul The Undefeated.
Hasil penelitian yang didapat adalah sebagai berikut: kalimat sederhana sebanyak 72,44%, kalimat bertingkat dan kalimat majemuk sebanyak 22,44% dan sisanya kalimat dengan pola khusus sebanyak 5,10%. Penulis hanya menemukan enam dari tujuh pola kalinat pola kalimat yaitu SVC, SVO, SVA, SVOA, SV dan SVOO. Kalimat-kalimat tersebut tidak ada yang menyalahi kaidah percakapan. Penggunaan pola kalimat sederhana dapat menunjukkan adanya hubungan solidaritas antat pelaku dalam cerita pendek tersebut.
Kesimpulan umum dari skipsi ini adalah Hemingway menggunakan dua atau tiga elemen saja dalam menyusun kalimat pada kalimat langsung agar lebih mudah dimengerti. Pola yang sederhana ini tidak menyalahi kaidah percakapan dan hal ini menunjukkan adanya solidaritas antar pelaku di dalam cerita pendek.
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
A. Background of the Study
In our daily activities in everyday life, we need to communicate with others. The tool that we use to communicate is the language. We deliver messages trough language. From the first time it appeared, language has been developing far and keeps growing until this recent day. Language develops in many different aspects in our life and it becomes a very important part in human life.
Language, then, varies one from another. The variation caused by many factors in the communities where the language is being used. Although the language may differentiated by these variations, the speaker and the listener who use the language show us that in the communication there is a link which is connecting and supporting the users of the language to communicate so that the communication runs well.
There are two kinds of language that are commonly used in our daily life. Those are the written and the spoken language. Both written and spoken languages have their own characteristics and forms to make them understandable when they are used in the communication.
The language formed in written and spoken are different in the way that written language has to be formed in a very clear way to make it understandable since the writer can not give further explanation right away or fix the errors of the sentences written to the readers. In the spoken language, the speaker who is the
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writer when it is in the written form, can give further explanation and also fix the errors that he or she has made. That is why the writers who are writing in the written language should consider a lot of things in forming the sentences where the messages are carried.
There are many products of written language. Short stories are among of them. The writers of the shirt story deliver the message through the sentences and each sentence has its own message which supports one another. The sentences in short story are bound one another to create a united idea from the writers. The sentences in short stories have an important role to deliver the message in a very clear way since short story is limited in length.
Writers write a story in a very special way to make the readers impressed by the sense of the sentences which are constructed inside the story. The writers invite the readers to get involved in the story by making a real feeling through the senses in the sentences. When the writers write a story, they should arrange the sentences in a clear way to make an understandable plot to follow. Once the writers make incorrect or irrelevant sentence, they will tear down the readers’ imaginations since the sentences and its meaning will be irrelevant with the ideas stated in the previous sentences.
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also have a role to deliver the writer’s idea. The characters can express the writer’s idea through the interaction which they have made with other characters. The interactions can be done in the conversation form.
In linguistics, we can find the pragmatics which studies about understanding the speaker’s meaning and about how more gets communicated than is said. George Yule in his book, Pragmatics, includes the speech acts and states that:
In attempting to express themselves, people do not only produce utterances containing grammatical structures and words, they perform actions via those utterances (Yule, 1996:47).
The writer takes the statement above as one of the basic theory to make the analysis about the relation of the pattern of the sentences related to the responses of the characters. This, as mentioned above, is one way of the story’s writer to deliver the idea or message.
The interactions between the characters in the short story build a certain community which is similar to the speech community in daily life. A sociolinguistics becomes the link which connects the grammar that the characters use in their sentences with their manner in delivering those sentences to make the interaction with another character.
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Leech in his book A Communicative Grammar of English Language states that:
In general, the grammar of spoken sentences is simpler and less strictly constructed than the grammar of written sentences. It is difficult to divide a spoken conversation into separate sentences and the connection between one clause and another less clear because the speaker relies more on the understanding of the hearer of context and on his ability to interrupt if he fails to understand (Leech, 1975: 23).
This statement becomes the reason why the writer has chosen a short story. A short story becomes the target to be analyzed without loosing the elements of the work itself. The Undefeated has a moderate number of pages to get the data. The writer has certain limitation in making the analysis. The discussion will be limited only in the direct sentences inside the quotation mark. This is because the writer wants to know deeper about the relation between the sentences and the characters, who uses the sentences in their dialogues, as the elements which was built in the story as a whole.
B. Problem Formulation
Based on the above, there are two problems from the research that can be formulated as follows:
1. What are the patterns of simple sentences taken from the direct speeches form in the short story?
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C. Objectives of the Study
In this part, the writer will explain the aim of having the research as it has already formulated in the problem formulation above. There are two problems proposed by the writer in making the research.
The writer’s aim are, first is to classify the sentences into its pattern. The result of the classification will provide evidence that the sentences which are used in the short story are mostly simple sentences not complex or compound sentences.
The second aim is to find out the relation between the pattern of the sentences which is simple sentences in helping the characters to understand the context of their conversation to produce the good responses and completing the etiquette of communication by reflecting the politeness through the utterances.
D. Benefits of the Study
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E. Definition Terms
In this part, the writer will give the definitions of terms stated in the title. The title of this paper is The Use of Simple Sentences in the Direct Speeches in Ernest Hemingway’s Short Story “The Undefeated”. There will be three definitions based upon the title. They are the definition of simple sentence, direct speech and short story.
First, a sentence definition according to Leech is a unit made up of one or more clauses (Leech, 1975: 288). A sentence can be a simple sentence, a compound sentence or a complex sentence. The second definition terms related to the title of this paper, a simple sentence is a sentence which consists of one clause only (Quirk et al., 1972:342).
The direct speech is the quotation of the actual utterances delivered or spoken by the speaker (Asher, 1994:5113). George Yule, in his book Explaining English Grammar, defines direct speech as a type of reported speech with its typical characteristic, the quotation mark (Yule, 1998: 300).
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
In this chapter, the writer will present the review of related studies and the review of related theories. The review of related studies will show that some studies had been conducted related to the discussion in this under graduate thesis. The writer presents the review of related theories as the basic for making the analysis in the next chapter.
A. Review of Related Studies
Desi Rochmawati’s undergraduate thesis entitled An Analysis of Clause Structures in Hemingway’s A Clean, Well Lighted Place (2005) discussed the pattern used by Hemingway in his story A Clean, Well Lighted Place. She used the theories of simple sentence, which consists of the theory of clause structure’s elements and the theory of seven basic clause types, and the theories of complex sentence. The theory of clause structure’s elements was used to recognize the element of a clause, while the theory of seven basic types was used to classify the types of clauses. Theories of complex sentence were used to classify the sentence or clause whether it was complex or not. She wanted to prove some statements from the expert who said that Hemingway has his own style that was the use of simple sentences in his works.
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Mary Louise Pratt in her paper entitled Toward a Speech Act Theory of Literary Discourse (1977) explained that linguistic approaches to literary analysis have generally been based on the assumption that literature possesses intrinsic linguistic features that distinguish it from our everyday utterances. The aim of her study was to provide a more adequate basis for a linguistic theory of literature, one which allows us to describe literary utterances in the same terms used to describe other types of utterances. She used the theory of speech act and the theory of cooperative principles. Pratt saw the literary communicative event as essentially the same as our everyday conversation.
Stephen A. Tyler in his paper entitled “The Said and the Unsaid: Mind, Meaning, and Culture” stated his thesis that
Speaking represents unconscious knowledge of an abstract system of conventional signs and rules with which to construct sentences and construe meanings (1978).
He mentioned that the scientific explanation of language should not explain language as language alone but also as both the object and vehicle to make the unified interpretation of thought and culture. He gave the example of the parents who expand a child’s ungrammatical utterances into fully grammatical forms. The parents were treating the child’s utterances as indices of underlying sentences and not just taught the child to speak grammatically; they were also teaching the child by example to use the documentary method of interpretation.
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sentences but its application when it is being used in the language. The writer will combine the theories of simple sentences, the theories of pragmatics and the theories of sociolinguistics to make a new formulation related to the grammar and speech.
B. Review of Related Theories
In this part the writer explains the theories that are going to be applied in the analysis part in the next chapter. The writer uses three theories. They are the theories of simple sentences, the theories of Pragmatics and the theories of Sociolinguistics.
1. Theories of Simple Sentences
Sentences are divided according to their structure into three classes. They are simple, compound and complex. A simple sentence consists of a single independent clause. A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses. A complex sentence consists of one independent clause and one or more subordinate clauses (Curme, 1947:152). Since the focus of this paper is the simple sentence, the writer will give the theories on simple sentences only.
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divided into subject complement (Cs) and object complement (Co), and adverbial (A) (Quirk et al.,1973:343).
Based on the definitions above, this section will be divided into three sub-sections. They are the explanation of the clause elements, the explanation of the seven basic types of clause structures, and the classification of the simple sentences.
a. Theory of Clause Elements
Based on the elements which are composed in a clause, there are four elements in clause. They are subject (S), verb (V), object (O), complement (C), and adverbial (A).
i. Subject (S)
A subject is usually a noun phrase or a clause with nominal function. It occurs before the verb in the declarative clauses and after the operator in yes-no interrogative clauses (Quirk, 1990:207). The subject has the characteristic of having the numbers and person concord with the verb phrase (Quirk et al., 1973: 348). For examples:
(1) We walk trough this street everyday. (2) She meets them everyday.
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verb in the second example meets. This verb’s ending is related to the subject whether it is singular or plural (Krohn, 1986: 11).
ii. Verb (V)
States, events and actions are represented grammatically by the word class of verbs (Jackson, 1990: 16). This element is normally present in all clauses including in the imperative clauses, where the subject is typically absent (Quirk, 1990: 207)
A verb will determine the clause types since different verb classes require different complementation to complete the meaning of the verb or no complementation if there is an intransitive verb. The verb in simple sentence is always a finite verb. A finite verb is a verb which is showing the tense distinction between ‘past’ and ‘present’ and being associated with a particular subject (first, second or third, singular or plural) (Jackson, 1982:74). For examples:
(3) She cries.
(4) She is reading a book.
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iii. Object (O)
Object is like a subject which is a noun phrase or clause with nominal function. Object follows the subject and the verb phrase. There are two kinds of objects. They are direct object (Od) and indirect object (Oi). When there are two objects occur in the sentence, indirect object (Oi) always precedes the direct object (Od) (Quirk et al., 1973: 348). For examples:
(5) We share an enemy.
(6) He gave her an explanation.
In sentence (5), the subject is the personal pronoun we, the verb is share, and the noun phrase an enemy is the object of the verb share. In this sentence the object is a noun phrase, the enemy functions as the head of the NP and the article
an functions as the determiner. The object here is the Od, direct object.
iv. Complement (C)
A complement function can be filled by a noun phrase or by an adjective phrase. It is different from object since a complement has the same reference with its subject or its object (Jackson, 1982:84). A complement does not have a corresponding passive subject. There are two kinds of complements. They are the subject complement (Cs) and the object complement (Co). The subject complement is related to the subject while the object complement is related to the direct object (Quirk, 1990: 207). For examples:
(7) My glass is empty.
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In sentence (7) the word empty is related to the word glass’ which is the subject, this is called Cs, the subject complement. In sentence (8) the phrase very pleasant is related to the direct object them, this is called Co, the object complement.
v. Adverbial (A)
There are three basic types of adverbs. They are adverbs of manner, adverbs of time and adverbs of place (Wishon, 1980: 9). For examples:
(9) Alice studies hard. (10) He went home. (11) She is working now.
From the examples above can be seen that in sentence (9) the adverb is
hard, which is the adverb of manner. In sentence (10) the adverb is home which functions as the adverb of place. In the last example, in sentence (11), the adverb is now which is the adverb of time.
b. Theory of Seven Types of Clause Structure
Quirk in his book A Student’s Grammar of the English Language states that there are seven types of clause structure in English (Quirk, 1990: 204). They are:
(1) Type S V : We (S) walk (V).
(2) Type S V C :She (S) is (V) my mother (C). (3) Type S V A : The book (S) is (V) on the shelf (A).
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(5) Type S V O O : He (S) gave (V) me (O) a bucket of flower (O). (6) Type S V O C : He (S) got (V) his shirt (O) dirty (C).
(7) Type S V O A : I (S) met (V) him (O) yesterday (A).
c. The Classification of Simple Sentences
In A Grammar of Contemporary English, the simple sentences are classified into four major syntactic classifications (Quirk, 1972: 385-386). They are:
i. Statements
Statements are sentences in which the subject is always occur and generally precedes the verb. This sentence functions to convey information. For example:
John will speak to the boss to day.
ii. Questions
This type of sentences is usually used to express lack of information and requests the listener to supply this information verbally. There are several markers to show that a sentence belong to this category. They are:
(1) The placing of the operator in front of the subject. For example: Will John speak to the boss today?
(2) The initial positioning of an interrogative or wh-element. For example: Who will speak to?
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iii. Commands
Commands are sentences which normally have no overt grammatical subject and whose verb is in the imperative mood. The subject in the imperative form is usually omitted because the subject of this kind of sentence is clear enough to be understood by the addressee. For example: Speak to the boss today.
iv. Exclamations
Exclamations are sentences which have an initial phrase introduced by
what or how, without the inversion of the subject and the operator. This type of sentences is used to express the speaker’s own feeling. For example:
What a noise they are making!
2. Theories of Pragmatics
In this section, the writer will describe the theories of Pragmatics that will be use in the next chapter to make the analysis. The writer divides this section into four sub-sections. They are the theories of cooperative principles of conversation, the theories of hedges, the theory of conversational implicatures and the theories of speech acts.
a. Theories of Cooperative Principle of Conversation
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Cooperative principle is an assumption in conversation that each participant will attempt to contribute appropriately, at the required time, to the exchange of talk (Yule, 1996:128).
Based on the above there are four maxims formulated by Grice to make an analysis whether an utterance is sensibly connected to the meaning in the discourse or not.
i. Maxim of Quantity
In maxim of quantity, the speaker should make his or her contribution to the discourse, in this case is conversation, as informative as necessary and neither more nor less.
ii. Maxim of Quality
The speaker should not say something that he or she believes to be false. And he or she is not supposed to say something in which he or she lacks adequate evidence. In other words, do not lie.
iii. Maxim of Relevance
Speaker is supposed to be relevant, means that he or she should say things related to the current topic of the conversation.
iv. Maxim of Manner
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b. Theories of Hedges
Hedges or cautious notes are used to avoid violating the maxim especially to express politeness during the conversation. There are many expressions which can be used to maintain the maxims of conversation. Below are the hedges according to Yule’s Pragmatics (Yule, 1996: 38-39):
i. Hedges in the Maxim of Quantity
This type of hedges is used to deal with the response related to the maxim of quantity. It shows that the speaker is conscious to the maxim of quantity where he or she should not give the contribution more than it is required.
For examples:
(1) As you probably know, I am terrified of the bugs.
(2) So, to cut a long story short, we grabbed our stuff and ran.
The hedges are, the first in sentence (1) is in the clause as you probably know and the second in sentence (2) is in the clause so, to cut a long story (Yule, 1996:38).
ii. Hedges in the Maxim of Quality
This type of hedges is used to cooperate with the response related to the maxim of quality. This type of hedges indicates that what the speaker says may not be accurate. For examples:
(3) As far as I know, they’re married.
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Both clauses in sentence (3) and (4) show that the speaker does not totally sure about the truth of the utterance he or she gives, but the hedges will help him or her to avoid the violation of the maxim of quality (Yule, 1996:38).
iii. Hedges in the Maxim of Relevance
This type of hedges is used to cooperate with the response related to the maxim of relation. It can be found in the middle of the speaker’s talk and go on to mention some unconnected information during the conversation. The speaker might use the expressions like anyway; Oh, by the way; or well, anyway. For examples:
(5) Not to change the subject, but is this related to the budget? (6) I don’t know if this is important, but some files are missing. The part of the sentences which are printed in bold show the hedges are being used. These hedges are the link between the previous information of the conversation with the new information of the conversation which is not related one another (Yule, 1996:39).
iv. Hedges in the Maxim of Manner
This type of hedges is used to deal with the response related to the maxim of manner. Below, where the hedges are printed in bold, are the examples of the hedges in a heard during an account of a crash (Yule, 1996:39):
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c. Theories of Conversational Implicatures
In the normal situation of conversation, sometimes we find utterances which are likely violating the cooperative principles. To maintain the cooperative principles in the conversation the participants of the conversation needs the conversational implicatures which occurs as the additional unstated meaning (Yule, 1996:40). There are four kinds of implicatures.
i. Generalized Conversational Implicatures
In this implicature, there is no special knowledge needed in the context to convey the meaning.
For example:
A: “I hope you brought the bread and the cheese.” B: “I brought the bread.”
From the short conversation in the example above, B brought the bread and did not mention the cheese. It means that A could draw an assumption from B’s utterances that B only brought the bread (Yule, 1996:40).
ii. Scalar Implicatures
The characteristic of the scalar implicature is the use of certain word which expresses one value from a scale of values. For example the use of the words all, most, many, some, few, always, often, sometimes, etc. (Yule, 1996:41).
iii. Particularized Conversational Implicatures
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special or local knowledge is needed to convey the additional unstated meaning (Yule, 1996:42-43). Below is the example:
Wife : The door bell is ringing! Husband : I’m in the shower!
From the dialogue above, it seems that the dialogue is flouting the maxim of relevance. To make this dialogue relevant the wife should draw some assumption. She knows that the door bell is ringing then she said “The door bell is ringing!”. She said it on purpose. She wants that her husband open the door for the guest. The husband gives response by saying “I’m in the shower!”. It is clear enough for the wife that her husband cannot open the door. In short we can conclude then that the dialogue above does not flouting the maxim of relevance.
iv. Conventional Implicatures
The conventional implicatures are not based on the cooperative principle of the maxims. These implicatures do not depend on special contexts for their interpretation. One of the characteristics is the use of the conjunction but, even, yet and and (Yule, 1996:45).
For example:
(1) Mary suggested black but I choose white. (2) He even helped tidy up afterwards. (3) Dennis isn’t here yet.
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d. Theories of Speech Acts
Speech acts are the actions performed via utterance. There are some specific labels given in the speech acts in English. They are apology, complaint, compliment, invitation, promise, or request (Yule, 1996:47).
Speech acts have three dimensions. According to Austin, the dimensions are locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act. Locutionary act is the basic act of uttering a meaningful linguistic form. Illocutionary act is the communicative force of an utterance. The last that is the perlocutionary act is the effect which was recognized by the hearer that was intended by the speaker.
For example, there was someone saying, “Sit and be quiet!”. This order was followed by the action of the listener to sit and be quiet. Locutionary act is the part when the order “Sit and be quiet!” is said and we can convey the meaning from the utterance of the speaker. Illocutionary act is the part seen from the speaker’s point of view that he or she wants the listener to sit and be quiet. Perlocutionary act is the part seen from the listener’s point of view that they should sit and be quiet. The action follows perlocutionary act is called perlocutionary effects.
3. Theories of Sociolinguistics
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larger scope of the application of the language it self. For example, how is actually the work of the language in the communication (Holmes, 1992:1).
In a sociolinguistics study, the language often called as a code, as Wardhaugh states that:
When two or more people communicate with each other in speech, we can call the system of communication that they employ a code. In most cases that code will be something we may want to call a language (Wardhaugh, 1986:1).
One aspects of language that has been studied in sociolinguistic is language varieties. The theory of language varieties states that that are five language varieties, they are idiolect, dialect (or accent), style, register, and speech level or level.
Here are the explanations of each variety. First, idiolect is the form of speech variety which is determined by the personality of the speaker. Second, dialect (or accent) is speech variety which is determined by the background where the speaker came from. Dialect is divided into seven, they are: regional dialect; social dialect, which is divided into three, they are high, mid, and low; gender dialect; age dialect; profession dialect; ethnic dialect; and at last ideology dialect. Third, style is the speech variety which is determined by the situation. Fourth, register is the speech variety which is determined by the objective of the speech. And sixth, speech level is the form of speech variety which is determined by the degree of respect between the speaker and the addressee.
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register. Speech level is generally known as politeness. As it is states in the quotation from Grice, who formulated the maxim of conversation:
…This principle and these maxims characterize ideal exchanges. Such exchanges would also observe certain other principles too, such as ‘Be Polite’ (Wardhaugh, 1986: 281).
Hymes classified the dimensions of the factors, which may change the communicative events, into seven (Stockwell, 2002:38). They are known as SPEAKING which can be formulated as follows:
(1) Setting or situation (2) Participants
(3) End topics (4) Act of sequence (5) Key mood (6) Instruments (7) Norms
(8) Genre or style
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C. Ernest Hemingway and His Short Story The Undefeated
Writing is another way to express thoughts or ideas instead of speaking since writing is symbolized of speaking (Goldberg, 1938: 354). This is the statement for a writer. How the idea is expressed by writer is described in his or her works includes in the smallest element of the works which is the sentence.
Ernest Hemingway is a very famous writer. He wrote many novels and also short stories during his life. Many of his books and short stories are successfully published. He received the Pulitzer Prize in 1953 for The Old Man and the Sea and awarded the Nobel Prize for literature in 1954 (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Hemingway#Short_story_collections, March 24, 2007).
Hemingway published many short stories in many series. The Undefeated
was published in 1927 together with another short story. The compilation entitled
Men without Women (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The Complete Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway, March 24, 2007).
Hemingway was known for his simplicity in his writing style. The sentence he creates shows his simplicity and his directness. In the dialogue produced, Hemingway mostly uses short sentences in the conversation. Muir as cited in the book The Literary Reputation of Hemingway in Europe states that:
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The quotation above shows that Hemingway creates the dialogue with a swift and terse dialogue. His dialogue is not only short and simple but also understandable and natural. Muir also states that one of Hemingway’s characteristics is bare but effective that it becomes his own way in creating meaningful sentences in the dialogue (Asselineau, 1965:17).
D. Theoretical Framework
In this part, the writer will explain the use of those three theories above. It is important to include related theories as the foundation to analyze the object of the study.
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CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY
In this chapter, the writer will describe the object of the study and the method of the study. The object of the study will be described in the first part, while the method of the study will be described in the second part
A. Object of the Study
The discussion in this paper is mainly about the application and the function of the use of the simple sentences in the direct speech form in Ernest Hemingway’s short story The Undefeated. The data needed is the short story itself.
The writer uses the short story written by Ernest Hemingway entitled The Undefeated. The short story has 24 pages. The Undefeated was first published in 1927 together with another short story. The compilation entitled Men without Women (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The Complete Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway, 24 March 2007). The Undefeated which was taken as the source of the analysis was published in An Anthology for Secondary Schools in 1963.
Hemingway’s The Undefeated is a story about a bull fighter named Manuel Garcia who has lost his skill and popularity as a matador. Manuel Garcia, or known as Manolo, was once a very popular matador in his city. A long time ago he was an idol for every matador in the town. But once he got a cogida, a Spanish term for a matador who was tossed by a bull in the ring, everyone became skeptic toward his skill. Now, after Manolo returned from the hospital, he got to
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face the reality that everything has already changed. Manolo even had to beg for having corridas, or the bullring. Manolo begged to Retana, the biggest owner of the bull fighter in the city, to have one more chance fighting in the ring. He got it though at the end he did a very miserable job during the fighting. Many people booed him when finally Manolo got injured, but Zurito, one of his friend, and Retana helped him.
B. Method of the Study
In this section the writer will explain the methods used in the research including the data collection and data analysis.
According to Dinneen (1967:4-5) in his book entitled An Introduction to General Linguistics, there are three characteristics of linguistic as scientific study. They are objectives, empirical, and exact. The first characteristic is objective. It means that we need to provide the evidences through the research to conclude something. The second characteristic is empirical which means that the research will be restricted to those evidences which can be proven only. The last characteristic is exact which means that it gives precise explanation about the relation of each other of the elements.
1. Data Collection
The object of the study is the use of simple sentences in the direct speech form in Hemingway’s short story The Undefeated, so the object taken as the source is the short story itself.
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To collect the data, first, the writer read the short story in order to have a deeper understanding about the story. After reading the short story, the writer then tried to find the simple sentences in the direct speech form. The writer made a list of all the sentences in the direct speech form from the short story.
2. Data Analysis
After reading The Undefeated, the writer then, did some steps to make the analysis.
The first step was to analyze the pattern of the sentences. The sentences were analyzed based on its elements using the theories of clause elements. After recognizing the elements, the sentences were analyzed using the theories of seven types of clause structure to find out whether they belong to simple sentences or not. Finally, the sentences were classified into its pattern according to the seven types of clause structure. This was used to answer the first problem formulation about what are the patterns of the simple sentences in the direct speech found in Hemingway’s short story The Undefeated.
The second step to answer the second problem formulation was to find out the relation between the pattern of the sentences which is simple sentences in helping the characters to understand the context of their conversation to produce the good responses and completing the etiquette of communication by reflecting the politeness through the sentences’ utterances. In this step, the theories on Pragmatics and the theories on Sociolinguistics will be combined.
CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS RESULT
In this chapter, the writer will present the analysis result from the data which was taken from the short story. The data are taken from the direct speech form inside the quotation mark.
This chapter will be divided into two. The first part is the analysis result of the patterns of the sentences which is simple sentences. This part will be divided into seven parts where the writer will give the result of the analysis of each type of clauses. The second part is the analysis result of the sentences related to the patterns and the responses given by the characters which is divided into two parts. The first is the analysis under the theories of Pragmatics and the second is the analysis under the theories of Sociolinguistics.
A. Analysis Result on the Pattern of the Simple Sentences
In this part of analysis, the writer will present the result of the analysis of the sentences in the direct speech form which was taken from the short story. This analysis is meant to answer the first problem formulation.
According to the theories of clause structure in English, there are seven types of clause structure. They are Subject-Verb (SV), Subject-Verb-Complement (SVC), Verb-Adverbial (SVA), Verb-Object (SVO), Subject-Verb-Object-Object (SVOO), Subject-Verb-Object-Complement (SVOC), and Subject-Verb-Object-Adverbial (SVOA) (Quirk, 1990:204).
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The writer found that there were 196 direct speech sentences. The simple sentences are 142 numbers and there are only six types out of seven types of clause structure found in the direct sentences in the short story. The complex and compound sentences are 44 sentences, and 10 sentences having special construction. The percentage of the sentences will be shown in the Table 1 as follows:
Table 1 The Types and the Patterns of Sentences in Short Story
Types Total Number Percentage
A Simple Sentences : 142 sentences 72,44%
1. Subject-Verb (SV) 17 sentences 8,67% 2. Subject-Verb-Complement (SVC) 33 sentences 16,83% 3. Subject-Verb-Adverbial (SVA) 27 sentences 13,77% 4. Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) 42 sentences 21,42% 5. Subject-Verb-Object-Object (SVOO) 6 sentences 3,06% 6. Subject-Verb-Object-Adverbial (SVOA) 17 sentences 8,67% 7. Subject-Verb-Object-Complement (SVOC) 0 0%
B Complex and Compound Sentences 44 sentences 22,44%
C Special Construction : 10 sentences 5,10%
1. It 6 sentences 3,06%
2. There 4 sentences 2,04%
Total 196 100%
The writer will describe the result of the analysis of the simple sentences below:
1. Subject-Verb (SV)
There are 17 sentences or 8,67% which can be classified into this type. Following are the examples:
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A subject is usually a noun phrase or a clause with nominal function. It occurs before the verb in the declarative clauses (Quirk et al., 1973: 348). In the example (1) the subject is I and in the example (2) the subject is she.
A verb generally refers to actions, events, and processes. The simple sentences must have the finite verb (Jackson 1982:62). In sentence (1) the verb is the phrasal verb got in, where the verb is got and the adverbial particle is in. The word just is an optional adverbial.
In sentence (2) the word here in the beginning of the sentence is not an adverbial which functions as the real adverbial. This word is more to be an expression used in the colloquial style in the conversation. It is a kind of an idiom which is used to announce that one is about to do something exciting, based on the context inside the short story. The verb of this sentence is goes.
2. Subject-Verb-Complement (SVC)
The writer found 33 sentences or 16,83% which can be classified into this type. Below are the examples:
(3) I’m a bull fighter. (4) Those kids are good.
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phrase. A sentence with a complement cannot be changed into passive form while a sentence with a direct object can be changed into passive (Quirk et al., 1973:726-727).
In sentence (3) the subject is I, the verb is am, and the complement is bull fighter. In this sentence, the complement is the subject complement (Cs) because it has the same reference as the subject of the sentence. The complement bull fighter refers to the subject I, meaning that they refer to the same object.
In sentence (4) the subject is the noun phrase those kids where the head is the word kids and the word those has the function as the pre-modification. The verb of this sentence is are and the complement is an adjective good. This sentence also has the subject complement where the word good refers to the subject of the sentence those kids.
3. Subject-Verb-Adverbial (SVA)
There are 27 sentences or 13,77% which can be classified into this type. Following are the examples:
(5) I’ll be out there.
(6) You’ve been in the hospital.
In sentence (5), the subject is the personal pronoun I, the verb is the contracted form of will be, and the adverbial is out there.
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different from a complement and a direct object in the way that it is capable of occurring in more than one position in the clause (Quirk, 1990: 207). In sentence (6) the adverbial is the noun phrase in the hospital where the head of the phrase is
hospital, in as the preposition, and the as the determiner.
4. Subject-Verb-Object (SVO)
There are 42 sentences or 21,42% which can be classified into this type. Following are the examples:
(7) (You) Take off your cap. (8) Now, you get him, kid.
In sentence (7) which has the imperative function, we have to add the subject, for example here the subject is you. The subject in the imperative form is usually omitted because the subject of this kind of sentence is clear enough to be understood by the addressee. The verb of this sentence is the phrasal verb take off
where the verb is take and the adverbial particle is off. An object is like a subject which is a noun phrase or clause with nominal function. Object follows the subject and the verb phrase (Quirk et al., 1973: 348). In this sentence, the object is the noun phrase your cap where cap is the head and your is the possessive determiner.
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5. Subject-Verb-Object-Object (SVOO)
There are 6 sentences, or 3,06% which can be classified into this type. Following are the examples:
(9) You pay Villalta seven thousand. (10) (You) Give me the stuff.
There are two kinds of objects. They are direct object (Od) and indirect object (Oi). When there are two objects occurring in the sentence, indirect object (Oi) precedes the direct object (Od) (Quirk et al., 1973: 348).
In example (a) the subject is you and the verb is pay. The indirect object (Oi) is Villalta and the direct object is seven thousand, while in example (b), the subject has to be added since the sentence is having the imperative function. The subject of the example (b) is you and the verb is give. When there are two objects occur in the sentence, indirect object (Oi) always precedes the direct object (Od) (Quirk et al., 1973: 348). In this sentence the indirect object (Oi) is me and the direct object (Od) is the noun phrase the stuff, where the head of the noun phrase is stuff and the as the determiner.
6. Subject-Verb-Object-Adverbial (SVOA)
There are 17 sentences, or 8,67% which can be classified into this type. Following are the examples:
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In example (a) the word can has the function as the modal auxiliary or the operator which needs to change the place with the subject when it occurs in the interrogative form (Jackson, 1982: 73). The subject of the sentence is the personal pronoun I. The verb is have. And the adverbial is now.
In example (b) the subject is the personal pronoun I. The verb is the contracted form of will see where will here functions as the modal auxiliary and the verb is see. The adverbial is tomorrow night which is called the adverbial of time.
Based on the sentence pattern analysis above, the writer concluded that the proportion of the simple sentences is 72,44%, the complex and compound sentences is 22,44% and the rest is the special construction which has the percentage of 5,10%.
The types of the simple sentences in the short story are Subject-Verb (SV), Subject-Verb-Complement (SVC), Subject-Verb-Adverbial (SVA), Subject-Verb- Object (SVO), Subject-Verb-Object-Object (SVOO), and Subject-Verb-Object- Adverbial (SVOA). Only six types of clauses found in the direct speech in the short story. There is no Subject-Verb-Object-Complement (SVOC) type found in this work.
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8,67%. The smallest proportion in the simple sentences type is Subject-Verb-Object-Object (SVOO) which has 3,06%.
Seeing the proportion of the types of the simple sentences, the SVO type gives the biggest contribution in the direct speech form. This might be related also with the contribution of the SVC type which has the second place after the SVO type. As it is mentioned above, the complement and the object is almost similar in the elements that may function as a complement or an object. Since these types found in the direct speech form, then Hemingway’s idea was described here through the conversation between the characters. The conversation is presented in colloquial style with a slight rhythms which becomes bare and clipped (Foerster, 1974: 1389)
There is no SVOC type found in the direct speech form in the short story. It can also be related with the smallest proportion of the SVOO type. These two types are a little bit complex than the other types. These two types have four elements. Hemingway rarely used it since he has his own style which is simple and direct in composing a sentence as it is stated in some critical review toward his works. Hemingway mostly uses two or three elements only in producing the sentences in the dialogue to make it simple but understandable.
B. Analysis Result on the Relation of the Pattern with the Responses
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into two. First is the analysis using the theories of Pragmatics and the second is the analysis using the theories of Sociolinguistics.
1. Analysis Result of the Sentences by Using the Theories of Pragmatics
This analysis is meant to know whether the sentences which are used in the dialogues are fulfilling the rule in a conversation or not. The rule in a conversation is the cooperative principles of conversation which can be formulated as in the Maxims of conversation together with the conversational implicatures to find out the relation between one and another speech. The writer uses the theory of speech act to find out that all the dialogues and the utterances from the speaker can be understood by the addressee.
In the conversation, both the speaker and the addressee are invited to get involved in the speech. Both of them are supposed to complete each other by giving the appropriate responses in order to make the conversation.
Based on the above there are four maxims formulated by Grice to make an analysis whether an utterance is sensibly connected to the meaning in the discourse or not. The maxims are maxim of quantity, maxim of quality, maxim of relevance, and maxim of manner (Yule, 1996: 37).
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Table 2 The Data of Hedges and Implicatures in Short Story
No. Data Hedges Implicatures
1. Dialogue 1 -- 2 implicatures
Total 1 Hedge 5 Implicatures
The writer will present the finding of the implicatures and the hedges in the short story as follows:
a. In the Dialogue 1
(1) Manuel : I don’t like to substitute. Retana : You can take it or leave it. Manuel: How much do I get?
Retana : Two hundred and fifty pesetas. (Hemingway, 1963: 35-36)
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(2) Manuel : You pay Villalta seven thousand. Retana : You’re not Villalta.
(Hemingway, 1963: 36)
In the second example, there is no question and answer but only two different statements. Here the dialogue seems failed to fulfill the maxim of conversation which is the maxim of relevance but the responses given by Retana shows that there is an implicature used. The conversational implicature is the additional unstated meaning (Yule, 1996:40). To maintain the cooperative principles in the conversation, which is the maxim, the participants of the conversation needs the conversational implicature which occurs as the additional unstated meaning.
This dialogue uses the generalized conversational implicature where there is no special knowledge needed in the context to convey the meaning. When Retana says, ‘You’re not Villalta’ it means that Manuel should know why he does not get seven thousand. Manuel does not need any knowledge to understand the meaning of Retana’s statement. In other words, this dialogue does not violate the maxim of coherence because the response given by the addressee is appropriate with the speaker’s utterance. The addressee uses the conversational implicature to link the utterance and the response.
b. In the Dialogue 2
(3) Manuel : Have you seen Zurito?
Waiter : He was in before lunch. He won’t be back before five o’clock.
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In example (3) the sentence is yes-no type question, so the answer which is required by this type of question is ‘yes’ or ‘no’ and nothing else is needed. The waiter’s response, which is the answer for the previous question, states no direct answer for the question. Manuel should conclude the answer by himself when the waiter says ‘He was in before lunch’. If the waiter knows that Zurito was in before lunch, it means that the waiter had seen Zurito. The waiter’s response can be classified as the particularized implicature.
As it has mention before that there is hedges employed in the dialogue. Following is the example of the hedge:
(4)Waiter : I thought they were going to have Chaves and Hernandez.
Manuel : No. Me and another.
Waiter : Who? Chaves or Hernandez? Manuel : Hernandez. I think.
(Hemingway, 1963: 38)
The hedge can be seen from the use of the utterance ‘I think’ by Manuel. The use of hedge in this dialogue is in order to avoid of violating the maxim of quality. Manuel adds ‘I think’ because he is not totally sure about the truth of the utterance he gives.
c. In the Dialogue 3
(5) Manuel: I got a favor to ask you, Manos. Zurito : Let’s have a drink.
(Hemingway, 1963: 40)
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something different. For example, it can be assumed that Zurito wants to share his time and listening to Manuel’s request.
(6) Zurito : ….I know how you feel. But it isn’t right. You ought to get out and say out.
Manuel: I can’t do it. Besides I’m going good lately. Zurito : You’ve been in the hospital.
Manuel: But I was going great when I got hurt. The papers said they never saw a better faena. You know when I get going I’m good.
(Hemingway, 1963: 40-41)
In example (5), the particularized implicature is applied. It can be seen from Zurito’s utterance ‘You’ve been in the hospital’. This response is not related with the previous statement given by Manuel. To make them related one another then Manuel should draw an assumption so that he can give another response. Zurito’s utterance means a contradiction to previous statement, which is Manuel’s statement who says that he is in a good condition.
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Waiter : You fighting here? (While he was corking up the bottle) Manuel : Hernandez. I think.
Waiter : What’s the matter with Chaves?
In this dialogue the simple sentences show that by using this pattern a conversation can be done, besides that the simple sentences have the biggest proportion in the dialogue in the short story. Seeing from the maxims of conversation, this dialogue does not violate the rule of conversation because it is using the implicature and hedge to fulfill the cooperative principles of conversation.
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conversation is trying to maintain the cooperative principles of the conversation. In other words, there the speaker almost violates the cooperative principles of conversation.
Generally related to the pattern of the sentences, where SVC and SVO build most of the sentences in the dialogue, Hemingway seems to make a restriction in making the utterances for the characters. He makes the dialogue of the characters in a simple style. It can be seen that he chooses the three elements only in composing the utterances. But this pattern does not violate the cooperative principles of the conversation. According to Muir as cited in the book The Literary Reputation of Hemingway in Europe, Hemingway’s characteristics is bare but effective that it becomes his own way in creating meaningful sentences in the dialogue (Asselineau, 1965:17). In the conversation the speakers are supposed to complete each other by giving the appropriate responses in order to make the conversation. It means there will be no conversation if there is no response given by the listener or the response given by listener failed to fulfill the previous utterance delivered by the speaker.
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2. Analysis of the Sentences by Using the Theories of Sociolinguistics
This analysis is meant to know the aim of the use of the simple sentences in the dialogues in the short story. The analysis under the theory of Sociolinguistics is related also with the analysis using the theories of Pragmatics above. Based upon the analysis above, the characters’ dialogue does not violate the principles of communication. Grice’s comment as it is stated in Wardhaugh’s
An Introduction to Sociolinguistics states that:
…This principle and these maxims characterize ideal exchanges. Such exchanges would also observe certain other principles too, such as ‘Be Polite’ (Wardhaugh, 1986: 281).
The writer uses all of the conversational exchanges to be analyzed to find out the relationship among the characters. The examples which are presented as the result in this sub-section are taken randomly from the conversation dialogues.
The writer found in the short story that there are four kinds of different relationship between the characters who did the conversations. The first is the relationship between an employer and an employee. The second is the relationship between friends. The third is the relationship between a person and a stranger. And the last is the relationship between a senior employee and a junior employee.
The first relationship is done by Retana as an employer and Manuel as an employee. Below are the quotations taken from the short story which describes the relation between Retana and Manuel:
(1) Retana: What do you want?
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(2)Manuel: Have a cigarette?
Retana: Thanks.(Hemingway, 1963: 40) (3) Manuel: Smoke?
Retana: No. I never smoke.(Hemingway, 1963: 40)
In the example (1), the dialogue is done in a very direct way. As it is mentioned in the story that Manuel is Retana’s employee, his answer toward Retana’s question can be classified as an impolite response. In this kind of relationship the employee will not take the answer in a very direct style. The employee might not answer the question of his employer directly. He might give another explanation such as the reason why he comes to the office, and then he can give the answer of the previous question.
In the second and the third examples, Manuel asks a question to Retana. But his questions are in the informal style. In the example (2), his utterance is ‘Have a cigarette?’ The sentence might be change into ‘Do you want to have a cigarette?’ since he asked his employer. Manuel reduces the form of the sentence from the longer one into the short and direct one. And so does with the example (3) where he only uses one word to ask. He says ‘Smoke?’. This sentence can be changed also into ‘Do you want to smoke?’.
The second relationship is done by Manuel and his friend, Zurito, and between waiters in a bar. Below are the quotations of the dialogue taken from the short story:
(4) Manuel : I got a favor to ask you, Manos.
Zurito : Let’s have a drink. What’s the matter, Manolo? Manuel : Would you pic two bulls for me tomorrow night?
Zurito : No. I’m not pic-ing. I’m sorry, Manollo, but I’m not pic-ing.
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Zurito : I’m too old. Manuel : I just asked you. (Hemingway, 1963:40)
In the example (4) above, Manuel does not go directly into his subject matter. He begins the dialogue by saying ‘I got a favor to ask you, Manos’. From this utterance he keeps the politeness by not saying the object of his conversation directly. But still, the degree of formality is less than what we have in a formal situation.
The third relationship is between Manuel as a customer in a bar and the waiter of the bar who is a stranger to Manuel. Below are the quotations taken from the short story:
Waiter : You fighting here? (While he was corking up the bottle) Manuel : Hernandez. I think.
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In example (5), the waiter keeps to ask questions to Manuel though Manuel answers which are very short indicate that he does not want to give a further explanation or even a further conversation. In the utterances between Manuel and the waiter, there is no gap between them. The waiter talks as if Manuel is not a stranger to him and Manuel gives the answer shortly and directly. This conversation runs smoothly because the speaker and the listener realize the atmosphere of the conversations which fills the relation between them. The conversation might fail if, for example, Manuel stops answering the waiter’s questions. But Manuel keeps answering the waiter’s question to maintain the etiquette of politeness. This fact is true according to Wardhaugh’s statement as follows:
It has proved possible to plot the structure of many conversation using this ideas of pairing and chaining in order to show how depended we are on them. We can also show this same dependence by acknowledging what happens when there are violations: not responding to a question; not offering a comment when one is solicited; not acknowledging request; not exchanging greeting; and so on (Wardhaugh, 1986: 288).
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The fourth relationship is between Manuel and Retana’s employees. Manuel is senior employee compare to Retana’s employee, the gypsy. Below are the quotations of the dialogue taken from the short story:
(6) Manuel : What’s your name, kid? The gypsy : Fuentes.
Manuel : That’s a good name. You take the bull and give him a little run when he comes out.
The gypsy : All right. (Hemingway, 1963: 43)
(7) Manuel : You got a good hand, kid. Hernandez : They like me.
(Hemingway, 1963: 44)
In those two examples the status of being a senior employee is shown by the use of the vocative ‘kid’ at the end of the Manuel’s conversation. Although they have different status but the pattern of the conversation in using the simple style does not change.
Based on the analysis by using the theories of Sociolinguistics above, the writer concludes that there is no significant difference in the language and the pattern of the conversation. It means that though the characters are having different relation in their status, the use of simple style and the less degree of formality is always maintained in all conversations they have. It does not mean that by making a short and simple sentence is impolite. In a certain community this kind of conversation can be categorized as solidarity, as it is stated in Wardhaugh’s An Introduction to Sociolinguistics as follows:
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The quotation above states that the use of T/V or Tu and Vous, a French term used for politeness is no longer clear. In this recent year people choose to shift this T/V into ‘solidarity’ where people tend to speak in a less formal situation.
In the social community, people may choose to use the language in a formal way or in a casual context. But the use of politeness will be different from one community to others community (Holmes, 1992: 285). It is the same as the examples of the quotations above. The quotations above is taken from the community of a bull fighters, community of a lower class where solidarity maintained by the use of vocatives in saying the name of others. For example, Manuel calls his boss ‘Retana’; Zurito calls Manuel ‘Manolo’, using Manuel’s nickname. This is expressing solidarity and minimizing status difference (Holmes, 1992:297).
