i
ENGLISH COMPETENCE NEEDED BY NURSING
DEPARTMENT STUDENTS
A THESIS
Presented to
The Graduate Program in English Language Studies in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree of Magister Humaniara (M.Hum.)
in English Language Studies
by
Pikir Wisnu Wijayanto
Student Number: 056332003
THE GRADUATE PROGRAM (S2)
IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
iv PAGE OF DEDICATION
To my wife (Jeni Ariyanti, A.Md) and my daughter (Adzkia Khairunnisa Wijayanto) as my Source of Spirit!!
To my parents who always give me support for my career. My sister, her husband and my nephew and niece
vi STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY
This is to certify that all ideas, phrases, and sentences, unless otherwise stated, are the ideas, phrases, sentences of the thesis writer. He understands the full consequences including degree cancellation if he took somebody else’s idea, phrase, or sentence without a proper reference.
Yogyakarta, November 15th, 2008 The writer
Pikir Wisnu Wijayanto
vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, my greatest gratitude is addressed to Allah SWT for His love and blessings. He guided me and showed me the paths to complete my thesis and study. He gave me power and helped me to cope problems, hindrance, and burden during the writing of the thesis. Without Him, I would not be like what I am now.
My thesis would never have been completed without the assistance and supports from the following people, to whom I will address my gratitude. The gratitude goes to:
1. Drs. FX. Mukarto, M.S., Ph.D., as my supervisor, for sparing his time to give me concerning consultation of my thesis;
2. dr. Anis Kusumawati as the Dean of Health and Science Faculty or ‘Fakultas Ilmu Kesehatan’ at Muhammadiyah University of Purwokerto (UMP) for giving permission in conducting this research;
3. Kris Linggardini, S.Kp as the Head of Study Program of Nursing Department Students at Muhammadiyah University of Purwokerto (UMP) for giving time to spare the time for interview and showing the related documents;
4. Angkat Adi Cahyoko, S.Pd an English lecturer for helping me to conduct the observation and interview;
5. H. Rijoto Abdulah and Hj. Siti Fatimah as my parents, my beautiful wife Jeni Ariyanti, A.Md, and my lovely daughter Adzkia Khairunnisa Wijayanto. You are always in my heart and are never forgotten in my life. 6. My best friend Theresia Laksmi Widyarini, S.Pd., M.Hum. Thanks for
your help, ideas, motivation, suggestions, and references.
7. All my friends in The Graduate Program (S2) in English Language Studies (KBI) Sanata Dharma University Yogyakarta. Thanks for the great relationship.
Finally, I would like to thank all my friends who cannot be stated here. My God bless them all.
Pikir Wisnu Wijayanto
viii TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
PAGE OF TITLE ...………. i
PAGE OF APPROVAL ……… ii
PAGE OF DEDICATION ………. iv
PAGE OF STATEMENT AND WORK’S ORIGINALITY ……..…... v
PAGE OF ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS..……… vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS ……….. vii
LIST OF FIGURES……… xii
LIST OF TABLES ……… xiii
ABSTRACT ……….………. xv
ABSTRAK ……… xvi
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ………... 1
A. Background ………... 1
B. Problem Identification ………... 5
C. Problem Limitation ……… 5
D. Problem Formulation……….. 6
E. Research Objectives ………... 7
F. Research Benefits ……… 7
CHAPTER II. THEORETICAL REVIEW AND FRAMEWORK….. 9
A. Theoretical Review ………... 10
1. Communicative Competences ……… 10
a. Communicative Approach ………... 10
b. Development of Communicative Competences ……… 11
ix
c. Elements of Communicative Competences……… 13
1) Discourse Competence ………. 14
2) Actional Competence ………... 15
3) Linguistic Competence ………. 15
4) Sociocultural/Sociolinguistic Competence……… 16
5) Strategic Competence .……….. 17
2. English for Specific Purposes (ESP) ……… 18
a. The Definition of ESP ……… 18
b. The Criteria of ESP………. 20
c. ESP Categories ………... 21
d. English for Nursing Students……….. 22
e. Establishing English Competence in ESP Context: Nursing….. 23
3. Syllabus Design ………... 32
a. Syllabus Development……… 32
b. Competence-based Syllabus………... 34
c. Need analysis in Syllabus Design ………. 35
B. Theoretical Framework ………. 42
CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY ……… 48
A. Methods ……… 48
B. The Nature of Data………. 50
C. The Pilot Study ……….. 50
D. Data Setting and Source... 51
E. Data Gathering Instruments ………... 52
1. Interview ………. 53
x
2. Observation ………. 57
F. Data Collection ……….. 58
1. Primary data ……… 59
2. Supporting data ……… 61
G. Data Analysis ………. 61
1. Data reduction ……….. 62
2. Display data ………. 62
3. Drawing conclusion ………. 62
H. Data Validation ……….. 64
CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH RESULT……… 65
A. English competence for nursing department students’ in term of communicative competences activities ….……… 65
B. Syllabus Development………..………. 81
1. Assessing Learners’ Needs……… 81
2. Developing Goals and Objectives ……… 82
3. Deciding Syllabus Type ……… 83
4. Specifying Contents ………. 84
5. Planning Syllabus ………. 87
6. Selecting Teaching Approaches and Materials ……… 94
7. Assessment Procedures and Criteria………. 95
CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS …… 96
A. Conclusions ……….. 96
B. Recommendations………. 97
BIBLIOGRAPHY ……… 100
xi
APPENDICES ………. 105
Appendix 1 Interview Guide for the Students……… 106 1.a Interview Transcripts from the Students: SDPM1
1.b Interview Transcripts from the Students: SDPM2 1.c Interview Transcripts from the Students: SDPM3 1.d Interview Transcripts from the Students: SDPM4 1.e Interview Transcripts from the Students: SDPM5 1.f Interview Transcripts from the Students: SDPM6 1.g Interview Transcripts from the Students: SDPM6 1.h Interview Transcripts from the Students: SDPM7 1.i Interview Transcripts from the Students: SDPM8 1.j Interview Transcripts from the Students: SDPM9 1.k Interview Transcripts from the Students: SDPM10 1.l Interview Transcripts from the Students: SDPM11 1.m Interview Transcripts from the Students: SDPM12 1.n Interview Transcripts from the Students: SDPM13 1.o Interview Transcripts from the Students: SDPM14 1.p Interview Transcripts from the Students: SDPM15 1.q Interview Transcripts from the Students: SDPM16
Appendix 2 Interview Guide for the Lecturer……… 107 2.a Interview Transcriptswith the lecture of nursing department
(Mr. AAC, S.Pd)
Appendix 3 Interview Guide for theHead of Study Program or Kaprodi and Dean the Health Science Faculty the Health Science
Faculty (FIK) UMP……….. 108
3.a Interview transcripts with the Head of Study Program (Mrs. LGG S.Kep)
3.b Interview transcripts with the Dean of Health Faculty (Mrs. dr. AS)
Appendix 4 Curriculum and Syllabus of UMP Documents ………... 151
xii LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 2.1 Communicative competence model……….. 14
Figure 2.2 The classification of ESP categories………. 22
Figure 2.3 Target Situation Analysis (TSA) and Learning Situation
Analysis (LSA)………. 24
Figure 3.1 Interactive Model of Analysis Scheme... 62
xiii LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 2.1 Steps work reference to English for Nursing Department… 26
Tabel 3.1 Interview Guideline Blue Print for students ... 55
Tabel 3.2 Interview Guideline Blue Print for Lecturer... 55
Tabel 3.3 Interview Guideline Blue Print for the Officials... 56
Tabel 3.4 Obervation Guide... 58
Table 4.1 Giving the explanation of the escort of basic treatment ….. 67
Table 4.2 Giving the health counseling ………... 68
Table 4.3 Giving the explanation of the escort of pathology and its treatment ………. 70
Table 4.4 Translating the data collection, medical record and report data………. ….………. 71
Table 4.5 Executing the basic treatment ……….. 72
Table 4.6 Using communication skills in a healthcare ……… 74
Table 4.7 Listening, questioning and diagnosing ………. 75
Table 4.8 Approaching to the patient ………..……… 76
Table 4.9 Giving explanation and advice ………. 76
Table 4.10 Communicating in term of involving patient in management……….. 77
Table 4.11 Specifying Contents ………..…….. 84
xiv ABSTRACT
Wijayanto, Pikir Wisnu. 2008. English Competence Needed by Nursing Department Students: Yogyakarta: English Language Studies. Graduate Program. Sanata Dharma University.
The research aimed at finding out the English competence needed by nursing department students during the course of their studies as well as in preparing themselves for their future work as nurses at the international level. The competence needed by the students and nurses-to-be was then used as the basis for designing the English syllabus to be proposed to and adopted by the Health Science Faculty (Fakultas Ilmu Kesehatan or FIK) of Muhammadiyah University of Purwokerto.
This research took place at the Health Science Faculty at Nursing Department Program at Muhammadiyah University of Purwokerto. The research was descriptive qualitative in nature. This study used interviews and observations to collect the data to answer the research questions. The source of data was sixteen nursing students, one lecturer and the dean.
The results of the data analysis indicated that there were ten main competencies to acquire by nursing students to function properly in the nursing profession. The competencies included giving explanation of the escort of basic treatment, giving the health counseling, giving the explanation of the escort of pathology and its treatment, translating the data collection, medical record and report data, executing the basic treatment, using communication skills in a healthcare, approaching to the patient, listening, questioning and diagnosing, giving explanation and advice, and communicating in term of involving patient in management. The ten basic competencies were then used as the bases in designing the syllabus for the Nursing Department students. The type of syllabus chosen was competence-based one. The syllabus stated the competency standards, basic competencies along with their indicators, list of teaching materials, suggested learning experience, time allotment, list of resources and media, and assessment.
xv ABSTRAK
Wijayanto, Pikir Wisnu. 2008. Kompetensi Bahasa Inggris yang Dibutuhkan oleh Mahasiswa Diploma 3 Perawat: Yogyakarta: Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengidentifikasi kompetensi Bahasa Inggris yang dibutuhkan oleh mahasiswa keperawatan selama perkuliahan untuk mempersiapkan mereka dalam bekerja sebagai perawat nantinya dalam taraf internasional. Kompetensi yang dibutuhkan oleh mahasiswa dan perawat natinya digunakan sebagai landasan penyusunan silabus yang diperuntukan serta direkomendasikan untuk Fakultas Ilmu Kesehatan Universita Muhammadiyah Purwokerto.
Penelitian ini berlangsung di Fakultas Ilmu Kesehatan, Program Diploma Tiga Perawat Universitas Muhammadiyah Purwokerto. Metode penelitian ini adalah deskriptif kualitatif. Metode kualitatif merupakan prosedur dalam penelitian yang hasilnya berupa data deskriptif dari beberapa pernyataan dari partisipan dan dari kegiatan obsevasi yang dilakukan. Sumber data adalah 16 mahasiswa, seorang dosen Bahasa Inggris, serta Ketua Program Studi Keperawatan dan Dekan Fakultas Ilmu Kesehatan UMP.
Hasil dari analisa data tersebut kemudian mengindikasikan bahwa terdapat sepuluh kompetensi utama yang harus dimiliki oleh mahasiswa keperawatan dalam menunjang kegiatan mereka sebagai tenaga perawat. Kompetensi terbut adalah memberikan penjelasan mengenai dasar-dasar keperawatan; memberikan bimbingan kesehatan; memberi penjelasan mengenai pencegahan terhadap penyakit dan perawatannya; menerjemahkan serta mengumpulkan data, catatan mengenai kesehatan dan data laporan; melaksanakan tindakan keperawatan dasar; menggunakan ketrampilan berkomunikasi di dalam bidang perlindungan kesehatan; pendekatan terhadap pasien; mendengarkan, bertanya dan mendiagnosa; memberikan nasihat dan penjelasan; serta berkomunikasi dalam hal melibatkan pasien di dalam manajemen. Kesepuluh kompetensi dasar tersebut kemudian digunakan sebagai dasar penyusunan silabus untuk mahasiswa keperawatan. Tipe silabus yang dipilih adalah competence-based. Silabus tersebut berisi tentang kompetensi standar, kompetensi dasar, yang disesuaiakan dengan indikator yang ada, daftar materi pembelajaran, kegiatan pembelajaran yang disarankan, alokasi waktu, daftar referensi dan media, serta penilaian.
1 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
This chapter is proposed to introduce the research and give explanation for the necessity to conduct it. A brief description of the context where the research is conducted is provided with English competence for nursing department students in their communication activities both in their study and in the work setting for their international relationship. This chapter consists of six main parts, namely the background of the study, problem identification, problem limitation, problem formulation, research goals, and research benefits.
A. BACKGROUND
2 This research aims at describing the English competence needed related with communication activities performed by nursing department students in English learning activities and the graduate students in their future work. The required competences are needed in order to perform those international communication activities successfully. Thus its basic purpose is that of enabling the students to function adequately through the medium of English both in the classroom and in the work setting. The product of this research will be in form of syllabus design which incorporates with the communication activities and the required communicative competences in English.
Austin (1976) stated that nurse is a health care professional who is engaged in the practice of nursing. Nurses are men and women who are responsible (along with other health care professionals) for the treatment, safety and recovery of acutely or chronically ill or injured people, health maintenance of the healthy, and treatment of life-threatening emergencies in a wide range of health care settings. To support their responsibilities for doing treatment, a nurse need a communication activities and competences in order to maintain a good relationship to other people.
Learning English in the nursing department is not an easy task since the students were not accustomed using English in their previous formal school. Teachers are easy to be trapped as the only learning ‘models’. In this condition, a learning process will be boring if students are only as ‘good spectators’ and
3 more practices. Passive students are also the effect of the class-learning situation when the teacher takes much more place in class.
Krashen (1985) acknowledges that two-way interaction is a particular good way of providing comprehensible input because it enables the learners to obtain additional contextual information and optimally adjusted input when meaning has to be negotiated because of some communications problem. The learners who are accustomed to being taught English exclusively in their mother tongue may at first be uncomfortable if the teacher speaks to them in English expecting them not only to understand but also to respond. Making an effort to get the gist and using strategies to interpret, express, and negotiate meaning are important to develop their communicative competence.
4 In order to perform the communication activities in English, the nursing department focuses on cognitive language proficiency and discipline specific language competency for nursing, where communicative and socio-linguistic competences in the area of specialization are paramount. The belief is that linguistic competence alone (i.e. knowledge of grammar and doing grammar exercises without reference to use and function) is not enough to guarantee or automatically lead to the ability to communicate. The Health Science Faculty or ‘Fakultas Ilmu Kesehatan’ (FIK) Muhammadiyah University Purwokerto (UMP) also tries hard to wean the students from the “giving or receiving the lesson” condition by preparing them to educate themselves, monitor their own work and invent their individual strategies for learning. It engages them in procedures of converting items of knowledge into actualized communicative behavior from knowing to functioning, emphasizing that what students learn in English is transferable to all areas of the curriculum.
5
B. PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
The main issue discussed in this study was that the students’ need of English competence, which its basic mission was that of enabling the students to function adequately through the medium of English both in the classroom and in the work setting. The material and other elements need to be in concordance with the needs of communication activities performed by nursing department students in terms of their English learning activities and their future work as well as the required competences in order to perform those communication activities successfully. Therefore, the syllabus must be incorporated into the communication activities and the required communicative competences in English.
Teacher is responsible in the teaching learning process at first, or in other words the success of teaching learning process mostly depends on the teacher. Therefore, it is the teacher's responsibility to create elements, which are needed in the teaching learning process, such as, materials and also the teaching technique on how to deliver the authentic materials to the students. Creating and applying the authentic materials according to the needs and appropriate technique must be done by the teacher with certain considerations to achieve the purpose. The applied teaching technique should be able to make the students able to the function of language in their daily life.
C. PROBLEM LIMITATION
6 the forth semester students in Nursing department (Nursing diploma) at the Health Science Faculty or ‘Fakultas Ilmu Kesehatan’ (FIK) at Muhammadiyah University of Purwokerto (UMP). The researcher delimitated the respondents’ opinions, since their learning experiments are used as the research data.
In doing limitation of the research achievement, the research only focus on the authentic English competence needs in learning process such as listening, speaking, writing, and reading related with nursing competencies. Since the students are prepared to be nurses, the authentic materials and needs are also related to their future job. Hence, the instructional materials will be designed based on the students’ need of communicative competence in English learning as well as the purpose of learning it self. The use of bills, flyers, classified, pictures of signs, and prescriptions, will make the students able to relate the given information in the learning material with their recent educational background in nursing academy in communicative way
D.
PROBLEM FORMULATION
The research deals with the English competence of nursing department students. The research problems are formulated as follows:
1. What English Competence was needed by nursing students related with the communication activities at the Health Science Faculty of UMP? 2. How were the needs of English Competence of the nursing students be
7
E.
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
The research had been conducted to serve some objectives, namely:
1. to identify the English Competency needed by nursing students related with the communication activities at the Health Science Faculty or ‘Fakultas Ilmu Kesehatan’ (FIK) students, and
2. to design a syllabus which integrates the needs of English Competency of nursing students
F.
RESEARCH BENEFITS
By conducting this research, it is hoped that by focusing on the nursing communication activities and future knowledge and skills of the language, this research helps them in developing their ability and competency in English and they can perform the communication activities in nursing context successfully and enable them to function adequately through the medium of English both in the classroom and in the work setting in their international relationship.
9
CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL REVIEW AND FRAMEWORK
This chapter aims to review the theories underlying this study that become the bases for the discussion. The discussion consists of two main parts, namely, theoretical review and theoretical framework.
The theoretical review discusses three major points. They are communicative competence, English for Specific Purposes (ESP), and syllabus design. The first discussion starts with communicative competence needed by nursing department students based on the needs. The discussion on communicative competence comprises their development and elements as well as their roles in learning. The second discussion is on the program for learners having specific purposes in learning English. The program to be discussed in the English for Specific Purposes (ESP). ESP also serves as the background of this study since the English for nursing department students is part of it. The discussion on ESP talks about the origin, definition, criteria, categorization, and components. The last part discusses syllabus design within which the English competence-based syllabus design, need analysis as the bases for finding the English competence needed and designing a syllabus and the steps in syllabus development are reviewed. Finally, all the discussion reviewed will be compiled within a framework provided in the second subchapter.
A.
THEORETICAL REVIEW
10 1. Communicative Competences
Communicating effectively in English as a foreign language (EFL) has been identified as a major challenge facing EFL nursing students. Strategies used at the institution which are aimed at assisting students to meet this challenge included assessment of language proficiency for the nursing program, language assistance throughout the program, and measures taken by faculty to decrease the materials and test bias and facilitate the materials and test-taking by EFL students.
The very term 'communicative' carries an obvious ring of truth that we
'learn to communicate by communicating' (Larsen-Freeman 1986: 131).
a. a. a.
a. Communicative Communicative Communicative Communicative AAAApproach pproach pproach pproach
The fact is that most teachers now claim to use a communicative
approach in some way or other (Karavas-Doukas 1996), and it is hardly
surprising that no-one wishes to be called a non-communicative teacher.
In strong versions of CLT the teacher is required to take a 'less dominant
role' and the learners are encouraged to be 'more responsible managers
of their own learning' (Larsen-Freeman 1986: 131). Communication
11
teaching and develop procedures for teaching the four language skills that
acknowledge the interdependence of language and communication. A
communicative approach that based on the view that language is “a
vehicle for expression of functional meaning” emphasizes the semantics
and communicative dimension rather than merely grammatical
characteristic of language (Richard & Rodger, 1987:17).
A communicative approach is often seen to need a syllabus
based on language functions from which the necessary forms and
structures will be derived (Soars & Soars, 2000). A functional syllabus is
“still a series of language patterns, albeit patterns linked to semantic and
pragmatic values’ (Willis & Willis 2001: 174), and communication activities
in classroom are often pale shadows of genuinely engaging interaction.
Littlewood (1981:1), as cited in Richard & Rodger (1986:66), adds “One of
the most characteristic features of communicative approach is hat it pays
systematic attention to functional as well as structural aspect of language”.
12
the elements of communication function. "The belief, so widely held and so
frequently repeated that "language is (a means of) communication "is
wrong in a way that has been devastating to any adequate conception of
what humans are and how they differ from other species. Communication
is just one use to which language can be put (and distinguishing between
a thing and its uses should surely form the most basic step in any
analysis.)" (Bickerton, 1996).
b. Development of Communicative Competences
Human as social creatures, in their lives can not separate from the need to interact and integrate with the environment. To interact and integrate with the environment, human used language in expressing what they think and feel. Language is a verbal communication which is used by human, as the most effective and efficient communication means in society. Nababan (1993 p.5) said that in general language has a function as social communication means. According to Chomsky, every human being is being born with the capacity to acquire language(s). Other expert, Wood and Power (1987) attempt to define the meaning of competence in two versions:
13 In these definitions, he suggests that competence could be used in two different ways, firstly, in a theoretical approach to indicate improved performance and secondly, by assuming competence as the deep structure responsible for the surface performances. Their definitions work on the assumption that one can gain specific performance externally and then monitor the extent to which it conforms to these prescriptions while the term of performance refers to the actual use of language either comprehension or production. It contrasts with competence. ‘Competence’ refers to what speakers-hearers know, and ‘performance’ refers to the use of this knowledge in communication (Chomsky in Rod Ellis 1990). The notion of performance in their definitions raises methodological problems about how or what a person can do relate what s/he understands. We can assume in this thesis, that competency searched by teachers is closer to performance which is measurable through observations.
Gonczi (1994) developed some competency elements become structural program such as the development of learners’ personalities, skills and scientific, masterpiece, behavioral and interactional societies. In other words we can say that competencies consist of a description of the essential skills, knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors required for effective performance of a real world task or activity developed into some competency elements become structural program such as the development of learners’ personalities, skills and scientific, masterpiece, behavioral and interactional societies.
14 qualities including: attitudes, motives, personal interests, perceptiveness, receptivity, maturity and aspects of personal identity. Therefore, was it appropriate to label these different qualities as competencies and to what extent would this facilitate learning.
c. Elements of Communicative Competences
The most recent model of communicative competences in language education literatures is that proposed by Celce- Murcia, Dornyei and Thurrell (1995) which is compatible with theoretical view stating that language is communication, not just a set of rules. The implication is that the communicative competence formulated is to prepare learners to communicate using language in order to participate in the language community. This model is formulated as Communicative Competence represented in Celce-Murcia et al. (1995) as follows:
Figure 2.1 Communicative competence model (Celce-Murcia et al. 1995)
1) Discourse Competence
Discourse Competence
Actional Competence Strategic
Competence Linguistic
Competence
15 According to Canale & Swain in Richards & Rodgers (2001) discourse competence concerns with the interpretation of individual message element in term of their interconnectedness and of how meaning is represented in relationship to the entire discourse or text. Moreover Savignon in Celce-Murcia (2001) refers the interconnectedness as to series of utterances, written words, and /or phrases to form a text, a meaningful whole, bottom – up processing and top down processing, coherence and cohesion, global meaning and structural links.
In communication, both the production and comprehension of language require one’s ability to perceive and process stretches of discourse, and to formulate representation of meaning from referent in both previous sentences and following sentences. Learners must develop competence which is concerned with intersentential relationship (Shumin in Richards & Renandya, 2002). In discourse, whether formal or informal, the rules of cohesion and coherence apply which aid in holding the communication together in a meaningful way. Therefore, effective speakers should acquire a large repertoire of structures and discourse markers to express ideals, show relationships of time, and indicate cause, contrast, and emphasis.
2) Actional Competence
16 3) Linguistic Competence
Linguistic competence includes tacit, subconscious knowledge of language structures, not normally available for spontaneous report, but implicitly in what the ideal speaker can say. It is dependent on innate structure, and acquired independently of sociocultural feature except for the more presence of speech in the environment. Therefore, linguistic competence is the ability to speak and understand language in a grammatically correct manner. Linguistic performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations, but under the idealization quoted by Lyons performance cannot directly reflect competence and nor can it have any major effect on it (Brown et al., 1996).
Linguistic competence is an umbrella concept that includes increasing expertise in grammar (morphology, syntax), vocabulary, and mechanics. Mechanics refer to basic sounds of letters and syllables, pronunciation of words, intonation and stress. Linguistic competence enables speakers to use and understand English language structures accurately and unhesitatingly, which contributes to their fluency (Richards & Renandya, 2002).
17 person-orientated, referring to underlying characteristics and qualities that are indicative of effective and or superior performance in a job. So, communicative competence is what enables a person to perform appropriately in speech events (Brown et al., 1996). It includes not only grammatical competence, which allows a person to judge whether and to what degree something is formally possible, but also the competence to judge feasibility, appropriateness, and “whether (and to what degree) something is in fact done.
4) Sociocultural/Sociolinguistic Competence
Knowledge of language alone does not adequately prepare learners for effective and appropriate use of the target language (Shumin in Richard & Renandya, 2002). Learners must have competence which involves knowing what is expected socially and culturally by users of the target language; that is, learners must acquire the rules and norms governing the appropriate timing and helps learners know what comments are appropriate, how to ask questions during interaction, and how what comments are appropriate, how to ask questions during interaction, and how to respond nonverbally according to the purpose of the talk. Also, it helps learners know the social context in which communication takes place, i.e. the roles relationships, the shared information of the participants and the communicative purpose for their interaction (Canale & Swain in Richards & Rodgers, 2001).
18 Strategic competence is the way learners to manipulate language in order to communicative goals. It is the ability to compensate for imperfect knowledge of linguistic, sociolinguistic, and discourse rules. With reference to speaking, strategic competence refers to the ability to know and how to take the floor, how to keep a conversation going, how to terminate the conversation, and how to clear up communication breakdown as well as comprehension problems. (Shumin in Richards & Renanya, 2002).
Communication strategies are psycholinguistic plans which exist as part of the language user’s communicative competence. They are potentially conscious and serve as substitutes for production plans which the learner is unable to implement (Ellis, 1990). Further, the effects of different variables on the communication strategies are upon proficiency level, the problem-source, the personality, and the learning situation.
19 channel open’, as an integral part of the language user’s overall communicative competence (Ellis, 1990).
2. English for Specific Purposes (ESP)
a. The Definition of ESP
Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 21) define that English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is an approach to language teaching, which aims to meet the need of particular learners. This means in practice that much of the work done by ESP teachers is concerned with designing appropriate courses for various groups of learners. To create successful performance, ESP design should be based on the learners’ needs to develop particular English course, which later determine the kind of syllabus and the materials instruction. Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 21) show the definition of ESP by showing what ESP is not:
- a matter of teaching “specialized varieties” of English. The fact that language is used for specific purposes does not imply that it is a special form of language. Certainly there are some features which can be identified a a “typical” of a particular context of use and which, therefore, the learners is more likely to meet in the targets situation.
- just a matter of science words and grammar for scientists. But we need to distinguish between performance and competence. Both should be considered in the teaching learning process.
20 approach not as a product. ESP is not a particular kind of language or methodology, nor does it consist of a particular type of teaching materials. ESP is an approach to language learning, which is based on the learners’ needs. The foundation of ESP is the simple question: Why does this learner need to learn a foreign language? Then, the other questions related to the learners will flow down. ESP, then, is an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and method are based on the learner’s reason for learning.
Therefore, ESP is not a matter of teaching, not just a matter of science words, not different in kind from any other form of language teaching. ESP is an approach or trend to language learning, which based on learner need. It means all decisions as to content and method are based on the learner’s reason for learning. ESP asks. “Why do the learners need to learn a foreign language?”
b. The Criteria of ESP
21 identical. Even though there are some differences in the learners’ ages or
educational backgrounds, they must have the same kind of work or specialist studies. It is not common to have people with various studies or works in the same class in ESP course.
As what Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 55) have mentioned before in criterion number two that is about need analysis, they offer the awareness of target needs, a definable need to communicate in English that distinguishes the ESP learners from general English learners to conduct need analysis. They added that getting the target needs from the learners will be helpful as the means to obtain complete data about the learners’ necessities, lacks, and wants: necessities are determined by the demands of the target situation that is what the learners has to know in order to function effectively in the target situation, lack is insufficient to know about the learners’ necessities only, but knowing what the learners know already can show the learners’ lacks, wants are assumed as what motivates the learners because of apparent relevance to their course of study. Wants are what the learners want to know and learn about the subject.
c. ESP Categories
22 Language (VSL); that is for working or training. In addition, Munby (1979) says that EAP is English where the participants need it to precede their study, whereas that EOP is English where the participants need it to perform part or all of duties in their occupational capacities.
The main interest of the ESP movement can be categorized in a number of ways (Johns & Machado in Celce-Murcia 2001). According to their current importance, some of these categories will be highlighted as follows: English for Occupational Purposes and English for Academic Purposes. The clear description about the classification of ESP categories is described in the next figure.
English for Specific Purposes (ESP)
English for Academic Purposes (EAP) English for Occupational Purposes (EOP)
English English for English for English for for Science Business and Medical the Law (EL) Technology Economic (EBE) Purposes (EMP)
(EST)
(Academic) (Academic) (Academic) (Academic)
English for Professional Purposes Vocational ESL
English for Medical Purposes English for Business Purposes
23 Figure 2.2 The classification of ESP categories by (Johns & Machado in
Celce-Murcia 2001)
In this study, based on the classification, the English course for Nursing Department at Muhammadiyah University is categorized under English for Professional Purposes for Medical Purposes and English for Business Purposes
d. English for Nursing Students
English for nursing students is an English program, which is held to meet the nursing students’ language skills need of English to support their study and future work. In this study, teaching English is certainly a part of teaching English for Specific Purposes. It can be for academic purpose and for
occupational purpose. This program has an objective to improve the students’ language competence. Besides, it also expected that the information in
communication would be conveyed well because the competence of the students in English is improved. This program deals with the English needed in the nursing world, which prepares the students to be able to communicate using English with the foreign medical patients. Therefore, English Competency for nursing students is really needed to help nurse to master English speaking skills that will be very useful later in doing their future job as a real nurse, in which they have to communicate with foreign patients and medical application form.
e. Establishing English Competency in ESP Context: Nursing
24 simple task due to the multi-interpretations of the needs. Needs could be interpreted into necessities, wants, and lacks (Hutchinson and Waters, 1993). Necessities (target needs) deal with the demand of the target situations (i.e. what the learner needs to know in order to function effectively in the target situation). Lacks refer to the learner's existing language proficiency in order to help determination of the starting point of the teaching and learning process. Wants relate to what the learner would like to gain from the language course (personal aims).
In addition, Dudley-Evans & St. John (1998) see needs from various points of view such as from personal information about learners, language information about target situation, professional information about learners, how to communicate in the target situation, language learning needs, learner's needs from the course, learner's lack, and environmental situation. However, both Hutchinson & Waters and Dudley-Evans & St. John agree that the main purposes of doing needs analysis are first to find out language needs in the target situation (i.e. what the learner needs to know in order to function effectively in the target situation) and second to formulate the learning needs (i.e. how to achieve the target needs in teaching and learning process). (In Dudley-Evans & St. John's terms, they are called Target Situation Analysis (TSA) and Learning Situation Analysis (LSA)).
25 competencies (skills and sub-skills) needed in workplaces in order to be able to master the language needed in the particular workplace. The following are suggested steps in finding out English competencies needed in a particular workplace.
Identification of Target Group
Identification of Duties of Professional Workers
Assessment of Communicative Needs
Translation of Needs into Competencies
Translation of Competencies into linguistic and other specifications
Teaching/Learning Activities to develop competencies
Figure 2.3. Target Situation Analysis (TSA) and Learning Situation Analysis (LSA) (Adapted from Dudley-Evans & St. John's: 1988)
The process of analysis starts from the identification of learners of the language teaching program. The target group in this step can be categorized into two groups: the identification of learners who want to study the language in terms of personal, socioculture, education, expectation, interest, real language needs, etc.; and the identification of professional workers in the target situation, who have used the language in the target situation.
26 performing in English; and (c) determine the level of performance they expected to attain. From the responsibilities of the professional workers, the communicative needs can further be elaborated in order to find out the focus of language skills needed in the particular workplace.
The following step is the translation of the communicative into language competencies that need to be developed in order to be able to do the job professionally in the target situations. The language competencies are then translated into teaching materials from functional and structural point of view and strategies to master the language competencies. Referring to the main purposes of doing need analysis mentioned in previous section, steps 1 - 4 aim at finding out the target needs (what learners needs to do in the target situations) while steps 5 and 6 aim at finding out learning needs (what learners need to do in class in order to master the language needed in the target situations).
The following are a summary and a sample of how these steps work with reference to English for Nursing Department in FIK UMP.
Table 2.1 Steps work reference to English for Nursing Department (Adapted from Dudley-Evans & St. John's: 1988)
NO STEPS DESCRIPTIONS EXAMPLES
1 Identification of Target Group
Who are the participants of the course we design?
a. The understanding about the concept of treatment deliverer b. Able to give the health counseling c. Able to explain the types of disease
and its treatment
d. Able to conversant the health appliances/treatment
e. Able to prepare the supporting inspection/diagnostic
27
g. Able to execute the basic treatment action, such as:
- Basic concept of treatment action - Accomplishment feel safe and
convenient requirement - Accomplishment of
requirement activity - Medicines requirement - Emergency action
- Treatment of Client of terminal and corpse treatment
a. Basic concept of treatment action - Term in treatment action - Principles of treatment Action - Therapeutic Communications b. Conservancy of individual Hygiene
and environmental c. Accomplishment of oxygen
requirement
- Basic concept (congeniality, target, function, case type) - Oxygen requirement technique - Danger from oxygen
requirement
- Things which are related d. Accomplishment of nutrition
f. Accomplishment feel safe and convenient requirement - Way of requirement (inclusive
of IV, IM, SC And IC) i. Emergency action
- Elementary concept - Case type
28
- Handling of Anaphylactic shock
j. Treatment of Client of terminal and corpse treatment the target situation (in terms of the use of English language competency)?
Professional Role and Responsibility by performing the following behaviors a. give the explanation of the escort
of Basic Treatment b. give the health counseling
c. give the explanation of the escort of Pathology and its treatment d. data collecting, medical record and
reporting
e. Communication skills in a healthcare
f. Approach to the patient g. Listening, questioning and
diagnosing
h. Explaining and advising i. Involving patient in management 5 Assessment of responsibilities the nurse must have language ability on:
a. how to give the explanation of the escort of basic treatment such as - the concept of elementary
treatment
- the ethics treatment - the concept of stress and
adaptation
- the concept of human being - the concept of healthy and
unhealthy
- the concept of environmental - the arrangement of health
service in Indonesia - the paradigm of healthy
Indonesia 2010
b. how to give the health counseling such as
- effective communications - health counseling according to
the authority
- family planning (KB) service with the method of pill and condom
- the conservancy of environmental hygiene c. how to give the explanation of the
escort of pathology and its treatment such as
- types of disease for
mother/family planning (kb) and its treatment
- types of internal disease and its treatment
29
- types of psychiatry and its treatment
- the treatment of health soul d. how to translate data collecting,
medical record and reporting - data collecting through
- medical record and data reporting
e. how to use communication skills in a healthcare such as
- explaining diagnosis, investigation and treatment. - involving the patient in the
decision-making.
- communicating with relatives. - communicating with other
- dealing with anxious patients or relatives.
- giving instructions on discharge.
- giving advice on lifestyle, health promotion or risk factors
f. how to approach to the patient - introduce and orientate the
patient and yourself g. how to use the make listening,
questioning and diagnosing - ensure you have understood
the patient's
symptoms/problem and concerns
- summarize and clarify understanding
h. how to give explanation and advice - enable the patient to
understand the problem/situation - reassure appropriately - summarize and clarify
30
i. how to communicate in term of involving patient in management - explore the patient's
expectations/concerns - propose/explain management
plan clearly
- explore the patient's response - respect the patient's autonomy,
and help him or her to make a order to be able to function effectively?
One communicative needs can be translated into several English competencies:
a. how to give the explanation of the escort of basic treatment such as - the concept of elementary
treatment
- the ethics treatment - the concept of stress and
adaptation
- the concept of human being - the concept of healthy and
unhealthy
- the concept of environmental - the arrangement of health
service in Indonesia - the paradigm of healthy
Indonesia 2010
b. how to give the health counseling such as
- effective communications - health counseling according to
the authority
- family planning (KB) service with the method of pill and condom
- the conservancy of environmental hygiene c. how to give the explanation of the
escort of pathology and its treatment such as
- types of disease for
mother/family planning (KB) and its treatment
- types of internal disease and its treatment
- types of surgical disease and its treatment
- types of psychiatry and its treatment
- the treatment of health soul d. how to translate data collecting,
medical record and reporting - data collecting through
31
- data collecting through measurement
- environmental data collecting client’s house
- medical record and data reporting
e. how to use communication skills in a healthcare such as
- explaining diagnosis, investigation and treatment. - involving the patient in the
decision-making.
- communicating with relatives. - communicating with other
- dealing with anxious patients or relatives.
- giving instructions on discharge.
- giving advice on lifestyle, health promotion or risk factors
f. how to approach to the patient - introduce and orientate the
patient and yourself g. how to use the make listening,
questioning and diagnosing - ensure you have understood
the patient's
symptoms/problem and concerns
- summarize and clarify understanding
h. how to give explanation and advice - enable the patient to
understand the problem/situation - reassure appropriately - summarize and clarify
understanding
i. how to communicate in term of involving patient in management - explore the patient's
expectations/concerns - propose/explain management
plan clearly
32
- respect the patient's autonomy, and help him or her to make a be included in the syllabus in order to achieve the language needed in the target situation?
To find out the learning needs (language input for class activities), the
competencies can further be translated into detailed linguistic and other specifications. For examples: b. can use the expression the
explanation of the escort of Basic Treatment
c. can use the expression in giving the health counseling
d. can enquiry the escort of Pathology and its treatment
e. can write data collecting, medical record and reporting
f. communication skills in a healthcare
g. approach to the patient h. listening, questioning and
diagnosing
i. explaining and advising
j. involving patient in management k. questions (yes/no and informative
questions/ direct and indirect questions); spelling; numbers, etc. The results of the analysis will form teaching materials (learning needs), which can be in the form of language skills (speaking, listening, reading and writing) and supporting skills
How to impart the language input in teaching and learning process?
From the materials listed above, it can then be selected appropriate strategies to impart the language input. The strategies and methods must be adjusted with the materials. Therefore, in the teaching and learning process more than one method should be applied
depending on the focus.
3. Syllabus Design
33 manipulation of linguistic forms is only one. Nevertheless, it is not an easy task to find a definition of ‘syllabus’ in current literature.
Syllabus is a statement of content which is used as the basis for planning courses of various kinds (Nunan, 2001). Therefore, the syllabus here does not solely concern with the selection or grading of content but it also concerns with the attempts to specify and grade learning tasks and assignments. Furthermore, a syllabus provides practical basis for the division of assessment, textbook, and learning time. It also tells the teacher and the students not only what is to be learnt, but implicitly, why it is to be learnt. Then, a syllabus also provides a set of criteria for material selection and/or writing (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987).
a. Syllabus Development
Syllabus is predominantly concerned with the choices necessary to organize the language content of a course or program. The information gathered in the course of conducting a language needs analysis will help to determine the direction that a particular syllabus planning project will go since the same units of analysis used in the needs analysis will tend to be used in the objectives that result.
Johnson’s (1981, p. 34) comments
34 If seen in this light, arguments as to the relative merits of different types of syllabuses: structural, functional, notional, situational, topic based, etc. are no more sensible than arguments as to whether the specifications in a construction contract should cover the foundations, or the steel framework or the concrete or the glass or the interior design. The obvious answer is that all of these must be covered. In order to meet the changing needs of language learner, more up-to-date teaching methods were needed that reflected the latest understandings of the nature of language and of language learning.
The procedures involved in developing a syllabus should eventually include examining instructional objectives, arranging them in terms of priorities, and then determining what kinds of techniques and exercises are required in order to attain those objectives. Analyzing, defining, determining, assessing, and identifying language needs always begins with the same operation: compiling information and interpreting it in order to make choices and take decisions.
b. Competence-based Syllabus
The features of Competence – based syllabus design according to Nunan (in Celce-Murcia 2001) are:
focusing on what learners should be able to do at the end of course of instruction.
35 The content of the language teaching is a collection of specific abilities that may play a part in using language. Competences are things that people must be able to do to be competent in a language, relatively independently of the situation or setting in which the language use can occur. While situational syllabus group functions together into specific settings of language use, competence-based syllabus group linguistic competencies (pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, and discourse), together into generalized types of behavior, such as listening to spoken language for the main idea, writing well-formed paragraphs, giving effective oral presentations, and so on. The primary purpose of competence-based instruction is to learn the specific language skill. A possible secondary purpose is to develop more general competence in the language, learning only incidentally any information that may be available while applying the language skills.
Pelayanan Professional Kurikulum, 2004, (Depdiknas, 2003) adds that the design consists of competency standards, basic competency, indicators, teaching materials, learning experience, time allocation, resource and media, and assessment.
c. Need analysis in syllabus design
36 suggests that a well-constructed syllabus helps students to be more efficient learners and allows instructors and students to interact more effectively. Therefore the syllabus must be thorough, write clearly, and make it engaging. A useful syllabus will make the job as teacher much easier
In preparing the program and the structured materials, the first step to be taken is a needs analysis. Strevens (1980: 109) stated that:
“A detailed analysis of the learners’ needs starting from the stand point that is not general English that is needed, and the learner can supply comprehensive information about the aims, purposes, needs wants, roles, functions, for which English is required in his or her circumstances.” To ensure some success for English as a second language (ESL) learner, teachers need to determine what each learner needs and wants to learn. This is done through needs analysis, before the course, during the course, or after the course has ended. The assessment may use standardized tests or other alternatives, like interviews with learners, group discussion with other teachers who have the experience in handing the course, or through learner observation. In other words, to develop a material program for a specific group of learners, a needs analysis should be conducted.
Richards (2005) stated that needs analysis in language teaching may be used for number of different purposes, for example:
1. to find out what language skills learner needs in order to perform a particular role.
37 3. to determine which students from group are most in need of training in
particular language skills
4. to identify a change of direction that people in a reference group feel is important
5. to identify a gap between what students are able to do and what they need to be able to do
6. to collect information about a particular problem learners are experiencing
In many case, learner’s language needs may be relatively easy to determine, particularly if learners need to learn a language for very specific purposes. In nursing department, the needs analysis in language teaching has the purpose to find out what language skills learner needs in order to perform a particular role as a nurse. Based on the needs analysis done by the teacher beforehand, there is already knowledge of just what content to introduce, and what strategies to use. If the teacher knows that the L2 learners have the oral skills but not have developed their literacy skills, this can be the starting point for the lesson. Once students have been eased into this talking or describing activity, they can then be introduced to the literacy skills
38 and provide direction for the teaching and learning, and objectives which spell out what learners will actually be able to do. A good syllabus then is designed after a need assessment has been done to set out the learning objectives which will guide the teacher.
We have tried to show that it is a complex process, involving much more than simply looking at what the learners will have to do in the target situation. Most of all, we have tried to stress that both target situation needs and learning needs must be taken into account. Analysis of target situation needs is concerned with language use. But language use is only part of the story. We also need to know about language learning. Analysis of the target situation can tell us what people do with language. What we also need to know is how people learn to do what they do with language. We need, in other words, a learning-centered approach to needs analysis.
39 There are a number of syllabus designs based on the characteristics, differences, strengths, and weaknesses of individual syllabus. Those are defined as follows:
A structural (formal) syllabus.
The content of language teaching is a collection of the forms and structures, usually grammatical, of the language being taught. Examples include nouns, verbs, adjectives, statements, questions, subordinate clauses, and so on. Nunan (2001) describes that the point of departure for designing a structural syllabus is to select and sequence lists of grammatical items and then integrate these with lists of vocabulary items. Lists of phonological items have sometimes been thrown in for good measure. The assumption under lying this syllabus is that language consists of a finite set of rules which can be combined in various ways to make meaning. The task for the language learner is to master each rule in the order presented by the syllabus before moving on to the next.
A notional/functional syllabus.
40 Examples of functions include: informing, agreeing, apologizing, requesting; examples of notions include size, age, color, comparison, time, and so on.
A situational syllabus
The content of language teaching is a collection of real or imaginary situations in which language occurs or is used. Situational syllabus is centered on context or situation in which the learner is likely to engage in. Such syllabus the situations or contexts in which the language will be used, and analyses the language needed for those situations (Jordan, 1997). A situation usually involves several participants who are engaged in some activity in a specific setting. The language occurring in the situation involves a number of functions, combined into a plausible segment of discourse. The primary purpose of a situational language teaching syllabus is to teach the language that occurs in the situations. Examples of situations include: seeing the dentist, complaining to the landlord, buying a book at the book store, meeting a new student, and so on.
A competence-based syllabus.
The features of Competence – based syllabus design according to Nunan (in Celce-Murcia 2001) are:
Focusing on what learners should be able to do at the end of course of instruction.
41 Criterion – rather than norm-referenced.
The content of the language teaching is a collection of specific abilities that may play a part in using language. Competences are things that people must be able to do to be competent in a language, relatively independently of the situation or setting in which the language use can occur. While situational syllabus group functions together into specific settings of language use, competence-based syllabus group linguistic competencies (pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, and discourse), together into generalized types of behavior, such as listening to spoken language for the main idea, writing well-formed paragraphs, giving effective oral presentations, and so on. The primary purpose of competence-based instruction is to learn the specific language skill. A possible secondary purpose is to develop more general competence in the language, learning only incidentally any information that may be available while applying the language skills.
A task-based syllabus.
42 with a purpose other than language learning, but, as in a content-based syllabus, the performance of the tasks is approached in a way that is intended to develop second language ability. Language learning is subordinate to task performance, and language teaching occurs only as the need arises during the performance of a given task. Tasks integrate language (and other) skills in specific settings of language use. Task-based teaching differs from situation-based teaching in that while situational teaching has the goal of teaching the specific language content that occurs in the situation (a predefined product), task-based teaching has the goal of teaching students to draw on resources to complete some piece of work (a process). The students draw on a variety of language forms, functions, and skills, often in an individual and unpredictable way, in completing the tasks. Tasks that can be used for language learning are, generally, tasks that the learners actually have to perform in any case. Examples include: applying for a job, talking with a social worker, getting housing information over the telephone, and so on.
A content-based-syllabus.
43 teach some content or information using the language that the students are also learning. The students are simultaneously language students and students of whatever content is being taught. The subject matter is primary, and language learning occurs incidentally to the content learning. The content teaching is not organized around the language teaching, but vice-versa. Content-based language teaching is concerned with information, while task-based language teaching is concerned with communicative and cognitive processes. An example of content-based language teaching is a science class taught in the language the students need or want to learn, possibly with linguistic adjustment to make the science more comprehensible.
In general, the six types of syllabus or instructional content are presented beginning with the one based most on structure, and ending with the one based most on language use. Language is a relationship between form and meaning, and most instruction emphasizes one or the other side of this relationship.
B.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
44 needs. Needs could be interpreted into necessities, wants, and lacks (Hutchinson and Waters, 1993).
English for Specific Purpose (ESP) installed as the second theory, since English is used in a particular subject of occupational education. English for nursing students is an English program, which is held to meet the nursing students’ language skills need of English to support their study and future work in their international relationship. The students on an ESP course are usually adults. It means that they have already studied general English. The need ESP to continue their learning English in more specific way related to their study or work. This program deals with the English needed in the nursing world, which prepares the students to be able to have the communicative competence in English.
In order to analyze the target needs, there are a number of ways in which information can be gathered about the students’ needs: questionnaires,
interviewers, observation, data collection, informal consultations with sponsors, learners and others (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987: 58). Furthermore, the writer uses interview and observation to get the information data to conduct the research.
Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 59) also present a framework for a target situational analysis. It is worded into these following questions, such as: why is the language needed? (for study; for work; for training; for a combination of
these; or for some other purposes, e.g. status, examination, promotion) ; how will the language be used? (medium: speaking, writing, reading, etc;
