CHAPTER II
THEORITICAL REVIEW
A. Speaking
1. The Nature of Speaking
For most people, mastering the art of speaking is the most important aspect of learning a second language and success is measured in terms of the ability to carry out a conversation in the language (Nunan, 1991: 38).
According to Tarigan (1990: 5) speaking is ability to pronounce articulation of sounds or words for expressing, stating and conveying though ideas, and feelings. So it can be measured as the most important things of every human being for social life.
Speaking is more than the sounds or words utterance only. Speaking is a tool to communicate idea that is arranged and developed appropriate to the needs of the listener. Speaking is also an instrument that expresses whether the speaker understands about the material we deliver or not to the listener almost directly. Speaking is also an instrument that expresses whether the speaker can adopt himself among other or not we communicate our idea (Mulgarve 1954: 3-4)
themselves their collective experiences the physical environment and the purpose for speaking. In speaking and uttering words and sentences, it is often spontaneous open ended and involving (Brown, 1994, Burn and Jayce, 1997).
From the opinions above, we can resume that speaking is ability to express and deliver idea, thought and feeling as a way to communicate trough the vocal organ. So if we express our ideas, suggestion, feeling by using written text or picture, it cannot be called as a speaking actually because it is does not involve vocal organ.
2. Speaking Ability
Many language learners regard speaking ability as the measure of knowledge of knowing a language. The judge that the success of learning a language is measured through their oral ability in the language they learned. They also regard that speaking is the most important skill they can acquire and asses to gain progress in their accomplishment in spoken communication.
Ability has an important role to succeed our activity. If we have an ambition or plan for same activities, but we have no ability, of course our activity will fail. It is caused by the fact that ability is the power which supports our activities. Hormly (1994:2) says that ability as power to do something.
Second, he has knowledge of the speaking rule. He knows that topic may
be talked about in different person whom speak to and in different situation. Third, he knows how to use response to the different type’s acts, such as invitation, capability, apologize etc. Fourth, he knows how to use language appropriately.
Lado (1961: 240) said that speaking ability is our power to speak or to express our ideas or feeling with a language in a sentence by producing sound. The ability to speak English must be trained. In other side, Lado (1961: 241) states that oral production or speaking ability as the ability to use in essentially normal communication situation the signally system of pronunciations, stress, intonation, grammatical, structure and vocabulary of foreign language as a normal rate delivery for native speaker at the language.
From the statement above , we know that in learning and mastering a foreign language is not only measured only by knowing their fluency in pronouncing word and able to speak, but also we must consider our pronunciation, stress, intonation, grammatical, role, structure and vocabulary. It’s all because those factors are also very important in learning a foreign language, especially speaking.
3. Teaching speaking
chance to do something with the language actively they are able to produce for different situation. Teacher also should create a classroom environment where the students have real life communication, authentic activities and meaningful task that promote oral language. He should have some techniques to create the students’ activities in learning process more active and some time make their learning more meaningful and fun for them.
To make students active in speaking class teacher need an instrument or technique for teaching. Byme (1997: 84-106) suggest some instruments/ techniques for teaching the spoken language as follows: a. Discussion
Speaking is held for various reasons. Here the students share ideas about certain topics or event to find solution in a discussion group. By discussion, the students may get their own conclusion and can prevent them for chatting each other about irrelevant things. It is also essential that in speaking class should be equally divided among several groups members ( Kayi. 2005). Here, the students are trained to have a critical thinking and quick decision making to express and justify themselves.
b. Dialog
context in which it is most commonly used, and permits the learners to practice in the same way, those establishing a film link between language and situation. Both key, structures and many features of the spoken language are easily accommodated within its framework. The dialogue also permits the students to participate actively in the lesson, which, from the point of view, is extremely important.
c. Group work
Group is good for big class to increase the amount of the students speaking practice. The group made up of perhaps six to eight students under the direction of a group leader (one of the students themselves), whose function is to coordinate the activities of the group. The activities which the students are asked to undertake in their group are defined by the teacher and discussed first with the class as a whole, but once that has been done; the students should be allowed to work to a large extent on their own. Divided into group, the students now are able to sit together, facing one another in a small and imitate circle (rather like a club meeting} and talk freely. The teacher is still present and he has an important- and usually demanding- role to play in helping and advising the students as required, but he has abdicated his previous one and become something like a guide or consultant.
d. Role play
e. Information gap
In this activity, the students are supposed to work in pairs. One student will have information then other partner does not have and the partners will share their information. Information gap activities serve many purposes, such as a solving problem or collecting information. Here, each partner plays an important role because the task cannot be completed if the partners do not provided information needed.
f. Brainstorming
Student are given topics in which they should produce ideas in limited time. Trough brainstorming activity, it can generate student’s ideas quickly and freely. The good characteristic of brainstorming is that the students are not criticized for their ideas, so they will be able to share their ideas.
g. Story telling
h. Reporting
By using reporting activity, before coming to the class, students are asked to read a newspaper or magazine. It also can be form of movie they have watched. For the activity, they report their friend what they find as the most interesting scenes or news. They also may talk about anything worth telling.
i. Picture narrating
The activity is based on several sequential pictures. Students are asked to tell where the story taking place, or the situation that happen in the picture.
j. Sentence completion
It is a technique used in teaching grammar and writing, in which the students complete the sentences with the correct expression.
4. Problems in Teaching Speaking
Foreign language learning is a complex process and not a set of easy steps that can be programmed in a quick way. There are several factors generally to be a problem that can influence the result of teaching and learning speaking ability. They are student, teacher, material and media’s for teaching problem as an involving numbers of variables in teaching and learning process.
1. Students
language ability, motivation, and style of learning, mental conditions of the students. The researcher will use scrambled sentences that the student can be creative and enjoy on teaching learning. And the student will get a new style learning of language ability.
2. Teacher
Some teacher can not be able to be aspirator cause do not have creativity on the class management on the class management. Teacher is a crucial ingredient in teaching and learning process. They have a big influence to bring students to reach the goal of learning process. 3. Media for teaching
Some time, teacher does not use media for teaching and thinks too hard preparations. Whereas media for teaching can help the teacher perform to explain the material to the students and the students able to get point of the material.
B. Communicative Language Teaching (CTL)
As we use language to communicate, the need to focus the TEFL (teaching English as a foreign language) on communicative proficiency rather than on mere mastery of structures is urgent. The same expects introduced a new teaching method that was communicative language teaching by using communicative approach.
(1972) referred to as “communicative competence.” Priyantini (2000:44) states, the communicative competence includes:
1. Knowledge of the grammar and vocabulary of the language.
2. Knowledge of rules of speaking (e.g. knowing how to begin and end conversation, knowing what topics may be talked about in different types of speech event, knowing which address forms should be used with different persons one speaks to and in different situation).
3. Knowing how to use and respond to different types of speech acts, such as request, apologies, thanks, invitation etc.
4. Knowing how to use language appropriately.
The propose of CLT according to little wood in Subiyati (1993:40) are:
1. To provide whole-task practice. In CTL, the means of providing the learners with whole-task practice in the classroom is through various kinds of communicative activity, structured in order to suit the learner’s level of ability.
2. To improve motivation. The learners’ ultimate objective is to take part in communication with others. If they see how their learning is related to this objective, their motivation to learn is likely to be sustained.
4. To create a context this supports learning. Communicative activity provides opportunities for positive personal relationships to develop among learners and between learners and teacher
In the CLT is a learner directed activity; the teacher creates a situation and sets an activity in motion, but it is the learners themselves who are responsible for the conducting the interaction to it is conclusion. It does not matter very much whether the language they use is grammatically incorrect; the main point of this activity is that they should use the language they know in order to get meaning across as effectively as possible. The functional aspect of communication should be emphasized. The teacher should role in CLT is to offer or provide necessary language items especially when the learners find themselves unable to cope with the demands of situation.
C. Scrambled sentence
1. The Definition of Scrambled Sentence
preposition, and pronouns. A scrambled sentence is a useful activity for students who have problem with sentence order in English speaking.
Rohayati (2003:9) says that the sentence order problem can be identified as the problem of how the language learners can make a good sentence. It is very useful to produce the word utterance in speaking. Actually it is related to the grammatical structure mastery. Given some scrambled word exercises students will be able to rearrange them in a proper order and they will try to examine the position or function of a word in a sentence. This activity is useful for the student to produce the sentences in speaking. As we know that almost of the students in junior high school doesn’t active in their speaking class .One of the reason is they have problem in making sentences. Using scramble sentence the student can explore their grammar and vocabulary mastery, which is very important component in speaking ability.
Basically Lado (1997:178-179) stats that the scrambled sentence can be constructed in many ways, as follows:
2. Type of Scrambled Sentence
a. Construct a question whit all the following part: 1). English
2). You
3). Understand 4). Do
b. Asking student to tick the written number as the chosen alternatives. Question: 1). English
2). You
3). Understand
4). Do
Answer: (√) 4-3-2-1 ( ) 2-4-3-1 ( ) 3-2-1-4 ( ) 2-3-1-4
Cognitive domain is related to a special ability that enable student to learn and determine, something by them. It is an internal ability to manage guide and determine what the student will doing the learning activities such as: reading, understanding and thinking (Gagne in Nurgiyantoro, 1986: 22-34)
in a simple way the cognitive skill needed is knowledge, comprehension, application and synthesis.
3. Teaching Speaking Especially Language Function Using Scrambled
Sentence
Fajriyah (2007:18-19), says that there are some activities can be done by the teacher and the students to teach speaking using scrambled sentence. The teacher activity in using scrambled sentences as follows: a. The teacher should select the topics and gather resources.
b. In this term, the teacher selects or find out the topics which build student’s motivation, interesting and do not only do students enjoy the challenge of arranging the sentences.
c. Write sentence and organize the levels
Scrambled sentence are boring to make. It is possible to the teacher to write scrambled sentences in well written and sentences are interesting, so that it is develop student’s skills and learn interesting facts as they put the sentences together.
d. The teacher gives construction guidelines to the students. In construction guidelines, the teacher can do following activity:
a. Make a series of sentences in short dialog form, three more than the number of teams in your class
b. Print the sentences in large text c. Cut each sentence into separate words
e. Number each envelope with a marker
Students develop linguistic competency as they put together scrambled sentences of varied syntactical levels without even realizing it, they are learning the function of part of speech. Students are also learning grammar, vocabulary as they assemble scrambled sentences.
Margot McCsmely and Macmillan (2005) Say that there are some student’s activities, which are given by the teacher in using scrambled sentence:
a. The students that they will place word cards in order to form sentences.
b. In advance prepare envelope containing the word cards. Provide one envelope for each pair of students.
c. On the board write an example of a language function (inviting) and the responds in dialog form (e.g. A: would you like to come to my party? B: thank you I would)
d. Point out the capital letter at the beginning and the period at the end other example can be solicited from the students.
e. Have the students from the pairs and give one envelope containing the words for 10 sentences to each pairs.
f. Tell students to empty the envelope and move the words around to form (a complete sentence in dialog form)
h. Write the sentence in the board as they are read (the students also do this). Accept all possible combinations.
i. Correct all of the answer from the students.
j. Ask students to put cards back to the envelope when the sentences have been written in the board.
k. Ask the student to memorize the sentences which has been written by the teacher then perform it in front of class in pairs.
For all the above mentioned variations of the activity, each student in group should be encouraged to monitor what they are attempting to do, and to self correct during or at the conclusion of the activity, therefore, every student will have reconstructed the expected sentence, although they will do it at their own manner. Students should revisit each of their sentences, to realize the teacher that the students understand the meaning of these words and that student understand the meaning of these words by their ability to place them into a context that is semantically and syntactically accurate.
D. Language Function
1. The Definition of Language Function
According to Brumfit (1991: 113-115), language function devides into six types, these are:
1. Imparting and seeking factual information a. Identifying
b. Reporting ( including describing and narrating) c. Correcting
d. Asking
2. Expressing and finding out intellectual attitudes a. Expressing agreement and disagreement b. Inquiring about agreement or disagreement c. Denying something
d. Accepting an offer or invitation e. Declining an offer of invitation
3. Inquiring whether offer or invitation is accepted or declined
a. Offering to do something stating whether one remembers or has forgotten something or someone.
b. Inquiring whether someone remembers or has forgotten something or someone.
c. Expressing whether something is considered possible or impossible
d. Stating whether one remembers or has forgotten something and someone.
f. Inquiring about capability and incapability
4. Expressing whether something is considered a logical conclusion (education)
a. Inquiring whether something is considered a logical conclusion( deduction)
b. Expressing how certain/uncertain others are something c. Inquiring how certain /uncertain others to do something d. Expressing one is/ is not obliged to do something e. Inquiring whether others are obliged to do something f. Expressing others are / are not obliged to do something g. Inquiring whether others are obliged to do something h. Giving and seeking permission to do something i. Inquiring whether others have permission is whittled j. Stating for permission is withheld
5. Expressing and finding out emotional attitudes a. Expressing pleasure, liking
b. Expressing displeasure, dislike
c. Inquiring about pleasure, liking, displeasure, dislike d. Expressing surprise
e. Expressing hope f. Expressing satisfaction g. Expressing dissatisfaction
i. Expressing disappointment j. Expressing fear or worry k. Inquiring about fear or worry l. Expressing preference m. Inquiring about preference n. Expressing graduated o. Expressing sympathy p. Expressing intention q. Inquiring about intention r. Expressing want, desire s. Inquiring about want, desire
6. Expressing and finding out moral attitudes a. Apologizing
b. Granting forgiveness c. Expressing approval d. Expressing disapproval
e. Inquiring about approval or disapproval f. Expressing appreciation
g. Expressing indifference 7. Getting things done(suasion)
a. Suggesting a course of certain of action9 including the speaker) b. Requesting others to do something
d. Advising others to do something
e. Wearing others to take care or a refrain from doing something f. Instruction or directing others to do something
8. Socializing
a. To great people b. When meeting people
c. When introducing people and when being introduced d. When taking leave
e. To attract attention f. To propose a toast g. When beginning a meal
Language is not just a collection of grammatical rules and vocabulary items, but it is a tool for making things work. It does this trough a variety of functions. To communicate effectively, the students need an understanding of social meaning .i.e. .language used not only as a function but also having a context and connotations within a group of people. Take for example:
1. - Tell me where the post office is!
- Excuse me, could you possibly tell me where the post office is? 2. - Thanks
- Thank you very much. I’m terribly grateful
formality and informality, or of “politeness”. Knowing the differences and shades of social meaning is vital if students, in an English-speaking setting are to:
1. Operate effectively in both formal and informal 2. Avoid being offensive or using inappropriate language 3. Make friends and personal relationship easily
4. Be unobtrusive in social setting
Therefore, it is very important for someone to decide which kind of form that is going to e used and it depends on some aspects to be considered.
E. Basic assumption
F. Hypothesis
Based on the description about scrambled sentence for teaching speaking especially in junior high school, the hypothesis can be formulated as follows:
