ANAPHORIC AND CATAPHORIC FUNCTION
ON PERSONAL REFERENCES USED IN ENGLISH
POLITICAL NEWS ARTICLES
“(A Comparative Study between Indonesian and American Authors)”
A GRADUATING PAPER
Submitted to the Board of Examiners as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for Degree of Sarjana Pendidikan (S.Pd.)
English Education Department of Teacher Training and Education Faculty State Institute for Islamic Studies (IAIN) Salatiga
By:
NOVI KHOFIDOH 11313135
ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
TEACHER TRAINING AND EDUCATION FACULTY
STATE INSTITUTE FOR ISLAMIC STUDIES (IAIN)
SALATIGA
v
MOTTO
“Allah does not change the condition of people, therefore they
change it themselves”
(QS. Ar-
Ra’d: 11)
If you believe you can, you might. If you know
you can, you will.
vi DEDICATION
This study is dedicated for:
1. My lovely Allah SWT who is always with me and gives me strength.
2. My lovely mother, Konidah and my lovely father Wasjan, who always
love, take care and pray for me.
ix ABSTRACT
Khofidoh, Novi. 2017. “ANAPHORIC AND CATAPHORIC FUNCTION ON
PERSONAL REFERENCES USED IN ENGLISH POLITICAL NEWS ARTICLES (A Comparative Study between Indonesian and American
Authors)”. Graduating Paper. English Education Department, Faculty of Teacher Training Education, State Institute for Islamic Studies of Salatiga. Advisor: Noor Malihah, Ph.D.
Keywords: Reference, Political News, Anaphoric Reference, Cataphoric Reference.
x TABLE OF CONTENT
TITLE PAGE……….………..…..…i
ATTENTIVE COUNSELOR NOTES………...…....….ii
GRADUATING PAPER………..……….……..…….….….….iii
DECLARATION……….…………..…….…iv
MOTTO………..……….….….…v
DEDICATION……….………..……….... .vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……….…...…vii
ABSTRACT……….………iv
TABLE OF CONTENT……….…………..……..………x
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURE………..…..………….….…..……xiii
LIST OF GRAPHIC..………..…………..……….xiv
LIST OF APPENDICES………...…………....………..xv
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION A. Background of the Research……….…..………….….….1
B. Problems of the Research………..………..……..……..….….4
C. Limitation of the Research………..…...……....5
D. Objective of the Research………....…..……...…… 5
E. Significances of the Research………...…………..…...6
F. Clarification of the Key Terms………..…………..….….…7
G. Paper Organization………..…………..………...…….…9
xi
B. Theoretical Background on Cohesion and Cohesive Devices….……13
1. Cohesion……….…….….…...….13
2. Classification of Cohesive Devices………….…….……...…14
3. Reference………..……….….……....….…16
3.1. Endophoric and Exophoric references……...……..…17
a. Anaphoric references………...………..20 b. Cataphoric references………...……...…21
3.2. Types of reference……….………..22 a. Personal References……….…….………...22
b. Demonstrative References………..……23
c. Comparative References……….……….24 CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY A. Types of Research………..……….……….…..….25
B. Object of the Research………..………....……..26
C. Source of Data Collection……….…..…...……...26
D. Technique of Data Collection……….……..…...29
E. Technique of Data Analysis………..….………...31
CHAPTER IV DATA ANALYSIS A. Personal references mostly used by American and Indonesian authors………..………...….32
B. Anaphoric of Personal references used by American and Indonesian authors……….…………...….47
C. Cataphoric of Personal references used by American and Indonesian authors……….….……...48
xii CHAPTER V CLOSURE
A. Conclusions………...…59
B. Suggestions………...…60
REFERENCES
xiii LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Cohesive Devices………...…..……...15
Table 2.2: Personal references………...………..….….……23
Table 2.3: Demonstrative reference………...….….……..23
Table 2.4: Comparative reference………...……...……..24
Table 4.1: Personal references used by American authors………...…….32
Table 4.2: personal references used by Indonesian authors……….…….39
Table 4.3: American and Indonesian authors in using 3rd personal references ….45 Table 4.4: Anaphoric function used by American and Indonesian authors……...47
Table 4.5: Cataphoric function used by American and Indonesian authors……. 48
Table 4.6: Distribution of personal references used by American and Indonesian authors………...…….49
xiv LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Types of reference based on general rule……….…..……17
Figure 4.2: types of the 3rdpersonal male used by American authors………..…36
xv LIST OF APPENDICES
1. Data Sheets
2. Author’s biographies
3. Data Analysis
4. Political news articles
5. Counselor Letter
6. Consultation’s sheet
7. SKK
8. Curriculum Vitae
1 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
In this chapter the researcher tries to present the introduction of the
research. It consists of the background of the research, problems of the
research, limitation of the research, objectives of the research, significant
of the research, clarification of key terms, and paper organization.
A. Background of the Research
As it is widely known that language is a primary necessary in our
life since by the use of language people are able to tell their messages as
well as to express their feeling and willing to others. Language also can
help everyone to do an interaction to others, particularly, in their social
life, as the members of society. Language is created as a vital instrument
to deliver a message or information by the use of speaking, writing (verbal
communication) as well the body gesture and face (non-verbal
communication).
Almost in everyday live, people can not escape from the use of
language. Since the use of speaking and writing included into verbal
communication, people should give any connection as ties or signal from
one sentence to another or within their utterences to avoid
2 A text or discourse is not just a group of words or sentences for
introducing different random topics. It should combine each sentences or
words in logical way according to their meaning. Therefore, cohesion as
the important principle within the creation of text is the connections to
manifest the interpretation of a textual element in a text.
Dooley and Levinson (2001: 15) state that cohesion is linguistic
signals in the text as clues to assist the hearers in coming up with an
adequate mental representation. This can be defined briefly as the use of
linguistic signals which means the connections that links up between
sentences which bring about the concept of mental representation of the
hearer as the reaction of the speaker’s utterances (interlocutors).
Some discourse devices which function to make a text be cohesive
and understandable are named cohesive devices. The effect of these
discourse devices in writing is very strong since they provide some types
of appropriate devices to make any piece of discourse be cohesive. On the
one hand, since the traditional grammar of English focuses on forms and
not syntax, means students should not confuse to have sentences in
combination to make a cohesive texts or discourse. Furthermore, as
foreign language students writing a text is one of an obligation task which
commonly occurs. On the other hand, it is not easy to non native students
(Indonesians) in creating a text as real native students (Americans).
As non-native students, Indonesian should not be a native in other
near-3 native of a learned language is the best choice to take. However, in
learning foreign language almost all of students do not aware about
grammatical structure of their text, particularly in the connections or links
between texts to make the text meaningful. Then, even if they use correct
grammatical structure, they may confuse in using the cohesive devices in
composing a text. Besides, since English as the foreign language of
Indonesian learners, they may have different way in choosing as well as
using cohesive devices with American learners. It is can be seen on the
way of using cohesive devices of references between Indonesian author in
The Jakarta post and American author in The Washington times in the
politic fields. For example:
(1) Representing the organization is senior lawyer and former law and human rights minister Yusril Ihza Mahendra, who in his first statement to the court asked the justices to decide who should file the complaint in the first place.
(2) In a 10-minute interview on the Russian news program Vesti, Natalia Veselnitskaya said she sought the meeting as part of her efforts to help Russian businessman Denis Katsyv, a client who was accused of money laundering after the U.S. imposed new financial sanctions on Moscow in 2012.
In point (1) Indonesian author composes 38 words with 1 personal
reference there. That personal reference occurs in pronouns “his” as head
of modifier which refers back to “Yusril Ihza Mahendra”. This means the
personal reference there includes in Anaphoric references, because it refers
back to the left.
Meanwhile, on point (2) American author only uses 2 personal
4 whether “her” as the possessive pronouns from “she” functions as
modifier. However, both of them includes in anaphoric references, because
they refers back to the left antecedent “Vesti, Natalia Veselnitskaya”.
Those differences represent how Indonesian and American students use
cohesive devices of references, particularly in personal reference based on
their antecedent to refer to on their texts.
Therefore, considering the reality which being shown above, the
researcher takes the digital newspaper as samples to carry out the topic of
the research by the title: ANAPHORIC AND CATAPHORIC FUNCTION
ON PERSONAL REFERENCES USED IN ENGLISH POLITICL NEWS
ARTICLES (Comparative study between American and Indonesian
authors)
B. Problems of the research
Based on the background of the research, the researchers would
like to compose the problems as follows:
1. What types of personal references mostly used by Indonesian and
American authors in writing political article?
2. Do Indonesian authors use anaphoric function on personal references as
frequent as American authors?
3. Do Indonesian authors use cataphoric function on pesonal references as
frequent as American authors?
4. What is the percentage of comparison between Indonesian and American
5 C. Limitation of the Research
The researchers would like to limit the scope of the research on the
following problems in order to avoid misinterpretation of the problem.
They are:
1. The researcher limits the study only in analyzing the personal
references, as well comparing the anaphoric and cataphoric of
personal references used by Indonesian and American authors in
their political articles.
2. This research only held on digital political news articles which is
published weather nationally or internationally, yet it is not articles
which is published on international journals.
3. The object of the research here are those political news which is
published on july to Agust in 2017. Furthermore, only political
news which mention their author’s name are selected.
D. Objectives of the Research
The general objective of this research is to analyze and compare
the differences between Indonesian and American authors in using
cohesive devices of references in their political news.
The specific objectives of this research are:
1. To understand the types of peronal references mostly used by
Indonesian and American authors in their political news.
2. To describe do Indonesian authors use anaphoric of personal
6 3. To describe do Indonesian authors use cataphoric of personal
references as frequent as the American ones in the political articles
4. To see what is the percentage of comparison between Indonesian
and American authors in writing political article.
E. Significances of the Research
Through this research, the researchers hope that it can give
advantages. This research is expected to give theoretical and practical
benefits.
1. Theoretical benefits
The result of the research can be used as the additional reference
forthose who want to make a research in English language especially in
semantics term. The finding of this research also can enrich the reference
of linguistics research.
2. Practical benefits.
a. For Other Authors
The result of the research can be a reference in linguistics
dealing with semantics and grammatical research in using cohesive
devices of references, particarly in anaphoric and cataphoric
function on personal references used by american or Indonesian
authors.
b. For English Students
The result of research can enrich student’s knowledge about
7 between Indonesian and American authors in choosing whether
anaphoric or cataphoric function on their articles which can emerge
the way they think best.
F. Clarification of the Key Terms. 1. Cohesive Devices
A good text or discourse needs term to refer to a single instance of
cohesion to create a cohesive text. Cohesive devices are used to tie pieces
of text together in a specific way. Harmer (2004) states the aim of cohesive
devices is to help the reader understand the items referred to, the ones
replaced and even the items omitted (Azzouz, 2009: 25). Therefore,
cohesive devices are some linguistics features which aim to give
connections that link up words or sentences and give signal of the unity of
text.
2. Reference
The traditional view of reference, Lyons (1968: 404) in Yule
(1983: 28) says that 'the relationship which holds between words and
things is the relationship of reference: words refer to things'.
Furthermore, Yule (1983: 28) states in discourse analysis, reference is
treated as an action on the part of the speaker / writer. Overall, the
researcher concluded that reference is one of grammatical cohesive
devices types which bring an appropriate interpretation that links
between sentences which refers to any thing and able to force the
8 3. Political News
Munroe (2002: 31) defines politics as anything that has to do with
the government of a country. This definition is in the same line with
that found in the Concise Oxford Dictionary(ninth edition) “the art and
science of government”. In spite of those, this definition has become
inadequate in academic point of view because of the developments and
the change of political life in recent study only concern with
government. Therefore, the word “political newspapers” means a
newspaper which provides information or news in the term of politics
which describes political life in government.
4. Anaphoric References
According to Azzouz (2009:28) anaphoric relation is all kinds of
activities which involve looking back in texts to find the referent. It
means, when the relations of any cohesive devices of references located
in the left; the antecedent has mentioned before, it named anaphoric
references.
5. Cataphoric References
Cataphoric relation looks forward for their interpretation (Azzouz,
2009: 28). This interpret that a cataphoric references always look
9 G. Paper Organization
The paper organizations of the research are as follow:
Chapter I is introduction. It consists of the background of the
research, problems of the research, limitation of the research, objectives of
the research, significances of the research, clarification of the key terms,
and paper organization.
Chapter II is about the review of related literature. It consists of
previous research, and theoretical framework on cohesion and cohesive
devices.
Chapter III is about the methodology of the research. It consists of
types of research design, source of the data, technique of data collection,
and technique of data analysis.
Chapter IV is finding of this research: it describes personal references mostly used by american and indonesian authors, anaphoric funtion on
personal references used by American and Indonesian authors, cataphoric
function on personal references used by American and Indonesian authors,
and the percentage of comparison between Indonesian and American
authors in writing political article.
Chapter V is about conclusion based on the analysis result. The
researchers also propose some suggestions to improve this research for
10 CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
In this chapter, the researcher tries to present about the review of
related literature of the research. It consists of previous research and
theoretical framework on cohesion and cohesive devices.
A. Previous Research
A research of cohesive devices was held by many researchers in general and Hallidian researchers in particular. Recently, the comparative research framework has been applied to the analysis of Korean EFL writers' texts in
comparison to native speakers' texts. For example, Eun and Jeon (2009)
analyzed research articles written by advanced Korean EFL writers and
English native writers in an attempt to investigate the similarities and
differences in the use of the two cohesive devices between two language
groups. They found that there was not much difference in the overall use
of the selected cohesive devices between the two groups. They attributed
the reasons for the similarities to high English proficiency of Korean
writers, and their hyper-correction, indicating that advanced Korean
writers are as good as native speakers of English at using cohesive devices
and that they seemed to overcome the L1 interference and successfully
convert cohesion devices between L1 and English. These studies, taken
together, support the notion that the effectiveness of L2 written texts may
11 Other research by Na, Y.H. (2011) has compared the use of
cohesive devices which is employed in Computer- Mediated
Communication (CMC) texts of native speakers (NSs) and non-native
speakers (NNSs) of English. She presents the study on American and
Korean EFL writers of 161 CMC texts. The study indicates that NNSs
employer certain cohesive devices (conjunction & lexical cohesion) at
significant frequency rates than do NSs. It also indicates that Korean EFL
learners relay on cohesive features as well display it in constructing CMC
texts. Therefore, the use of cohesive devices may depend on the
grammatical structures used in learners or writers first language.
Some comparative studies also held to see the similarities and
differences of the use of cohesive devices of references, for example the
study in 200 political news article written by Persian non-native authors
and American native authors. The study shown that there was a vast
difference between the natives’ and the non-natives’ use of cohesive
devices such as reference weather in frequent, variety as well control. The
study also described some factors may influence the result such as: lack of
mastery on cohesive markers, teacher competences, as well their first
language (Gorjian et al: 2015).
More recently, a growing number of studies have been conducted
not only on how non-native writers use cohesive devices differently from
their native, but also on why they use these different devices, and what
12 Jeon, 2009; Hinkel, 2001). From these more qualitatively oriented studies,
various misuses of cohesive devices were reported and analyzed, then
potential reasons for the misuses were speculated including the low
proficiency of English of L2 writers, interference by the mother tongue,
insufficient knowledge about the readers and discourse community, and
hyper-corrections, etc.
Jaya, in her works on 2013 has analyzed some types of personal
references used in the prose entitled “Calon Arang”. The result study
indicates that the writer of Calon Arang prose used some types of personal
references such as: I, her, he, you, their, we, and one. The study also find
that the author of “Calon Arang” prose prefer to use Anaphoric references
rather than cataphoric references. Another studies in anaphoric references
by Genc & Bada (2006) which aimed to compare the use of reference forms in the oral narratives of Turkish EFL learners and native speakers of English; particularly the study examines the similarities and differences between the use of anaphoric references illustrated that native and non-native productions have rather similar nature in terms of type and quantity of anaphoric references.
Therefore, since there have been virtually no studies that analyzed
the use of cohesive devices in English political news written by Indonesian
authors and American authors, this study is conducted to add the growing
number of comparative studies on cohesion, focusing on personal
13 teachers as pedagogical organizer to let the focus on the importance of a
good writing cohesively.
B. Theoretical Background on Cohesion and Cohesive Devices
1. Cohesion
Cohesion has been studied in various aspects of linguistics.
Halliday and Hasan (1976: 6) define cohesion as the “set of semantic
configuration that is typically associated with a particular class of context
of situation, and defines the substance of text”. They argue that the
function of cohesion is to relate between texts, paragraphs, sentences to
another part of them. Furthermore, Azzouz (2009:24) states that Cohesion
is a semantic property of a text sticking together in some way; it means a
cohesive text tends to link its sentences together semantically. Besides,
most of scholars (Beaugrande & Dressler, 1981; Halliday & Hasan, 1976,
1989, Kreidler, 2002) define cohesion as the network or links of lexical,
grammatical, and other linguistics relations (Gorjian, B. et al, 2015: 15).
14
with sense. Osisanwo (2005:43) explains that cohesion differs from coherence. He illustrates with these sentences:
(3) {He phoned the police} Coherent but not cohesive (4) {The midnight guests had come}
(5) {He phoned the police because the midnight guests had come} Cohesive and coherent.
The cohesive device used in the above text is “because” it gives the reason why the police was phoned. Thus, this makes a complete text. The parts are well connected and it’s meaningful (Akindele, 2011: 99). Overall, the researcher determines that cohesion usually occurs within text which is characterized by linguistics means. Meanwhile, coherent usually comes with the sense and context at the time a text is composed.
2. Classification of Cohesive Devices
The classifications of cohesive devices in academic discourse are
distinguished into grammatical cohesion, lexical cohesion and more sub
categories within them. Generally people classify the cohesion into two
categories.
Table 2.1: Cohesive Devices
Category Function Examples
Grammatical Cohesion
Help to guide reader through a text
Reference Create link between sentences
15 Substitution Replace a particular
item
One/ones/same/do/so
Ellipsis Leave out particular item from sentences
Conjunction Show relationship between sentences
Moreover/and/but/or/ for instance
Lexical Cohesion
Involve the reader in the argument
Repetition Restate the same lexical item
Synonymy Express similar meaning on item
Collocation Tendency of some words to co-occur
e.g., fruit, skin, citrus, etc.
(Gojian B, et al 2015: 16 adapted from Halliday & Hasan, 1976)
Meanwhile, the researcher focuses only on grammatical cohesion and
personal references in particular.
3. Reference
Brown & Yule (1983: 27-28) see the basis of reference in a text as
an action of the writer/speaker. It means, when people say about
something they are doing something. It is because reference always shows
the connection between the real situation and the entity. People can’t refer
16 items do not have to match the grammatical class, yet they must have
semantic properties (Halliday & Hasan, 1976: 31).
Some of phrase or discourse which consist a referent tie is known
as referring expression. A referring expression is a piece of language that
is used as if it is linked to something outside language, some living or dead entity or group of entities or concepts. Yule (1996) and Lyons (1995) point
out that not all referring expression have identifiable physical referents,
they may exist imagery (Gorjain, B. et al, 2015: 17). This means, a
references should implies the use of language to point toward something
or entity. The entity also may come from outside the text. Thus, Reference
function to create links between sentences which refers to anything and
able to force the interlocutors to do something as the speaker will.
3.1. Endophoric and Exophoric references
Based on its function, reference is divided into two types. They are
exophoric reference and endophoric reference. Exophoric reference is also
known as situational references. It means referring to a thing as identified
in the context of situation. Meanwhile, endophoric reference commonly
named as textual reference. It means referring to a thing as identified in the
surrounding text. It can be explain in brief that endophoric reference
usually appears when the interpretation is within a text. Meanwhile,
exophoric references occur when the interpretation lies on the outside of
17 then form cohesive devices within the text. Therefore, when people look
up cohesive devices means they discuss endophoric references. Then, to
give better understanding, see the figure below:
Figure 2.1: Types of reference based on general rule.
Adapted from Azzouz, B (2009:23) supported by some scholars
(Halliday & Hasan; 1976, Huddleston, R; 1978, Osisanwo; 2005
and Iqbal, M., Mehmood, A., Jabeen, I; 2013)
Furthermore, since main purpose of cohesion is to create the unity
of a text to gain a good interpretation of the interlocutors, then the prior
function of references is to links up between the utterances or texts to the
contexts of situation which rely on the speaker point of view. Thus, the
references relate to the situation is the prior function of references itself
while reference to another item within the text is formed as the secondary
references because it is derived from the situation happened.
The scope of exophoric references is not as simple as its definition.
In some cases, a complex situation may occur when distinguish a reference
whether its endophoric or excophoric references. In solving this situation,
there should be a presupposition that must be satisfied; the thing that really References
Textual
(endophora) to following text (cataphora)
to preceding text (anaphora)
18 possible as the reference’s relation based on the context of situation
without breaking the interpretation of a text or sentence itself, so the main
message of a text can be appropriate. Other situation that forces a
reference be an exophoric references are; at the time when a text build
ungrammatically or it is incomplete. Besides, in conversational text
somehow, people who act as the speaker may changes his/her position as
the 3rd person or act as the speaker and 3rd person, this automatically
changes endophoric to exophoric references due to the change situation
itself. Therefore, pronouns we, our, us often used as exophoric references because they refers to the speaker and other person at once. Similarly they
sometimes used to refer to people in general.
Exophoric references also may assume by the speaker/writer as the
part of the shared world, either in term of knowledge or experience. This
means speaker/ writer often use exophoric references regardless their
cultural background. For example: the government refers to Indonesian
government, Jakarta refers to the city etc. because it depends on the
speaker’s cultural background and knowledge.
In addition, Akindele (2011: 101) claims, when the interpretation is
within the text, this is an “endophoric‟ relation but in a situation where the
interpretation of the text lies outside the text, in the context of situation,
the relationship is “exophoric‟. Therefore, in some case exophoric may
19 their readings, if they want to get appropriate interpretation. This case can
be seen on the example below:
(6) “Ah, now I understand how she became a victim of patriarchy,
anger and fury consuming her. No need for a holy priest, she
burned with such vengeance, her brittle body engulfed by fire.”
(Heraty;2006:4)
(7) “Again we glimpse the kingdoms history eight centuries ago
Singosari, Majapahit and Kediri embodying the enchantment of
bygone days. Priest Baradah giving counsel to Erlangga to divide
his kingdominto Kediri and Jenggala.” (Heraty;2006:13)
In the 8th example, ‘I’ is referring to something by specifying its function or role in the situation. In one hand, people commonly known ‘I’
should refers to a person. In this situation ‘I’ relates to the first speaker on
personal pronouns. On the other hand, in the prose entitled “Calon Arang”,
the word ‘I’ is referring to the writer, since it refers outwards this personal reference can be categorized as exophoric reference (Jaya, 2013: 4).
Similarly the 9thexample, ‘We’ is categorized as exophoric reference since
it refers outwards. The source of identification not lies in the text. The
meaning of we in the text is referring to the writer and the reader of the book (Jaya, 2013: 6) .
Endophoric references are devided into two types, anaphoric and
20 a. Anaphoric references
Anaphoric references are those which look back in the text for their
interpretation or references which refers to the antecedent which placed in
the left (anaphoric references). For example:
(8) Other Trump allies maintain that the president, who
ran as an outsider candidate, will ultimately be an outsider
president. They have publicly and privately complained
about the persistence of the “deep state” six months into Trump’s administration, even as Trump has grown more vocal in his criticism of his own party for failing to repeal
and replace Obamacare and restricting his ability to alter
sanctions aimed at Russia.
(The Washington Times, August 4 at 7:00 PM)
In the 8th example, the first “his” refers to Trump as well the
second and the third “his”. Those kind of references are anaphoric
references because it referring back or to the left one.
Usually items like she/he and them can be identified without any
difficulties. It is because they are not as complex as it, this and that which
have more than one function. For example:
(9) It rained day and night for two weeks. The basement
flooded and everything was under water. It spoilt all our
calculations.
Here, it may refer to “the events of two weeks” or “the fact that it
rained and flooded “. Thus, the situation seems as a whole rather than any
21 “that” usually occur on their focus of attention. It always used to refer to
one focus of attention, while that have different focus of attention more
than one. For example:
(10) And the living room was a very small room with two windows that wculdn't open and things like that. And it looked nice. It had a beautiful brick wall.
(11) You entered into a tiny little hallway and the kitchen was off
that.
In the 10th example, it shows that “it” refers to “living room”, or one
focus of attention. In the contrary, in 11th example, “that” may refer to “the
kitchen” and “little hallway”. Thus, “that” seems to have more than one focus.
Finally, “it” can only be used as the focus of attention when the entity is marked
by several deictic words such as a, the, or my, or this/that as the example below.
(12) The introduction is lengthy: it covers 56 pages. (13) This introduction is fine. It is brief and precise. (14) My introduction was too short. It had to be rewritten.
All of the examples above explain that it refers to one focus
attention. The first it in the 12th example refers to “the introduction”, and
the 13th example, it refers to “this introduction”, and the last example, it
22 b. Cataphoric references
Cataphoric references are those which look forward to the text in
their interpretations or references which refers to the word which placed in
the right (cataphoric references). For example:
(12) “She was terribly afraid .All kinds of black memories of her childhood came up to her mind. She could not fight against them as had been her custom because simply Mary Brown was dying at
that moment”.
( Adapted from McCarthy 1991: 36).
In the 12th example, all the pronouns (she /her) refer to Mary
Brown. In this cataphoric reference, the referent has been withheld to the
last sentence in order to engage the reader’s /the listener’s attention.
3.2. Types of reference
There are three types of reference: personal, demonstrative. and
comparative.
a. Personal References.
Personal reference is reference by means of function in the speech
situation. through the category of person. The category of personal includes
three classes of personal pronouns, possessive determiners (usually called
'possessive adjectives'), and possessive pronouns (Halliday & Hasan, 1976:
23 Table 2.2: Personal reference ( Halliday & Hasan 1976: 38)
Semantic Categories Existential Possessive
Grammatical function Head Modifier
Class Noun (Pronoun) Determiner
Person:
scale of proximity (Halliday & Hasan 1976: 37)
Table 2.3: Demonstrative reference (Halliday & Hasan 1976: 38)
Semantic Category Selective Non-selective
Grammatical Functions Modifier/Head Adjunct Modifier
Class Determiner Adverb Determiner
24 c. Comparative References.
Comparative reference is indirect reference by rmeans of identity
or similarity (Halliday & Hasan, 1976: 37)
Table 2.3: Comparative reference (Halliday & Hasan 1976: 39)
Grammatical function Modifier: Deitic/Epithet Submodifier/Adjunct
Class Adjective Adverb
General Comparison:
Identity
General similarity
Difference
same, identical, equal similar, additional
other, different, else
identically
similarity, likewise, so, such
However, from those all classification, the researcher limits the
research only in personal references. This aimed to get deep analysis on
the term of anaphoric and cataphoric references which usually used by
Indonesian and American authors when they used personal references
25 CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
In this chapter, the researcher explains about the method of
research. Generally, method is the procedures and steps which conducted
to achieve the objective of the research. In a research, method means the
procedures for collecting the data. Finally, to minimize the difficulties in
conducting this research
F. Types of Research
This type of research is descriptive study. It is made up as a potrait
to investigate and describe about something happens, conditions, activity,
etc. According to Arikunto (2010:3), there are 5 types of descriptive
analysis. They are (1) research survey, (2) correlative study, (3)
comparative study, (4) tracer study, and (5) Evalation. However, since this
research is to show similarities and differences of two subjects in the same
variabel based on certain theorical framework, this study named
comparative analysis study. This research compares similarities and
differences occurs between American and Indonesian author in using
anaphoric and cataphoric function of personal references on their political
news articles.
Furthermore, the nature of comparative study is “the expost facto”.
26 researcher only used the result of a case which happened. Then, analyze it
to draw a conclusion and find the causal factors influence the case. This
similar with Arikunto (2010:311) that states in comparative analyisis the
researcher doesn`t begin the process, yet take the current case which
happened, and draw the conclusion to find some influenced factors.
G. Object of the Research
The subjects used in this research are 40 political news. They
consist of 20 news articles written by American authors and 20 news
articles by Indonesian authors. They are taken randomly as the object of
this research to collect the data. Random sampling is used when the
researcher blends the subjects of population to make them considered as
same (Arikunto,2010: 177). This sort of sampling is only used when the
population is homogeny. It means that all members of population have
equal quality, characteristic, and right to become the sample without any
distinctions. It is considered as the easiest method to be applied because it
does not need much time, money, and energy.
H. Source of Data Collection
The sources of data in this research are chosen from recent
publications in prestigious digital newspapers such as: The Jakarta Post
and The Washington Times. They will only take in the field of politics.
Besides, it should be noticed that the data which is taken are news articles
of media not articles published in the politic journals. Then, as prove in
27 will submit the CV of each authors; as like the country, date of birth,
education and university. Thus, their CV is checked online in Linked in.
The data used in this study are collected by selecting articles
published whether national (e.g. the Jakarta Post) or internationally (e.g.
the Washington Times) in 2017. Then, to help the researcher as well to
compile more reliable results only the articles which are published since
July to August in 2017 were selected as the subject of study, and finally
the researcher also draw some rationales behind this research as follow:
1. Firstly, many native and non native authors of English has
written significant articles and journals which is published
whether national or internationally.
2. Secondly, a number of significant studies also done in the scope
of economics, chemistry, physics, so the researchers used
politics.
3. Thirdly, there are some available articles which published in
digital mass media like magazines, newspaper, even on-line
websites which relevant to politics (e.g. the Jakarta Post, the
Washington Times, etc). Those make the data collection more
easy.
I. Technique of Data Collection
The technique used to collect data is named as instrument
28 analysis of references from Halliday’s (1976) classification of references.
It consists of checklist of several types of references such as:
1. Personal References
2. Demonstrative References
3. Comparative References
This checklist of analysis of references also compared to other
sources (Brown & Yule: 1983, Mc Carty: 1991, Dooley & Levinshon:
2000, Halliday & Matthiessen: 1985, 2004, 2014). Besides, the researcher
also used other instrument to identify whether if the references include in
anaphoric or cataphoric references. The researcher used classification of
references argued by Azzouz, B (2009: 28) that references has two
functions in general. They are endophoric and exophoric functions.
Besides, endophoric is divided into two categories anaphoric and
cataphoric function, as mentioned in previous chapter.
Meanwhile, it should be underlined, that the researcher will only
analyze the anaphoric and cataphoric on personal references used in
English political news written by Indonesian and American authors. In
collecting the data, the researcher uses observation method which aimed to
provide the data and investigate it. Thus, several techniques are held such
us:
1. Documentation.
Documentation is used to obtain the data in the form of notes,
29 (Arikunto, 2010: 274). Several steps which used in this
technique by the researcher are:
a. Visiting official web of The Jakarta Post and The
Washington Times on-line digital newspaper.
b. See the index and choose any political articles in the
term of politics.
c. See the date whether if it published on July to
August or not.
d. See the author’s name whether if fit to their basic of
nation or not.
e. Check the author’s data on linked in
f. Select 20 political news articles from each nation.
2. Note Taking
There are several steps which held by the researcher such us:
a. Write the author’s name of each articles
b. Write the day, date and year published of each
articles
c. Bold, underline, and write the data based on the
classification on the instrument.
J. Technique of Data Analysis
According to Subroto (1992:55) as quoted by Risdianto (2012: 74)
“To analyze” means to sort through the elements which formed a lingual
30 identity of a lingual unit. It is based on the examination of particular
aspects of which people had thoroughly observed.
According to Arikunto (2010: 278) in analyzing the data generally
people used several steps such as preparation, tabulation, and finally
analyzing the data. In analyzing the collected data, the researcher did
preparation by checking the authors’ curriculum vitae by using Linked in.
After taking enough time to make sure of the preparation steps, the
researcher then made tabulation of the data by coding. Coding is one of
activity in the tabulation of the data relates to the process of analyzing the
data when the researchers serve the data using the computer (Arikunto
2010: 280). However, the researchers coded the data such as: A as
American political news articles and B as Indonesian political news
articles. Thus, the researcher coded the data as A-1, A-2, A-3, A-4, A-5,
6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17,
A-18, A-19, A-20 and others as like B-1, B-2, B-3, B-4, B-5, B-6, B-7, B-8,
B-9, B-10, B-11, B-12, B-13, B-14, B-15, B-16, B-17, B-18, B-19, B-20.
Besides, in analyzing the data the researcher converted the online
media form into Microsoft Word 2007, so the researcher can count the
number of words used in each articles and also find references by using
find section. After finding references using find sections, the researcher
reads all the articles completely to check the references based on the
above-mentioned checklist classification. Finally, drawing the conclusion,
31 researcher only focuses on the anaphoric and cataphoric of personal
32 CHAPTER IV
DATA ANALYSIS
This chapter presents the finding of research to answer the problem
of this research, as well implications of the research for education. Thus, the
completed discussions are described below:
A. Personal references mostly used by American and Indonesian authors.
To find the first objective of this research, the researcher analyzed
what personal references mostly used by American and Indonesian authors
from 40 political news articles. The analysis could be seen in the table
below:
1. Personal references used by American authors.
Table 4.1: personal references used by American authors.
No Types of References N of Cases Total
1 3rd person, male 77 201
2 3rd person, female 14 201
3 Object 36 201
4 other person 32 201
5 speaker only 15 201
6 speaker and 3rd person 18 201
7 Addressee 9 201
33 Based on the table above, the personal references used by
American authors are: 3rd personal male 77, 3rd personal female 14, object
36, other person 32, speaker only 15, speaker and 3rd person 18, addressee
9 from the total personal references used 201 cases.
Some types of references occurred in American authors’ are found
as the description below:
a. The 3rd person male
There are 77 cases which found as the example below.
(1) “The president must take remedial action in the extreme,” Mr. Romney said. “He should address the American people, acknowledge that he was wrong, apologize.”
(2) Mr. Romney called on him to “state forcefully and unequivocally that racists are 100 percent to blame for the murder and violence in Charlottesville” and to “testify that there is no conceivable comparison or moral equivalency between the Nazis — who brutally murdered millions of Jews and who hundreds of thousands of Americans gave their lives to defeat — and the counterprotestors who were outraged to see fools parading the Nazi flag, Nazi armband and Nazi salute.”
(3) The former Massachusetts governor also said he must “once and for all … repudiate the support of David Duke and his ilk and call for every American to banish racists and haters from any and every association.”
Based on the example above, there are three types of the 3rd person male
which found in the political news articles written by American authors.
34 A-18, A-19) “his” (A-3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13,
A-14, A-15, A-16, A-19, A-20) and “him” (A-5, A-6, A-8, A-9, A-20).
b. The 3rd person female
There are 14 cases which found as the example below.
In a 10-minute interview on the Russian news program Vesti,
Natalia Veselnitskaya said she sought the meeting as part of
her efforts to help Russian businessman Denis Katsyv, a client
who was accused of money laundering after the U.S. imposed
new financial sanctions on Moscow in 2012.
Based on the example above, there are two types of the 3rd person female
which found in the political news articles written by American authors.
They are “she” (A-1, A-10, A-14, A-18, A-20) and “her” (A-1, 10,
A-18, A-20)
c. Object
There are 35 cases which found as the example below.
At the time, Mr. Browder asserted that “Fusion GPS took
money from the Russian government; and second that it did so
while it was working on the Trump dossier,” according to Mr. Grassley’s letter, which he released Thursday.
The party has been looking to answer Trump’s populism by crafting its own middle-class brand, yet Democratic leaders
across multiple states now are pushing to take down Old South
35 Charlottesville, and a trio of rank-and-file House Democrats
wants to pursue a congressional censure of the president.
Based on the example above, there are two types of the object which found
in the political news articles written by American authors, they are “it” (A
-1, A-2, A-4, A-8, A-14, A-15, A-16, A-17, A-19, A-20) and “its” (A-4,
A-7, A-11, A-18, A-19).
d. Other person
There are 29 cases which found as the example below.
“I want them to talk about racism every day,” Bannon told The American Prospect, a liberal magazine. “If the left is focused on race and identity, and we go with economic nationalism, we can crush the Democrats.”
Paul Manafort, Mr. Trump’s campaign manager at the time, and Jared Kushner, a campaign adviser and Mr. Trump’s son -in-law, also attended at least part of the meeting. They have
denied that any incriminating information was given or that
there was any follow-up to the meeting.
“Sen. Corker is making a statement that could be interpreted a little broader than I would necessarily agree with. Sen. Corker
might have a disagreement on, for example what we just had
happen in Charlottesville. Speaking for myself for sure — I’m
Jewish — I have zero tolerance whatsoever for any individual
that associates themselves with KKK and Nazism and the
36 Based on the example above, there are four types of personal references
which found in the political news articles written by American authors that
included in other person. They are “they” (A-1, A-4, A-6, A-7, A-9, A-10,
A-13, A-16, A-17) and “them” (A-10, A-11), “their” (A-4, 9, 13,
A-17), and “themselves” (A-7, A-13).
e. Speaker
There are 14 cases which found as the example below.
“Sen. Corker is making a statement that could be interpreted a little broader than I would necessarily agree with. Sen. Corker
might have a disagreement on, for example what we just had
happen in Charlottesville. Speaking for myself for sure — I’m
Jewish — I have zero tolerance whatsoever for any individual
that associates themselves with KKK and Nazism and the
hatred and bigotry and intolerance evil that is filled within their ranks,” Mr. Zeldin said.
“What concerns me is the left, the Democrats, are refusing to condemn antifa and all the other far-left wing organizations
who are committing crimes — shooting Steve Scalise by the way, which you’ve never condemned — any of this violence that’s occurring by the left.
37 Based on the example above, there are four types of personal references
which found in the political news articles written by American authors that
included in speaker position. They are “I” (A-1, A-6, A-11, A-13, A-15),
“myself” (A-13), “me” (A-16), and “my” (A-1).
f. Speaker and 3rd person
There are 15 cases which found as the example below.
“We’re announcing a partnership with the U.S. Conference of Mayors, The Mayors’ Compact,” Jonathan Greenblatt, CEO
and national director of ADL, said on a conference call with reporters. “Through this partnership we hope mayors will be able to take advantage of our expertise at the ADL.
“While others may come and go in the White House, we feel sure that with Steve and Kellyanne at your side, you will
always hear the voices of those of us who have supported you through thick and thin, despite the efforts by some to ‘manage’ you and your message,” the conservatives wrote in a letter obtained by The Times.
Based on the example above, there are three types of personal references
which found in the political news articles written by American authors that
included in speaker and the 3rd person position. They are “we” (A-3, A-4,
38 f. Addressee
There are 8 cases which found as the example below.
“While others may come and go in the White House, we feel sure that with Steve and Kellyanne at your side, you will
always hear the voices of those of us who have supported you through thick and thin, despite the efforts by some to ‘manage’ you and your message,” the conservatives wrote in a letter obtained by The Times.
Based on the example above, there are two types of personal references
which found in the political news articles written by American authors that
included in addressee position. They are “you” (A-3), and “your” (A-1,
A-3, A-4).
Therefore, the most popular personal references used by American
authors in writing political news is the 3rd personal male 77 (38%)
Furthermore, the most types of personal references used by American
authors which includes in the 3rd person male form are described in the
table below.
Figure 4.1: Types of the 3rd personal male used by American authors
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 He
39 The figure describes there are three types of references which
includes in the 3rd person male, they are: he 37, him 8, and his 32, from the
total 3rd person male used by American authors 77 cases. Thus, the type of
reference mostly used by American authors is he 37.
2. Personal references used by Indonesian authors.
The references used by Indonesian authors in writing political
news articles are:
Table 4.2: personal references used by Indonesian authors
No Types of References N of Cases Total
1 3rd person, male 53 130
2 3rd person, female 3 130
3 Object 26 130
4 other person 23 130
5 speaker only 11 130
6 speaker and 3rd person 14 130
SUM 130 130
Based on the table above, the references used by Indonesian
authors in writing political news articles are: 3rd person male 53, 3rd person
female 3, object 26, other person 23, speaker only 11, speaker and 3rd
40 Some types of references occurred in Indonesian authors’ are
found as the description below:
a. The 3rd person male
There are 53 cases which found as the example below.
President Joko “Jokowi” Widodo said the cultural costume dress code for the Independence Day ceremony at the
Presidential Palace on Thursday morning was his own idea.
He added that he wanted to show that Indonesia had a rich and
diverse culture.
“For example, this member is wearing Malay cultural clothes, another member is wearing Minahasa clothes. Can you notice them?” he said while pointing at the Paspampres members around him.
Jokowi himself wore traditional attire from South Kalimantan,
while his predecessor, Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, wore
traditional attire from Palembang and another former president,
B. J. Habibie, wore traditional attire from Bugis.
Based on the example above, there are four types of personal references
which found in the political news articles written by Indonesian authors
that included in addressee position. They are “he” (B-4, 5, 6, 7,
B-9, B-11, B-12, B-13, B-16, B-1B-9, B-20), “his” (B-3, B-4, B-5, B-8, B-13,
41 b. The 3rd person female
There are 3 cases which found as the example below.
Yudhoyono is known to have avoided sharing the same stage
in public with Megawati, who is also the chairwoman of the
ruling Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle (PDI-P),
after ties between the two went sour after Yudhoyono decided
to resign as one of her ministers to run in the 2004 presidential
race, in which he defeated Megawati.
Political analyst Sidney Jones deemed Wiranto's
announcement to ban HTI as politically inept and "left
Indonesia more religiously polarized than ever. She warned
that the decision could come back and haunt the Jokowi
government.
Based on the example above, there are two types of personal references
which found in the political news articles written by Indonesian authors
that included in the 3rd person female position they are “her” (B-5) and
“she” (B-1, B-2).
c. Object
There are 26 cases which found as the example below.
The National Mandate Party (PAN) says it will not make any
decision regarding the nomination of candidates for the 2019
presidential election in its national meeting in Bandung, West
42 Based on the example above, there are two types of personal references
which found in the political news articles written by Indonesian authors
that included in object position. They are “it” (B-1, B-6, B-7, B-9, B-12,
B-13, B-15, B-16, B-18) and “its” (B-9, 12, 13, 14, 15, 18,
B-20).
d. Other person
There are 23 cases which found as the example below.
"It is not ethical to mention their names. The point is I have
summoned and questioned them," Undana rector Frederik
Benu told The Jakarta Post on Friday.
Frederik said that, during the questioning, all four claimed they
had only received invitations for a pengajian (Islamic learning forum) from the HTI back in 2012 without knowing what the
organization was and whether the organization intended to
change the state ideology of Pancasila.
"Our Constitutions stands to ensure that no group can
unilaterally impose their will without respecting the rights of
other citizens," he added.
Based on the example above, there are three types of personal references
which found in the political news articles written by Indonesian authors
that included in other person position. They are “they” (B-3, 7, 9,
B-10, B-12, B-13, B-17, B-19), “them” (B-4, B-14), and “their” (B-3, B-7,
43 e. Speaker
There are 11 cases which found as the example below.
"It happened several years ago. But I asked them to make
written statements that they were not part of the management
or supporters of the HTI. I will hand over the statements to the
Research, Technology and Higher Education Minister
[Muhammad Nasir]," he said.
“I have been questioned by the KPK as a witness three times. I made this decision [to resign] without any pressure from
anyone. This is part of my responsibility to the public,” he said
during a press conference at the party's Malang chapter office
on Thursday.
Based on the example above, there are two types of personal references
which found in the political news articles written by Indonesian authors
that included in the speaker position. They are “I” (B-4, 6, 7, 8,
B-14, B-19) and “my” (B-19)
f. Speaker and the 3rd person
There are 14 cases which found as the example below.
44 “I hope the PKB and PAN can join us [in keeping the benchmark at 20-25 percent]. Because both of them are members of the government coalition,” PDI-P faction treasurer said Alex Indra Lukman said on Wednesday.
Based on the example above, there are three types of personal references
which found in the political news articles written by Indonesian authors
that included in the speaker and 3rd person position. They are “we” (B-4,
B-9, B-12, B-13, B-14, B-18), “our” (B-4, B-9, B-17), and “us” (B-13,
B-14).
Therefore, the most popular personal reference used by Indonesian
authors in writing political news articles is 3rd person male. Furthermore,
there are several types of personal references which includes in the 3rd
personal male form, as the table below.
Figure 4.2: types of 3rd person male used by Indonesian authors.
Based on the table above there are several types of 3rd person male
used by Indonesian authors they are: he 29, him 4, his 19, and himself 1. Thus, the type of reference mostly used by Indonesian authors is he 29.
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 He
45 Overall, the types of personal references mostly used whether by
American or Indonesian authors in writing political news is the 3rd person
male. American authors used 77 of 3rd person male from 202 of total
personal reference. On the other hand, Indonesian used 53 of 3rd person
male from 130 of total personal references used. Furthermore, both of
them also mostly use he to other 3rd person male. It means both American and Indonesian authors have similarities in choosing the types of personal
references. Then, to show a brief explanation, see the table below.
Table 4.3: American and Indonesian authors in using 3rd personal
references
No Authors 3rd personal
references
Total personal references
Total Words
N % N %
1 American 77 38% 201 3% 6020
2 Indonesian 53 41% 130 2% 5202
Based on the table above American authors used 38% of 3rd person
male from the total of personal references used 201. Similarly, Indonesian
used 41% of 3rd person male from 130 of the total personal references
used. Therefore, both of them are similar in using 3rd person male as the
most personal references used. Similarly, both of them also prefer using
46 of total personal references used by American is more frequent, the
preference in using 3rd person male by Indonesian is overuse than
American ones. Thus, the researcher assumes there is a gender differences
system and stereotypes influence political roles.
Politics closely related to the rules of leadership. Meanwhile, when
people talk about leadership, the topic of gender differences in leadership
style always becomes an interesting focused for many researchers. In
politics scope, the roles of men are often dominant. This also happened in
the American and Indonesian politics. Most of political actors are men.
This fact implies in percentage between 3rd person male and 3rd person
female in the Washington times and The Jakarta Post as the mass media in
both country.
Although both American and Indonesian acknowledge as well
uphold the women’s emancipation, the notion of women as leader is still
foreign for many individuals. The changes in perception are difficult to
achieve because the norm of leadership roles are deeply rooted in public
perceptions.
Even if the fact claims women also have high position in the
government for example: Megawati Soekarno Putri (Indonesian first
female president in 2001 to 2004) and Hillary Diane Rodham Clinton
(American politician and united state secretary for state from 2009 to
