CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
A. Writing
1. Definition
Writing is one of the four language skills where the other three are listening, speaking and reading (Harmer, 2004). Ramelan (1992) states that writing is an important tool for communicating ideas in written or printed symbol, as found in books, newspaper, magazines and letters. While Pamella (1986) state that writing is always somebody write (writer) saying something (text) to somebody else (the reader). The writer is someone who is interested in a particular form of writing, while the reader is one of who is interested in the writing (text). So there are the text or the message and the reader.
Oshima and Hogue (1993) state that academic writing takes study and practice to develop this skill. For both native speaker and new learners of English, it is important to note that writing is a process not a “product„„. This means that a piece of writing, whether it is
composition for the English class or lab report for our chemistry class is never complete, that is, it is always possible to review and revise, and review and revise again. And it includes the activities that help the learner to generate ideas for the writing assignment.
explained that writing is used in human„s life for daily social purposes,
such as writing letters, composing e-mails, making recipes, sending invitations, etc. Thus, people are able to communicate among one another through written text.
2. Types of Classroom Writing
According to Brown, there are a number of writing performances in the classroom (Brown, 2001):
a) Imitative or writing down
At the beginning level of learning to write, students will simply “write down” English letters, words, and possibly sentences in
order to learn the conventions of the orthographic code. Dictation falls into this category, although dictation can serve to teach and test high-order processing as well.
b) Intensive or controlled
Writing is sometimes used as a production mode for learning, reinforcing, or testing grammatical concepts. This intensive writing typically appears in controlled, written grammar exercises. A common form of controlled writing is to present a paragraph to students in which they have to alter a given structure throughout. c) Self-writing
for the purpose of later recall. Diary or journal writing also falls into this category.
d) Display Writing
Writing within the school curricular context is a way of life. For all language students, short answer exercises, essay examination, and even research reports will involve an element of display.
e) Real writing
The two categories of real and display writing are actually two ends of a continuum, and in between the two extremes lay some combination of display and real writing. Three subcategories illustrate how reality can be injected: academic, vocational/ technical and personal.
3. Criteria of Good Writing
Harmer (1983) states that there are special considerations to be taken into account which include the organizing of sentences into paragraph, how paragraphs are joined together, and the general organization of ideas into a coherent piece discourse. According to Hedge (1998) there are some criteria of a good writing:
a) grammatically correct, b) choice of words,
e) good mastery of sentence structure, f) clear ideas,
g) good organization of the content. 4. Skills in Writing
According to Heaton (1975), there are four important skills that should be noticed in writing activity. They are:
a) grammatical skill is the ability to write a correctly based on the good grammatical,
b) stylist skill is the ability to use the language effectively, such as in finding the appropriate vocabulary,
c) mechanical skill is the ability to import a conversation or ideas into written form using the appropriate punctuation and spelling,
d) judgment skills is the ability to select, organize information and write them for particular purpose appropriately.
5. The Process of Writing
McCrimmon (1984:10) says that there are three essential steps of the writing process, namely planning, drafting, and revising.
a) Planning
needed, because most of the learners often spend their time before doing activity. It is better for them to make planning in order that they can write easily. In the pre-writing step, the learners begin digging for the basic raw materials they need. First, they must look into their mind about the subject that becomes a topic because selecting the topic is very important for giving the first description of what to write. In pre-write, the learners experiment with all kinds of ideas. They only concern to find subject that is going to be written.
b) Drafting
minor units (McCrimmons, 1984). The best way to construct the formal outline is to layout the major divisions before worrying about the various subdivisions. After examining the formal outline then, the students should revise it.
c) Revising
The last step in writing is revising. Revising is the process of seeing again, or discovering a new division for the writing the student produce during planning and drafting. There are two steps in revising. In the first stages, the students should employ various reading strategies to help them rethink, reorder, and rewrite substantial portions of what they have been written. In the next stages, the students should fix the sentence, phrases, and words.
B. Speaking
1. Definition
interactive process of constructing meaning that involves producing, receiving and processing information.
According to Cunningham (1999), speaking requires that learners not only know how to produce specific points of language such as grammar, pronunciation, or vocabulary (linguistic competence), but also that they understand when, why, and in what ways to produce language (sociolinguistic competence). The indicators of speaking are: a) Pronunciation is about how a speaker pronounces words or sounds,
including intonation and stress.
b) Grammar (Grammatical Accurate) is with the structure of the speaker‟s utterances.
c) Vocabulary is the appropriate words used by the speaker and the ability of the speaker in replacing inappropriate words with other suitable words.
d) Fluency in this aspect is the speaker should have the ability to continue (keep going) the speaking performance.
e) Content is the art in receiving the audience‟s meaning. Speaking is not only a way of communication by the speaker, because in the process of speaking the listener receives something and gets input from what the speaker is saying.
2. Element of Speaking
a) Language Feature
1) Connected Speech; effective speakers of English need to be able not only to produce the individual phonemes of English but also to use fluent „connected speech‟. In connected speech
sound are modified (assimilation), omitted (elision), or weakened (through contractions and stress pattering)
2) Expressive device; native speakers of English change the pitch and stress of particular parts of utterances, vary volume and speed, and show by other physical non-verbal (paralinguistic) means how they are feeling (especially in face to face interaction). The use of this devise contributes to the ability to convey meanings.
3) Lexis and grammar; spontaneous speech as marked by the use of number common lexical phrases, especially in the performance of certain language functions. Teacher should therefore supply a variety of phrases for different functions such as agreeing or disagreeing, expressing surprise, sock or approval.
4) Negotiation language: effective speaking benefits from the negotiatory language we use to seek clarification to show the structure of what we are saying.
1) Language processing: effective speakers need to be able to process language. In their own heads and put it into coherent order so that it comes out in forms that are not only comprehensible, but also convey the meanings that are intended. Language processing involves the retrieval of words and phrases from memory and their assembly into syntactically and proportionally appropriate sequences.
2) Interacting with others: most speaking involves interaction with one or more participants. This means that effective speaking also involves a good deal of listening, an understanding of how the other participants are feeling, and knowledge of how linguistically to take turns or allow other to do so.
3) Information processing: quite apart from our response to others‟ feeling, we also need to be able to process the
information they tell us the moment we get it. c) Characteristics of a Successful Speaking Activity
According to Littlewood (1981), there are some characteristics of activities that make judge in successful speaking; learners talk a lot, participation is even, motivation is high, and language is often an acceptable level.
1) Learners talk a lot. As much as possible of the period allotted
2) Participation even. It means that a minority of talkative participants does not dominate the classroom discussion: all get a chance to speak, and contribution is fairly evenly distributed. 3) Motivation is high. It is regard to the learners are eager to speak
because they are interested in the topic and have something new to say about it, or because they want to contribute to achieving a ask objective.
4) Language is of an acceptable level. It means that learners express themselves in utterances that are relevant, easily comprehensible to each other, and of an acceptable level of language accuracy.
C. “English Club” Extracurricular
1. Definition
In the Government Regulation no 19/25 on National Education Standards, it is stated that every school can give an opportunity to develop its students‟ competence by having an extracurricular
As Mulyasa (2007) states that an extracurricular program is a certain program held outside the school regular time for supporting and improving students‟ competence. One of the extracurricular programs
is English club. Since it is not a compulsory subject, students have right to join it or not. English club is a group activity that generally takes place every week to practice. It is less formal than the regular class in school. During the English club time, the students are engaged in fun activities such as singing songs, doing others enjoyable activities in English, and make things such as puppet or pictures that related to the topics they are learning about in English.
The materials for English club are from English textbook or the teachers can develop their own materials that are appropriate with the students‟ needs and goals.
2. The aim of taking “English club” extracurricular activity
The point of the “English club” extracurricular held by school is to give students chance to improve their English and have more exposures and time in learning English, because they do not get extra time in regular class. The activities in the English Club also can help the students to improve the students‟ ability in English.
An “English club” extracurricular is a small class, teachers, the frequently of meeting, learning resources, environment, and the students motivation. Small class will be more successful than the big class because the number of the learners in the extracurricular English club is smaller than those in the school. By taking extracurricular English club, the students have a higher frequently to learn English. They have four hours from the school and some hours from their “English club” extracurricular.
3. English Club in SMP Negeri 1 Sampang
D. Conceptual framework
The “English club” extracurricular gives contribution to the students‟ writing and speaking ability. Theoretically, the students who
take the “English club” extracurricular have more capabilities in writing and speaking than those who do not. It is because they have the higher frequently of English learning process. They have much time to improve their writing and speaking both in school and in the “English club” extracurricular. If they find the difficulties in writing and speaking that they get in school, they can get the detailed information from the “English club” extracurricular. The students who take the “English club” extracurricular have more chance to learn faster than
those who do not take “English club” extracurricular.
E. Hypothesis
