2.1 Pragmatics
Yule (1996:3) explains that pragmatics concern with some areas. They are:
Pragmatics is concerned with the study of meaning as communicated by a speaker (or writer) and interpreted by a listener (or reader). It has, consequently, more to do with the analysis of what people mean by their utterances than what the words or phrases in those utterances might mean by themselves. Pragmatics is the study of speaker meaning.
This type of study necessarily involves te interpretation of what people mean in particular context and how the context influences what it said. It requires a consideration of how speakers organize what circumstances. Pragmatics is the study of contextual meaning.
This approach also necessarily explores how listeners can make inferences about what is said in order to arrive at an interpretation of the speaker’s intended meaning. This type of study explores how a great deal of what is unsaid is recognized as part of what is communicated. We might say that it is the investigation of invisible meaning. Pragmatics is the study of how more gets communicated than it is said.
Now, this perspective then raises the question of what determines the choice between the said and unsaid. Closeness, whether it is physical, social, or conceptual, implies shared experience. On the assumption of how close or distant the listener is, speakers determine how much needs to be said. Pragmatics is the study of the expression of relative distance.
well-formed . This type of study generally takes place without considering any world of reference or any user of the forms.
Secondly, he considers Semantics as the study of the relationships between linguistic forms and entities in the world – how world literally connect to things. Semantic analysis also attemps to establish the relationships between verbal descriptions and states of affairs in the world as accurate (true) or not, regardless of who produces that description. Thirdly, he regards pragmatics as the study of relationships between linguistic forms and the users of those forms.
In addition, as social individuals, people spend much of their time talking or interacting with other people; for example when they are getting together with friends, workmates, or families over meal time. These interaction involving utterances can be analyzed by pragmatics analysis to find out the speaker’s intended meanings, the listener’s assumption or receptions regard with some aspects such as who the speaker and the listener are, what relationship they have, and in what context they are in when they interact.
The meaning gained from an utterance may differ from one to another person; it depends on the mentioned aspects. For example, two friends, Maggie and James, are having a conversation which may imply some things and infer some other things without providing any clear linguistic evidence of ‘the meaning’ of what was being communicated.
John : “Cigarette?“
James : “It would make me cough all day“
Here is another example of utterances in conversation which may often be heard, but what the participants mean depend on the shared knowledge laid between the speaker and the listener.
A : “Hey, have you?”
B : “Yap, just yesterday
The meaning of the words in the examples is understood, literally, but not what is communicated by the speaker and the listener. However, both the speaker and the listener seem to understand each other as B answer A’s question without asking what does A mean with “have you?”
2.1.1 Scope of Pragmatics
Yule (1996:XII) describes the subject areas of pragmatics as follows:
A. Entailment
Yule (1996:25) states that entailment is something that logically follows from what is asserted in the utterance. For example:
(1) Mary’s brother has bought three horses.
In producing the utterance (1), the speaker will normally be expected to have the presuppositions that a person called Mary has a brother.. The speaker may also hold the more specific
bought three animals, somebody had bought three horses, and other similar logical consequences.
Moreover, there are two types of entailments; one way entailment and two ways entailment. One way entailment means that the sentences are not true paraphrases each other. For example:
(2) Harry saw a squirrel (3) Harry saw an animal
If Harry saw a squirrel, then he necessarily saw an animal. But if he saw an animal, he could have seen a squirrel, but not necessarily. It could have been a mouse, a cat, a tiger, a big crocodile or else.
Meanwhile, two-way entailment means that the sentences are paraphrases of each other. For example:
(4) Jane sits in front of Ann (5) Ann sits behind Jane
Sentence (4) and (5) have meaning relationships between in front ofand behind. We have a situation of two-way entailment between the sentences. These entences are paraphrases one to another that it is also called two-way entailment.
Deixis is a process wherby words or expression rely absolutely on context. It is a technical term from Greek for one of the most basic things we do with utterance which means ‘pointing’ through language. For example:
(6) Jim: “I’ll put this here”
(The context is Jim is telling his wife that he is about to put the key of the house in the kitchen drawer)
From sentence (6) it can be seen two deitic expressions – ‘this’ and ‘here’. These deitic expressions are conventionally understood as the expressions of being ‘near speaker’.
C. Implicature
Yule (1996: 131) states that implicature is a short version of conversational implicature which is defined as an additional unstated meaning in conversation. There is a basic assumption in conversation that each participant (the speaker and listener) attempt to corporate to the exchange of talk. People produce implicatures al the time ut are mostly unaware of it. For example, if some asks, “Could you brush your teeth?” the listener does not usually answer “Yes,” instead they perform the non-linguistic act of brushing teeth. In this case, although the speaker uses a form of words that is conventionally a question , the listener can infer that the speaker is making a request.
Here are two examples of implicature which implicate “I don’t like” and “I’m not going”:
(The context is A and B are close friends and A knows well that B does not like red colour)
Stating that “Red id red” in (7) is apparently both too informative (since people already know that red is red) and not informative enough because B does not directly answer the question of A. There may be some interpretations gained by anyone when hearing B’s answer, but since the context is A knows that really does not like red, then B has given the answer of the question. Thus, A understands that B does not like the colour they are talking about. B does not say that she/he does not like the colour but she/he impies it.
For another example:
(8) A: “We’re going to the movie, are you going with us tonight?” B: “My parents are visiting tonight.”
(The context is that A and B are good friends and A knows that B rarely meets her/his parents who live out of the town).
In (8), B’s answer is not related with the question of A, because there is not any relationship between the movie and B’s parents. However, since there is a shared knowledge between A and B , then B has actually answered A’s question. A know that seldom meets her parents living out of the town, so A must understand that B is not going with A because B must want to spend the night with her/his family.
B does not say that she is not going to the movie with the other, but she implies it.
Many linguist made their own certain classification of speech act based on careful examination. Not many differences but bring some significance. The first linguist who defined the classification was Austin. Austin (1962) distinguish between five classes by which all performative speech acts could be classified according to what it is that the act of uttering is meant to achieve. So, in essence, Austin set limitations as to the number of possible performative utterance types. These utterance types were Verdictives, Exercitives, Commisives, Behabitives, and Expositives.
Searle (1962), one of Austin’s students who also studied language, goes further than Austin in providing not only the needed general framework for a theory of speech acts but also a richer specification of the detailed structures of speech acts themselves. .
2.2.1 Types of Speech Act
In this thesis, types of speech act arebased on Searle explanation. The types of speech act are:
A. Locution
Locution a figure of speech a use of a word that diverges from its usual meaning, or a phrase
with a specialized meaning not based on the literal meaning of the words in it such as
a metaphor, simile, or personification
Speech Acts locutions is a speech act that states something in the sense of saying or speech acts
me that I should help him . Searle calls this speech act locutions dngan term follow- language
prepositions because this speech act is only concerned with meaning .
B. Illocution
Illocutionary act is a term in linguisticsintroduced by the philosopher John Austin in his
investigation of the various aspects of speech act.I llocution in society it is very affordable
because it can change people’s point of view, mindset, and even reaction of something that they
never think before.
Related with the nation of illocutionary acts is the nation of the consequences or the effects, such
acts have the effects on the action, thought, believes of the hearers.
Here is Searle's classification for types of illocutions: • Assertive
E.g. stating, claiming, hypothesizing, describing, telling, insisting, suggesting, asserting, or swearing that something is the case
: an illocutionary act that represents a state of affairs.
• Directive
•
: an illocutionary act for getting the addressee to do something. E.g. ordering, commanding, daring, defying, challenging.
Commissive
E.g. promising, threatening, intending, vowing to do or to refrain from doing something : an illocutionary act for getting the speaker (i.e. the one performing the speech act) to do something.
• Expressive
E.g. congratulating, thanking, deploring, condoling, welcoming, apologizing
• Declaration
E.g. blessing, declaring, baptizing, bidding, passing sentence, excommunicating
: an illocutionary act that brings into existence the state of affairs to which it refers.
C. Perlocution
A perlocutionary act (or perlocutionary effect) is a speech act, as viewed at the level of its psychological consequences, such as persuading, convincing, scaring, enlightening, inspiring, or otherwise getting someone to do or realize something. This is contrasted with locutionary and illocutionary acts (which are other levels of description, rather than different types of speech acts).
Austin (1992) characterizes perlocutionary acts as an acts performed by uttering something; acts
that produces certain effects on the hearer, acts that involving the effects of other acts.
Unlike the notion of locutionary act, which describes the linguistic function of an utterance, a perlocutionary effect is in some sense external to the performance. It may be thought of, in a sense, as the effect of the illocutionary act via the locutionary act. Therefore, when examining perlocutionary acts, the effect on the hearer or reader is emphasized.
As an example, consider the following utterance: "By the way, I have a CD of Debussy; would you like to borrow it?" Its illocutionary function intended might be to impress the listener, or to show a friendly attitude, or to encourage an interest in a particular type of music.
Based on that, we can get a conclusion that locution, illocution, and perlocution are the point
of view and mindset changing of publics for the idea that our bring linguistically.
2.3 Advertisements
The term advertising is closely related to marketing strategy. In marketing strategy, advertising can be included into the promotional part. Advertising costs much money for paying the media, which is selected. So, every company must be able to choose the right media to advertise their product.
It is better for us to know the definition of advertising for further information and understanding. There are so many definitions about advertising, but the writer chooses the simple meaning of advertising which can be understood easily.
Burke (1980:6) states that advertising is a sales message, which is directed on mass audience that views through persuasion language to sell goods, services, or ideas on behalf of the paying sponsor.
2.3.1 The Type of Advertisement
Jefkins (1997;39) divides type of advertisements into seven types:
A. Consumer Advertisements
There are 3 types of goods in consumer advertisements, they are:
2. Durable goods is the goods are more expensive than consumer goods and more endurable. Such as household, clothes, electronic devices.
3. Consumer service is services for security, prosperity, and entertainment. Such as bank, hotel, restaurant, travel, insurance, healthy treatment.
B. Business to business Advertisements
The function of business to business advertisements is to promote the goods and non-consumer service. It means that either advertiser or its target is called company. The advertised product are those which are to be processed or are the elements of production such as advertising of raw materials, components or spare part which taken from other company.
C. Trade Advertisements
Trade advertisement is addressed to distributors, big companies, agents, and exporters / importers. This advertisement advertises products to be resold.
The function of trade prss is to give information to the traders or wealthy people about products which are available to be resold by introducing new product or by reminding old products along with any sales or promotions.
Mail service is usually used by company to promote their product. Another media which is used trade advertisements are trade exhibition. But television is also used to promote.
D. Retail Advertisements
supermarket or big shops. This kind of advertisement is located in all shopping center. There are 3 objectives of this advertisements, they are:
1. To make the company becomes popular 2. To sell the exclusive goods for certain shop 3. To sell shop’s stocks
E. Cooperative Advertisements
Cooperative advertisement is special for retail advertisements. Besides that, threr is another type of cooperate advertisements, it is to join promotion.
F. Financial Advertisements
Generally, bank advertisements, insurance advertisements are financial advertisements. The function of financial advertisements is to collect donation or to offer financial capital. Such as insurance, stock seling, debenture, and pension donation.
Newspaper, especially business newspaper is usually used by financial advertisements. It uses big area in a page because financial advertisements shows full information about all of company plan to influence and made investor join them.
G. Recruitment Advertisements
within it. Recruitment advertisements typically have a uniform layout and contain the following elements:
• The job title heading and location
• An explanatory paragraph describing the company, including the Employer Brand • A description of the position
2.3.2 The Media of Advertisements
According to Craven (1987:36), the media of advertisements is divided into two: print media and broadcast media. Further, print media consist of newspaper, magazine, direct mail, outdoor advertisements, and transit advertisements. Besides, broadcast media consist of television and radio.
A. Printed Media
Newspaper is a regularly schedule publication containing news, information, and advertising, usually printed on relatively inexpensive, low-grade paper nsuch as newsprint.
Magazine is a publication, generally published on a regular schedule, containing of variety of articles. They are generally financed by advertising, by a purchase price, by pre-paid magazine subscriptions, or all three.
religious, and other context as a repetitive expression of an idea or purpose. While advertising slogan are short, often memorable phrases used in advertising campaigns. They are claimed to be the most effective means of drawing attention to one or more aspects of a product.
Direct Mail is the most selective advertisements medium. It has to be supported by many components, such as computer, modem, et cetera. But it still can be used as an option.
Outdoor Advertisements is essentially any type of advertising that reaches the consumer while them outside the home. This is contrast with broadcast, print and internet advertising.
Transit advertisements standardize medium of another form of sign advertisements, which uses public transportation facilities.
B. Broadcast Media
Television is one of the broadcast media, which is the most strong and powerful media that well-known by public. It is certainly most expensive of the media.
International network (internet) also famous around the world as a largest media in publicity
and advertising. It is focusing on network users that given audio visual advertising besides television.
2.4 Slogan
In political, commercial, religious, and other context as a repetitive expression of an idea or purpose. While advertising slogan are short, often memorable phrases in advertising campaigns. They are claimed to be the most effective means of drawing attention to one or more aspect of a product.”
So, the slogan is a simple motto or phrases which is easy to memorize to submit information, influence, motivating, sensitize the others. Phrases in Wikipedia (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrase) isany group of words, often carrying a special idiomatic meaning; in this sense it is roughly synonymous with expression. In linguistic analysis, a phrase is a group of words (or possibly a single word) that functions as a constituent in the syntax of a sentence—a single unit within a grammatical hierarchy. A phrase appears within a clause, although it is also possible for a phrase to be a clause or to contain a clause within it.That which distinguishes phrases of clauses and sentences . See some examples below this phrase :
o My black horse o White Chocolate o Huge Mountain
