A THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Attainment of a Sarjana Sastra Degree in English Literature
by:
Tri Intan Mabruroh 13211141001
ENGLISH LITERATURE STUDY PROGRAM ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT FACULTY OF LANGUAGES AND ARTS YOGYAKARTA STATE UNIVERSITY
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“If I have the belief that I can do it,
I shall surely acquire the capacity to do it
even if I may not have it at the beginning.‟‟
~ Mahatma Gandhi ~
“If you look at what you have in life, you‟ll always
have more. If you look at what you don‟t have in life,
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This thesis is dedicated to My parents, Masripah and Torani My little sister, Gesti Feel Aulidia
Me, and
My older brother, Agus Setia Budi
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All praises be to Allah SWT, the Almighty for all blessings and miracles thus I can complete this thesis. He has given me lots of strengths, guidance, and courage during my life. I cannot portray how grateful I am for this accomplishment. In doing this thesis and finishing my college years, I was also helped by lot of parties in dealing with all of the obstacles. Therefore, my sincere deepest gratitude is delivered to:
1. my supervisor, Titik Sudartinah, M.A., for all of the valuable explanation so that I can finish my thesis, and also for her support, motivation, and guidance thus I can complete this achievement;
2. my academic advisor, Eko Rujito Dwi Atmojo, M.Hum., who has consistently guided me in regard to my academic career during my college years;
3. all lecturers of English Education Department of Yogyakarta State University, mainly the lecturers and staffs of English Literature Study Program for their valuable knowledge they shared;
4. my mom, Masripah, for being a great mom who is always there to support me unconditionally;
5. my dad, Torani, for his guidance; his memory will be with me always; 6. my brother and my sister, my cousins, and all my family who have supported
me during my college years;
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and Yesi who always help me to check my thesis;
9. my fellow tutors of Bahasa Indonesia for Non-native Speakers (BIPA) Faculty of Languages and Arts as well as tutors, student volunteers, and staffs of the Office of International Affairs and Partnership Yogyakarta State University for all of the multicultural communication experiences;
10. my KKN 49ND team, Gio, Kiki, Chimi, Yudith, Ade, Ayu, Mbak Mus, Irfan, and Mas Farhan for all of the happiness;
11. my A27 girls, Indra, Mbak Cici, Indah, Yola, Putri, Dhita, Safina, Dinda, Galuh, Ratni, Pi‟ah, Lis, Wiwin, Sativa, Debby, and Nisa for all of the enthusiasm; and
12. all people who have helped me during the process of finishing this thesis, but whose names cannot be mentioned one by one.
Finally, I realize that this thesis is still far from perfection. Therefore, I would like to accept any suggestion to the betterment of this thesis.
April 7th, 2017 The researcher
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE ... i
APPROVAL SHEET ... ii
RATIFICATION SHEET ... iii
PERNYATAAN ... iv
MOTTOS ... v
DEDICATION ... vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ... vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ... ix
LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES ... xii
ABSTRACT ... xiii
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ... 1
A. Background of the Study ... 1
B. Research Focus ... 3
C. Objectives of the Study ... 5
D. Significance of the Study ... 6
CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ... 7
A. Literature Review ... 7
1. Conversation Analysis (CA) ... 7
2. Repair ... 9
a. Terminology of Repair ... 9
b. Types of Repair ... 11
1) Self-initiated self-repair ... 11
2) Self-initiated other-repair ... 12
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c. Patterns of Repair Completion ... 15
1) Replacement ... 15
2) Modification ... 15
3) Abandonment ... 16
4) Reorganization ... 16
5) Correction ... 17
6) Specification ... 17
7) Elaboration ... 18
8) Exemplification... 18
9) Rewording ... 19
10)Restructuring ... 19
d. Factors Initiating Repair ... 20
3. Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode ... 21
4. Previous Studies ... 21
B. Conceptual Framework ... 23
CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHOD ... 26
A. Type of the Study ... 26
B. Forms, Context, and Source of Data ... 26
C. Data Collection Techniques ... 27
D. Research Instrument ... 29
E. Data Analysis Techniques ... 29
F. Data Trustworthiness ... 30
CHAPTER IV FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ... 31
A. Findings ... 31
B. Discussion ... 34
1. Types of Repair in Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode ... 34
a. Self-initiated self-repair ... 34
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Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode ... 39
a. Replacement ... 39
b. Modification ... 41
c. Abandonment ... 41
d. Reorganization ... 43
e. Specification ... 43
f. Elaboration ... 45
g. Exemplification... 46
h. Rewording ... 47
i. Others ... 48
3. Factors Initiating Repairs in Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode ... 50
a. Misheard Utterance ... 50
b. Misunderstanding ... 51
c. Unclear Intention ... 53
d. Others ... 54
CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS ... 62
A. Conclusions ... 62
B. Suggestions ... 63
REFERENCES ... 65
APPENDICES ... 67
A. The Data Sheet of Types, Patterns, and Factors of Repair Presented by the Participants in Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode ... 67
B. Surat Pernyataan Triangulasi ... 99
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Figure 1. Analytical Construct ... 25
Table 1. The Form of the Data Sheet for Types, Patterns, and Factors of Repair Uttered by the Participants in Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode ... 28 Table 2. Types, patterns, and factors which initiate the repair found in Anderson
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COOPER 360: DONALD TRUMP, CNN MILWAUKEE
REPUBLICAN PRESIDENTIAL TOWN HALL EPISODE Tri Intan Mabruroh
13211141001 ABSTRACT
This research is aimed at identifying the types of repair, explaining the patterns of repair, and describing the factors which initiate the repair in the talk show Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode.
The findings of this research were presented in narrative or textual description because the research employed a descriptive qualitative method. The transcript of conversation and the video of Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode was used as the data sources in this research while the form of data was utterances uttered by the participants in the talk show Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode. In order to establish the reliability of data, this research applied triangulation techniques.
The results of the research are as follows. (1) Only two out of four types were found in the research, they were self-initiated self-repair and other initiated self-repair. (2) Only eight out of ten patterns were found in the research including replacement, modification, abandonment, reorganization, specification, elaboration, exemplification, and rewording. In addition, the researcher also could find two other patterns in Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode. They were repetition and completion. (3) In Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode, there were ten factors initiating repairs i.e. changes in the discussed topic, attempt to take a floor, blank ideas, attempt to give details, emphasis on a statement, wrong choice constituent, and incorrect information delivery. Each factor which emerged in the conversation carried a certain aim that was uttered by the speakers.
1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
A. Research Background
People in their social life are absolutely doing conversation with others. The main goal of doing the conversation is delivering the message that could be conveyed from the activity. From a conversation, there is a lot of information that can be uttered. People also can express their opinion or perspective by doing it. However, not all the messages can be delivered. The obstruction appears because of some factors. It can be due to the human beings who are not clearly sending the information or because of the non-hearing participants in the conversation. For instance, if people are talking with their friends and the information that they should get is missing, they will ask the missing information to complete their conversation in order to reply with the best response.
a society. It needs the social interaction as the data of the study. In addition, there are some fields under conversation analysis, such as sequence organization, turn taking, adjacency pairs, and repair.
The main field of this research is one of the fields under conversation analysis called repair. The researcher is interested in conducting the research about repair because in daily life, people are revising their words. It can be seen how people revise the words in order to complete their conversation to achieve their aim. In addition, compared to the other topics in conversation analysis, repair is one of the fields that is rarely analyzed in spite of how interesting the topic is.
Repair is a term that refers to how people deal with the difficulty that appears in the middle of conversation. Jefferson in Liddicoat (2007: 174) explains that repair is not simply defined as the correction of errors. It is emphasizing on how to solve the problem that needs to be repaired. Repair is a study on resolving the errors that appear in the middle of a talk. For this reason, the best way to investigate the repair phenomena is through the data which are formed by a natural conversation. The natural conversation offered the data which is really suitable for the repair analysis. One of the sources of natural data is a conversation that occurs in a talk show.
questions to the guest(s) about a certain topic. A famous example is Anderson Cooper 360, which is an American television talk show hosted by Anderson Cooper which was first aired on March 28th, 2008. In one of its episodes, Anderson Cooper is interviewing Donald Trump; in an episode entitled Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town House.
Donald Trump is one of the presidential candidates from Republican Party who is running for 2016 United States Presidential Election. He is a controversial figure because of his provocative statements regarding some sensitive issues. Donald Trump was trying to answer the questions asked by Anderson Cooper and the audiences related to his political campaign, USA‟s position in NATO, nuclear policies, and other issues in this show. Therefore, the researcher thinks that analyzing the language phenomena in this talk show will give the readers information about types, patterns, and also factors of repair in Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode.
B. Research Focus
Conversation is one of the activities done by people in daily life. Through conversation, people can get the information that is said by the others. In linguistics, conversation can be analyzed through some approaches such as sequence organization, turn taking, adjacency pairs, and repair.
floor in a conversation also makes turn-taking distribution could be drawn in a conversation. More than that, the pairings of utterances that sometimes people unconsciously used, which is more well-known as adjacency pairs, also can be used as the approach where a conversation is placed as an object of analysis.
The researcher believes that a conversation analysis of repair is the best way to investigate the object of the research which is a talk show considering that a natural conversation occurs in a daily life. A talk show usually discusses the current issue. Anderson Cooper 360 is one of the talk show that is broadcasting in US. The researcher is using one of the episodes of the talk show as her research object. In order to maximize the investigation, the researcher limits the approach using only the repair analysis including types, patterns, and factors of repair. Analyzing the types of repair, the researcher can classify the types of repair that can be found in a conversation. The researcher also analyzes the patterns of repair as well as the factors of repair.
First, in terms of the types of repair, the research is trying to figure out how the types of repair uttered by the participants in the conversation, in this case Cooper and Trump. The researcher tries to reveal all types of repair phenomena that occur during the talk show.
Last, the researcher also discusses the factors that initiate the repair which occurred in the talk show Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode.
Based on the background of the research, identification, and limitation of the problems above, this research questions can be formulated as in the following.
1. What types of repair are employed by the participants in the talk show Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode?
2. What patterns of repair completion are uttered by the participants in the talk show Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode?
3. What factors initiate the repair in the talk show Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode?
C. Objectives of the Research
In line with the formulation of the problems, the objectives of this research are:
2. to explain the patterns of repair completion uttered by the participants in the talk show Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode, and
3. to describe the factors which initiate the repair in the talk show Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode.
D.Significance of the Research
This study offers some benefits for several parties as presented below. 1. For readers in general
After reading this research, it is hoped that the research can give some brief descriptions about the phenomenon of repair in a talk show. It also gives them new knowledge related to the language used in daily conversation mainly in the phenomena of repair.
2. For students of English Department and other researchers
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CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
A. Literature Review
First of all, this chapter explains about the theories which are deployed in doing the research. The theories consist of the topic of conversation analysis and the other topics in conversation analysis including sequence organization, turn-taking, adjacency pairs, and repair. 1. Conversation Analysis (CA)
Conversation is done every day by people to communicate the purpose of its goal. There are several definitions which are said by some linguists about what conversation analysis is. Conversation analysis according to Yule (1996: 71) can be described as the workings of market economy where there are several factors that influence it in its processes. Furthermore, several terms are also used to draw the process that occurs in a conversation, such as floor which means the right to speak, and control in a conversation called as turn-taking. In a conversation, there is also a competition among the speakers which is not realized by them to control the floor.
In line with Yule‟s statement regarding people‟s tendency to fight
conversation. Conversation analysis is working to reveal the phenomena that initiate the utterances that are spoken by the speakers as a floor‟s handler. In the book of An Introduction to Conversation Analysis, it also states that:
“Conversation analysis concerned with identifying patterns of action,
identifying instances of action through unmotivated looking and then moving to establishing collections of similar actions is an effective way
of examining regularly occurring patterns.” (Liddicoat, 2007: 10)
According to Liddicoat‟s statement regarding the conversation
analysis approach, it can be concluded that in the conversation analysis, the
researcher could identify the patterns of action, the examples of action, and
the reasons why the speakers are doing certain patterns many times.
Conversation analysis as one of the studies which concerns about the analysis of talk among the speakers has a wide scope. The scope itself including sequence organization, turn-taking, adjacency pairs, and repair.
Yule (1996: 77) says that in a conversation, there are many almost automatic patterns which appear. For example, when people do their greetings, the interlocutors have already had the answer in their mind.
In the next discussion, the researcher is going to discuss repair in advance. The discussion regarding repair includes some explanations about types, patterns, and factors that initiate a repair.
2. Repair
In the middle of the conversation, people tend to revise the utterances because of several reasons. In a conversation, the phenomena called as repair. Repair is not simply defined as the correction of error by the speakers. If a repair appears in the conversation, it is beneficial to note that the speakers are facing the conversational problems (Lidicoat: 2007, 172).
a. Terminology of Repair
Repair analysis is particularly divided into two in terms of the repaired segment and repairing segment. Repaired segment refers to the trouble source where its part needs to be repaired as stated by Shcegloff, Sacks, and Jefferson via Liddicoat (2007: 171). The following is one of the examples of repair proposed by Goodwin and Goodwin (2012).
Mom : Did Miss Cohcran tell us the good things that you expected her to tell us? (looking over report card in front of seat)
Leslie : Uh, yeah,
In the example, Leslie and her mom are talking about her report card. Her mom makes an error in her utterance by abandoning her previous words because she seems choose the wrong constituent to say. Here, Leslie‟s mother initiates a trouble and solves it right away in the conversation. Another repair example also can be seen in the following example.
A: Oh, Sarah’s brother won the competition. B: Who?
A: Sarah’s brother.
In the conversation, because of the unheard utterances, the interlocutor cannot directly respond the utterance. It causes the first speaker to repair the previous utterance by saying the information that is looked for by the interlocutor. Here, the interlocutor is the other who initiates the repair called as other-initiated. He said the question Who? which makes the speaker should respond to the question. Furthermore, the speaker is the one who solves the problem by presenting the information needed by the interlocutor, and this situation is called self-repair. The example above is the example of other-initiated self-repair, one of the types of repair.
brother. It is the information which is needed by the speaker in the conversation.
b. Types of Repair
Levinson (1983: 340) mentions that according to Schegloff, Jefferson, and Sacks there are four types of repair including self-initiated repair, other-initiated repair, other-initiated other-repair, and self-initiated other-repair. Self-self-initiated refers to the repair that is made by the speaker him/herself, meanwhile if the repair is made by another person, it is called as other-initiated. As cited in Roberta (1987: 14-16) repair procedures are grouped in two separate classes: self-repairs, those in which the problematic item is produced and corrected by the same interlocutor; and other-repairs, in which the problem is addressed by a participant other than the one who has produced it. The description of each definition can be seen below.
1) Self-initiated self-repair
In a self-initiated self-repair, the trouble source is the speaker him/herself and he/she repairs it. Here, the speaker corrects his/her utterance which likely contains the right information for the interlocutors, such as in the utterance “His birthday is celebrated on June [pause] on July.”
After initiating the problem, he/she also becomes the one who solves the problem by saying the word July. The word July here has a function as repairing segment for replacing the previous word used.
The problem is placed in the information which is delivered by the speaker. It makes he pauses the utterance for a while because he feels uncertain. Actually, if he said June there is nothing problematic. However, he then changed it to July to give the interlocutor the right information about it.
2) Self-initiated other-repair
The trouble source in self-initiated other-repair is made by the speaker in the conversation, but the interlocutor is the one who resolves the problem as stated by (Chaika, 1982: 87) that people often get lost of word; so they ask for help to their speaking partner to find a suitable or correct word that they need. The situation is also found in this type of repair. The example below illustrates the example of self-initiated other-repair.
Michael : For myself and the children. Every three weeks we have terminally ill children that come to..uh..
Oprah : To the house. Michael : Yes, yes. (Rheisa, 2014: 48)
Another example of self-initiated other-repair is also presented in the following discussion.
A : Korean government has a scholarship program for foreign students; the name of the program is KG….. What is that? I suddenly forget it.
B : KGSP, Korean Government Scholarship Program. There are two participants involve in the conversation above. A as the speaker is having the difficulty to find the abbreviation he/she is going to say. Then A says What is that? I suddenly forget it as a repair initiation. It signals that A needs his partner help to find the words. B as A‟s partner responds him/her by giving the necessary information. Here, A initiates a repair while B is the party who resolves the repair. The example above is named as self-initiated other-repair
3) Other-initiated self-repair
People sometimes should deal with the trouble in a conversation including mishearing and misunderstanding about what is said the partner of speak. In this case, it may cause the other-initiated self–repair where the interlocutor causes the repair completion which is done by the speaker. The following is the example of other-initiated self-repair.
A : Hey the first time they stopped me from selling cigarettes was this morning.
B : From selling cigarettes?
A : From buying cigarettes. They said uh. (Schegloff via Liddicoat, 2007: 174)
which can occur in the conversation. Here, A gives B the information which is needed. A similar case also can be seen in the following example.
A: When should we collect the paper? B: What?
A: When should we collect the paper?
In the conversation, it illustrates other-initiated self-repair where A as the speaker supposed to say the same thing twice to resolve the problem initiated by B as the interlocutor. B asks What? which causes A must give the same information. Here, B initiates repair by asking the information to A. Then, A provides the information needed as an action to solve the problem.
4) Other-initiated other-repair
The last type is other-initiated other-repair where the interlocutor notices the problem and revises it for the speaker. The subsequent conversation illustrates other-initiated other-repair.
A: The latest iPhone product is fantastic, but iPhone 6 is expensive. B: You mean iPhone 7, don‟t you? The latest product is iPhone 7. As the speaker, A does not realize that he/she makes an error about the information he/she said. B as the interlocutor notices the error and then resolves it right away. The interlocutor revised the word iPhone 6 because it is wrong considering that the latest product of iPhone is iPhone 7.
Comparing with self-initiated self-repair where the speaker tends to pause the utterance for signaling the initiation. In other-initiated other-repair, it is hard to find it.
c. Patterns of Repair Completion
Zhang in 1998 and Tang in 2011 proposed 10 patterns of repair completion in totals. The patterns are classified in the further discussion below: 1) Replacement
Replacement is a pattern in which the speaker changes one word in the previous utterance with the new one. The speaker changes it to make the utterance more appropriate with the context. The speaker adjusts the interpretation but still tries to maintain the previous structure, for example in “The data shows, proves the hypothesis is true.”
The speaker substitutes the word shows to proves for adjusting the context of the utterance. Actually, the word shows can be used for completing the utterance. However, the speaker adjusts it to make it more suitable with the purpose of the utterance.
2) Modification
As its name suggest, modification is done by modifying the utterance by adding more information about the utterance. It can be seen in “I think we will compile the taskin short time, very short time.”
function to revise the old utterance. The speaker initiates and solves the repair by modifying or altering the constituent that is needed to be changed.
3) Abandonment
Abandonment is aiming to discard the old part of utterances and entirely change it with something new. There is a part neglecting in this following example “You know it is good if -- Why don’t we talk about something else?”
The illustration shows how the speaker abandons the previous expression. Then, he starts to create new utterance. In a conversation, sometimes people just would like to leave a certain information or topic behind and produce another topic to talk about.
4) Reorganization
In a repair, reorganization means to rearrange the syntactic pattern of the previous utterance. The example below illustrates how reorganization found in a conversation.
Shen : Its telephone number can you tell us?
Qin : Ah.. Telephone number.. I can‟t [remember..] Shen : [Oh]
Qin : [because] I’m at working place making this call Shen : Oh.
Qin : Uh, my home, the telephone number is left at home. (Zhang, 1998: 90)
the end, the speaker reorganizes all of the utterances to make it complete and his partner can get all of the information.
5) Correction
In correction, the speaker is doing a repair in order to adjust the phonemic or morphemic, here what matters are the corrections on how the speaker mispronounce or misapply some words in their utterances. Then, he/she changes it to make it correct, as in the utterance “The recruitment /ˈspes.ɪ.faɪ /, /ˌspes.ɪ.fɪˈkeɪ.ʃ ə n/ is really hard.
The speaker changed the way he pronounces /ˈspes.ɪ.faɪ / to
/ˌspes.ɪ.fɪˈkeɪ.ʃ ə n/. The correction occurs because the speaker mispronounces
the word. He/she adjusts it by replacing the old way to pronounce the word.
6) Specification
Specification is used to specify the utterance in order to make a clearer utterance. Kitzinger (2013: 245) provides an example of specification. Here is the example “There‟s rumors going around school you know like crazy. People on their floor think that we are having an affair, the three of us.”
7) Elaboration
Elaboration has a function to make an explanation about a concept used in utterance in order to make the interlocutor understand the context. Tang (2011: 105) illustrates an example of elaboration. Here is the example “Then, the performative hypothesis, in this aspect, is not defensible, unable to hold truth completely.”
People can have a conversation with everyone. They can talk with their friends, their colleagues, or even someone who has different background. In this case, sometimes a speaker should adapt the words he used while talking with others. The main goal of doing it is for giving the best information which is easily understood by his partner. Here, elaboration is one of the patterns of repair which can prevent a misunderstanding occurs in a conversation by explaining the concept used. We can notice in the example, A as the speaker has an initiation to define what defensible is. It seems A prevents his partner‟s confusion in case he/she does not have any idea about what defensible is. A repairs his utterance by elaborating the words he said. 8) Exemplification
People always have an interesting conversation with others. Sometimes for discussing a certain topic, people need to mention several examples to explain the topic discussed. The exemplification is aimed to give example(s) which makes the speakers in a conversation become more aware with the topic. Here, the speaker mentions three names of former presidents of Indonesia as an exemplification for repairing his old utterance. It is hoped that the interlocutor is more familiar with the topic discussed.
9) Rewording
Rewording is one of the patterns of repair which has a function to introduce new words to replace the old message in the previous utterance. The following example shows the example of rewording.
A : I believe that they understand the rules well, but they pretend to have no idea about what‟s going on.
B : Yeah, they do know about it, but they choose to not for taking advantages from us.
In order to emphasize the situation, the interlocutor utters the word know which is synonymous with understand in the conversation. Here, rewording has a function to express an idea using different words. This pattern occurs because of a language has vocabularies which allow people to use some words to express a similar thing.
10) Restructuring
The speaker restructures the misplaced words in the utterance. He switches the subject and object‟s position in order to make it right. In a conversation, it occurs when a speaker initiates the problem by saying the wrong structure because of some reasons. Here, the speaker instantly repairs it for saying the right utterance.
d. Factors Initiating a Repair
In daily life, it is almost impossible to have a flawless conversation with others. People face some obstructions which force them to do some repairs in their utterances. Sometimes, the factors of repair are because of a misheard utterance, a misunderstanding, unclear intention, or even the hidden motive in a conversation. Some troubles mentioned are the most common factors that caused repair to occur in the everyday conversation. Every factor leads to a different effect on how people react to revise the utterances.
3. Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode.
Anderson Cooper 360 is an American TV news talk show that has been broadcasted in CNN since March 28th, 2008. It is hosted by the American journalist Anderson Cooper. It is also broadcasted around the world on CNN International. Anderson Cooper 360 is broadcasted live from CNN's Time Warner Center studios in New York City or on location from the site of a breaking news event, airing Monday through Thursday at 8:00 pm to 10:00 pm, and Friday at 8:00 pm to 9:00 pm.
In this research, the researcher uses one of the episodes entitled Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode. In this episode, Donald Trump is given some questions related his to political campaign, USA‟s position in NATO, nuclear policies, and other issues in this show.
In the beginning of the talk show, Anderson as the host asks Trump about his campaign manager who was in the middle of controversy for grabbing a female journalist. The host also questions Trump about his opinion related to NATO where USA is considered as the most important member. Some audiences also have a chance to ask questions to Trump related to other topics as well.
4. Previous Study
a. An Analysis of Repairs in the Interactive English Program Broadcast by Radio PTPN Surakarta (Muchammad Ismail, 2007)
Three scripts of the Interactive English Program Broadcast by Radio PTPN Surakarta were employed as the data of this research. The researcher used a theory of repair of conversation analysis by Schegloof, Sacks, and Jefferson‟s classification of repair. The data of the research were collected
from the program broadcasted. The objective of the research was to identify the aim of each repair initiation and analyze the types of repair occurred in the broadcast.
The result of the research shows that the repairs among the hosts and the callers occur in several classifications, and in the process of repair, there are some reasons initiate the repair including morphological error in the conversation, mishearing the utterance, blank the words out, and unclear utterance.
b. A Conversation Analysis of Repair in The Oprah Winfrey Show: a Special Episode with Michael Jackson (Nadya Sivanya Rheisa, 2014)
objective of the research was to identify the types and patterns that are found in the talk show.
In order to answer the research question, Rheisa employed Schegloff,
Jefferson, and Sacks‟s four basic types repair as the approach. The data was
analyzed by looking at the data of repair that is collected from watching the talk show. The result of this investigation showed that the repair devices that the speakers adopt to repair their speech were including replacement, correction, restructuring, addition, specification, elaboration, exemplification, rewording, and restructuring.
Comparing to this research, the previous research only employed two objectives for each. The first previous research for the example, it only identified the aim of each repair initiation and analyzed the types of repair occurred in the broadcast. Similar with the first one, the second research only proposed two objectives. The objectives of the research were to identify the types and to classify the patterns that are found in the talk show. Meanwhile, this research employs three objectives including identifying the types of repair, explaining the patterns of repair, and describing the factors which initiate the repair in the talk show. In the other words, this research is the combination between both previous researches. The researcher combines all of the objectives and makes a more comprehensive analysis on repair.
B. Conceptual Framework
repair in the conversation among the participants in the talk show Anderson Cooper 360.
In this research, the researcher focuses on three objectives including types of repair, the patterns of repair, and the factors of repairs. Firstly, the researcher uses Schegloff, Sacks, Jefferson‟s classification of types of repair. They divide the types into four; self-initiated self-repair, self-initiated other-repair, other-initiated self-other-repair, and other-initiated other-repair. Secondly, to explain the patterns of repair, 10 patterns which are categorized by Zhang in 1988 and Tang in 2011 are used in the research. Those types are replacement, modification, abandonment, reorganization, correction, specification, elaboration, exemplification, rewording, and restructuring. Finally, misheard uterrances, misunderstanding, unclear intention are accused as some factors initiating repair.
Figure 1. Analytical Construct
Conversation Analysis
Sequence Organization Repair Turn-taking Adjacency Pairs
Types Patterns Factors
Anderson Cooper 360:
Donald Trump CNN
Milwaukee Presidential Town Hall
Episode Schegloff, Sacks,
Jefferson, 1977
1. Self-initiated self-repair 2. Self-initiated
other-repair 3. Other-initiated
self-repair 4. Other-initiated
other-repair
Zhang, 1988 & Tang, 2011 1. Replacement
2. Modification 3. Abandonment 4. Reorganization 5. Correction 6. Specification 7. Elaboration 8. Exemplificatinn 9. Rewording 10. Restructuring
Misheard uterrances, misunderstanding,
unclear intention
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CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHOD
A. Research Type
The research employed a descriptive-qualitative method where the result of this research was in a form of descriptive text. This is in line with Hancock, Ockleford, and Windrigde (2009: 7) who state that qualitative research is concerned with developing explanations of social phenomena. That is to say, the research which was in a descriptive form contains the explanation regarding the results of the research.
The results of the data analysis of repair phenomena in the conversation among the participants in the talk show were presented in the form of lingual units, e.g. words, phrases, sentences, rather than in the form of numbers. It is in line with Hancock, Ockleford, and Windrigde (2009: 6) who says that qualitative research focuses on reports of experience or on data which cannot be adequately expressed numerically. The fact that the data were presented in the form of lingual units is clearly emphasizing Vanderstoep and Jhonston‟s statement (2008: 167) in which the purpose of qualitative research is more descriptive than predictive.
B. Form, Context, and Source of the Data
talk show Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode. The utterance which contains the trouble source was always considered as the data. The researcher gained the data from the transcript of conversation among the participants in the talk show Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode.
As the research used qualitative method which contains the descriptive text as the result, the data were in the forms of lingual units i.e., words, phrases, clauses, and sentences uttered by the participants involved in the talk show. The contexts of the data were acquired from the dialogues between the participants in the talk show Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode.
By watching the talk show video namely Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode, the data of this research were collected. The data source was an episode of the talk show Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town House Episode that was downloaded from the internet.
C. Research Instrument
form of a table containing the classification and the descriptive data from the analysis in order to support the primary instrument.
Table 1: The Form of the Data Sheet for Types, Patterns, and Factors of Repair Uttered by the Participants in Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode
Note:
A: Anderson Cooper CO: Correction
T: Donald Trump SP: Specification
Q: Questioner EL: Elaboration
SISR: Self-initiated self-repair EX: Exemplification SIOR: Self-initiated self-repair RW: Rewording OISR: Other-initiated self-repair RS: Restructuring
OIOR: Other-initiated other-repair MH: Misheard utterances
RE: Replacement MU: Misunderstanding
MO: Modification UI: Unclear Intention
AB: Abandonment OT: Other
RG: Reorganization
No Conversation
Types Patterns Factors
Explanation battery for grabbing a reporter by the arm. Will he continue as your campaign conversation. In this repair, he specifies his words when he was talking about the tape that showed his campaign manager accused for grabbing a reporter because the previous words seemed unclear regarding which tape that he was talking about. He repairs his words with
D. Techniques of Data Collection
The steps of the data analysis were as follows: watching the video of the talk show, scrutinizing the transcript of the conversation, creating the data sheet, and classifying the raw data into the data sheet. The data collection was started by watching the video of the talk show in order to find repairs that occurred in the talk show Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town House Episode. Secondly, the researcher scrutinized the transcript of the conversation in the talk show which is provided by the talk show‟s website. Finally, the researcher used the data sheet for compiling all of the data after the data were classified.
E. Techniques of Data Analysis
In the book of Qualitative Research for Education: An Introduction to Theory and Methods, it is stated that:
“Qualitative data analysis can be defined as working with data, organizing it, breaking it into manageable units, synthesizing it, searching for patterns, discovering what is important and what is to be learned, and what the researcher will tell others.” (Bogdan and Biklen, 1982: 145)
talk show. After the data were classified, then they data were analyzed, discussed, and lastly reported in the research.
In analyzing the data, the researcher looked closely at the categorization. The researcher avoided the mistakes on placing the data into the improper criteria. After that, discussing the data is aimed to have a result that is adequate for another researcher who is doing the similar topic. Lastly, the researcher wrote all of the data in the form of research as the action of reporting the data.
F. Trustworthiness of the Data
31 CHAPTER IV
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
As stated in the background of the research, the research is intended to identify the types of repair employed by the participants in the talk show, explain the patterns of repair completion uttered by the participants in the talk show, and describe the factors which initiate the repair in the talk show Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode. This chapter consists of two parts namely research findings and discussion Research findings are presented in the table of data findings that covers the types, patterns, and factors which initiate the repair found in the research. Meanwhile, the discussion part explains the types and patterns of repair in Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode as well as the description of the factors which initiate the repair in the talk show.
A. Findings
Table 2. Types, patterns, and factors which initiate the repair found in
Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode
No Types Patterns Factors
1. Self-initiated self-repair
Replacement a. Misheard utterance b. Misunderstanding c. Unclear intention d. Others:
1) Changes in the discussed topic
2) Attempt to take a floor 3) Blank ideas
4) Attempt to give details 5) Emphasis on a statement 6) Wrong choice constituent 7) Incorrect information
delivery Modification
Abandonment Reorganization Specification Elaboration Exemplification Rewording Others:
1. Repetition 2. Completion 2. Other-initiated
self-repair
Elaboration Others:
1.Repetition 2.Completion
patterns including elaboration, repetition, and completion which can be found in other initiated self-repair.
Concerning the third objective related to factors which initiate the repair in Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode, the researcher could find ten factors which cause the repair to occur in the talk show. They were misheard utterance, misunderstanding, unclear intention, changes in the discussed topic, attempt to take a floor, blank ideas, attempt to give details, emphasis on a statement, wrong choice constituent, and incorrect information delivery.
abandonment, and also rewording. In repairing the wrong choice constituent, the speakers used repetition, reorganization, replacement, and abandonment. Lastly, replacement was used in correcting the incorrect information delivery.
All of the results that were found in the research definitely have an association with the object which is observed. There were only two types which could be found in the research. It occurred because the speakers in Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode tend to speak longer when their partners wait their turn wisely. In addition, the patterns and factors which are also found in the research are also influenced by the topics and the speakers‟ aim when doing the conversation.
B. Discussion
1. Types of Repair in Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode
a. Self-initiated self-repair
As the speakers in Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode, both Anderson Cooper and Donald Trump initiate and solve repairs in the conversation by themselves. Here, they are the one who causes the trouble and also who tries to fix it by doing a repair completion. The following is an example of self-initiated self-repair.
Trump: I don't think he knew her. I mean, based on what I heard, I don't think he really even knew who she was. (datum 7)
manager who is involved in an accident where he is suspected for grabbing a female journalist. In this case, it can be seen that Trump actually has no error in his utterance. However, he modifies his old utterance in the conversation. By doing so, Trump solves a repair that is initiated by him in the beginning.
When delivering his thought, Trump presents complete information by clearly saying „I don’t think he knew her‟ in the conversation. However,
sometimes an error occurs in the speaker‟s mind while there is no one can
anticipate it. In the example, Trump repairs the old utterance by slightly modifying it without changes the main information that is delivered. On the other hand, there is also a repair that occurs because the speaker cannot give his/her interlocutor complete information. The example can be seen below.
Anderson: But why retweet (pause) why retweet somebody? (datum 34) Anderson pauses when he is asking a question to Trump related to Heidi Cruz‟ photo which is re-tweeted by Trump in his twitter account, in this case he as the speaker is initiating a trouble in his utterance. As the speaker, he is also the one who finally solves the trouble by completing his own words. It occurs because he as the speaker in the conversation sometimes gets blank for a while before finds the words that are needed to be said. Like the previous example, here is another example of self-initiated a self-repair found in this research.
utterance „it’s a phenomena‟ instead. Trump resolves his problem by saying the
new utterance in the conversation. In the other cases, a speaker in a conversation also initiates and solves a repair in the conversation because he/she feels that he/she should present the detail information to his/her interlocutor. It can be said that it is the speaker‟s obligation to do so. An example of repair initiated by the speaker‟s aim to give the detail information can be seen as follow:
Trump: He doesn't have to do it. He doesn't have to support me. (datum 86)
In the conversation, Trump gives detailed information regarding the topic which he discussed. Trump gives his opinion about his political rival, Ted Cruz, whether he should support Trump or not. He initiates a trouble by saying „He doesn’t have to do it‟ in the beginning. There is a possibility in Trump‟s mind that
this utterance seems confusing for the audience who does not know about the context. Here, Trump solves the trouble by specifying his utterance „He doesn’t
have to support me’. In this new utterance, it clearly shows that „do it‟ in the first
utterance refers to „support me‟.
In daily conversation, sometimes people also make a mistake by choosing a wrong constituent which caused them must repair their words. In this research, the researcher also found a self-initiated self-repair which occurs because of this reason. The example below illustrates the case.
Anderson: Brian has a question for you tonight. He says he's - he likes Governor Kasich but he's still undecided - so Brian. (datum 36)
introduce who the questioner is. From the example above, it can be seen that Anderson as the host does his duty to introduce the person who will give the question. In the example, it seems Anderson chooses the constituent wrongly by saying „He says he’s‟ in his utterance. The researcher noticed that there is a
trouble initiated by Anderson because he instantly repairs his own utterance right away after it. He then repairs the trouble by saying „he likes‟. Here, Anderson has done a self-initiated self-repair.
b. Other-initiated self-repair
Unlike a self-initiated self-repair where the speakers notice their own error by themselves and also resolve it right away, other-initiated self-repair occurs because the interlocutor or the other party notices the trouble done by the speaker. Here, each participant in the conversation has their own job to initiate and to solve the problem. The speaker has a duty to resolve the problem that is initiated by his/her interlocutor. The following example shows other-initiated self-repair found in the Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode.
Anderson: You've suggested you might –
Trump: Excuse me, excuse me! I didn't suggest. (datum 6)
From the example above, it can be seen that Anderson as the other party initiates a trouble by stating that Trump actually has suggested that he will press charges a female journalist who grabbed himself in the middle of his campaign agenda. Hearing Anderson‟s statement, Trump immediately responds it by
Anderson. In his utterance, Trump makes a repetition in showing his idea. Another example of other-initiated self-repair also can be seen as follow:
Anderson : The state attorney's a Democrat
Trump : Excuse me, excuse me. Oh, really? (datum 8)
Similar with the previous case, here Trump solves a trouble which is initiated by Anderson as his interlocutor. Anderson as the other party is initiating a repair by stating a statement that makes Trump strongly denies his statement regarding who is better to resolve the problem occurs in Middle East. Here, Trump solves the problem which is made by the Anderson. He repeats the word „Excuse me’ to resolve the trouble source. This type of repair is called as other-initiated self -repair. In this research, the researcher also found the other example of this type of repair.
Anderson : So you have no problem with Japan and South Korea having nuclear weapons?
Another example of other-initiated self-repair is shown in a datum below. Anderson : Do you trust Muslims in America?
Trump : Do I what?
Anderson : Trust Muslims in America? (datum 46)
In the example above, Trump is asked by Anderson regarding his idea whether he trusts Muslims in America or not. However, because of the unheard utterance Trump initiates a problem by saying „Do I what?‟ in the middle of conversation. Trump‟s response definitely has impact to Anderson as the speaker. Anderson then repeats his words in order to present the information that is needed by Trump. By doing such an action, Anderson actually solves the problem that occurs in the conversation. In this case, the type of repair that is found is other-initiated self-repair because the other party is the one who initiates a trouble while the speaker who solves it.
2. Patterns of Repair in Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode
From ten patterns which proposed by Zhang (1998) and Tang (2011), the researcher only found eight patterns including replacement, modification, abandonment, reorganization, elaboration, exemplification, and rewording. Besides, the researcher also found two others patterns as well; repetition and completion in the talk how. The explanation in details can be seen in the following discussion.
a. Replacement
old part in order to make the utterance more appropriate with the context. An example is presented in the following datum.
Trump: We had a whole big meeting with a whole group of people, big audience, tremendous audience, and they're all shaking their heads, give me a break, give me a break. (datum 2)
Trump makes a repair in his utterance by replacing the word „big‟ to
„tremendous‟ for emphasizing the number of people who attend the set where a suspicious female reporter grabbed him. The word „big‟ in the first utterance seems to have a similar meaning with the word „tremendous‟ in the second one. However, according to Cambridge Advance Learners Dictionary, both words have different meanings. In the dictionary, big is defined as large in size or amount. Meanwhile, tremendous is explained as very great in amount. Here, the researcher decided to take the datum in the pattern of replacement because both words are dissimilar. If those words used in the same context, the interpretation would be definitely different. A similar case occurs in the following datum.
Trump: One of the very, very big issues. I think maybe the biggest issue of our time. (datum 16)
Initially, Trump says „the very, very big issue‟. Here, he already initiates a problem. Then, he says „the biggest issue of our time‟ to replace his previous
b. Modification
Participants in the conversation tend to modify their utterance by adding more information about the utterance. An example of this pattern is presented in the following datum.
Trump: I don't think he knew her. I mean, based on what I heard, I don't think he really even knew who she was. (datum 7)
Trump modifies his previous utterance by adding two adverbs when he is talking about whether his manager, Lewandowski, knows the female journalist or not. He uses the adverbs in order to change the effect of his statement. It has a function to emphasize the intention and the purpose of his utterance. The two
adverbs that are used are „really‟ and „even‟ which are modifying the verb „knew‟
in the utterance above. A similar case also can be seen in the following example. Trump: I want to do that also, and I do want to do that, but I at the
same time we have to recognize we have a serious problem. (datum 42)
In the example above, Trump is discussing about protecting the rights of minority groups, of Muslims, or Sikhs, of Jews, and others inside the United States. Here, he states that he also would like to protect the minority group but according to him the country also faces a serious problem. In this utterance, Trump modifies his words. Initially, he only says „I want to do that also,‟ but then he adds the auxiliary verb „do‟ in the next utterance „I do want to do that‟. Here, the auxiliary „do‟ is used to give extra force to the main verb.
c. Abandonment
Choosing a topic in a conversation is a speaker‟s obligation. For that
would not like to talk about. In repair completion, the researcher found this pattern as presented in the datum below.
Trump: But to the best of my knowledge, it's Texas. So he made that - I was surprised you didn't correct him actually. (datum 4)
In the bold parts, Trump is going to talk further about the truth of Ted Cruz‟ hometown in the conversation, but he chooses to abandon the statement and
repair it with throwing another statement directly to Anderson. From the example above, it can be seen that in a conversation a speaker has an obligation to choose a topic that he/she would like to talk about. In another example below, it also shows the similar case.
Trump: I would have loved to have fired – it would have been much easier than talking to you about this all night long. I'd rather talk about the issues, to be honest. (datum 11)
Trump is disturbed by the discussed topic where it is talking about his leadership skill. Here, he hesitates whether he would like to continue his words or not. In the end, he abandons his previous words and starts with a new complete utterance. In abandonment, there are speakers who simply change the discussed topic like the previous examples. Besides, there are also speakers who choose the constituent wrongly that makes them to do an abandonment. The example is presented in the following datum.
Trump: No. Now let me tell you what's next. No, no. Look, in Missouri, I just - it was just announced I won. (datum 90)
d. Reorganization
Organization in a conversation is one of the vital factors to make the partner easily accepts the information. The speakers in Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode also face the organization utterance. Here, they reorganize their words in order to present the clear information. An example is presented in the following datum.
Trump: Health care - we need health care for our people. (datum 62) Here, Trump discusses the importance of health care for people in United States. In uttering his idea, he makes a disorganize utterance. Initially he only says „health care‟ then he resolves it by saying „we need health care‟. It can be said
that he reorganizes his utterance. A similar example also can be seen as follow. Anderson: Do you have a specific, though, for him on - a specific
example that you changed your behavior changed the way you've done something going forward, or learned from something you've done that you didn't like the way it turned out? (datum 96)
Anderson asks Trump a question related to Senator Jeff Sessions who also endorsed Trump in the election. He asks whether Trump changed the behavior because of the senator. In the example, it can be seen that Anderson reorganizes his utterance after makes several errors in the beginning. Here, reorganization has a function to arrange the utterance in order to serve clear information.
e. Specification
should specify his utterance in order to make everyone understand about the topic discussed. Here, the pattern of repair which has the function mentioned is called as specification. The researcher found several examples about this pattern as follows:
Trump: Do you mind if I read this to you? Do you mind if I read you her statement? (datum 5)
Trump specifies his words when he is talking about the paper which contains female reporter‟s statement. In the beginning he says „this‟ and he repairs it into „her statement‟. Here, Trumps makes a clearer intention of his
utterances. Another example is presented in a datum below.
Anderson: That's what you said to The New York Times. You said you worried about the proliferation of nuclear weapons the most. (datum17)
Anderson makes a repair by specifying his words. In the beginning, he only says „what you said‟. Then, he resolves the problem by saying „you
worried about the proliferation of nuclear weapons the most‟. The utterance has a function to make a clearer utterance regarding the previous words that he proposes.
The example below is another example of specification pattern.
Trump: I'm not saying - the other thing that's bad about NATO, we're paying too much. We're spending a tremendous - billions and billions of dollars on NATO. (datum 70)
Anderson and Trump are talking about USA‟s position in NATO. Here,
specification that is done by Trump has a function to denote the words ‘we're paying too much’. Most of the audiences probably do not know the exact amount of it. For that reason, the specification is done.
f. Elaboration
In this research, the researcher found that elaboration is used to explain a concept in utterance in order to make the interlocutor understand the context. The following example illustrates an elaboration pattern.
Trump: Wouldn't you rather have Japan, perhaps, they're over there, they're very close, they're very fearful of North Korea, and we're supposed to protect. (datum 27)
Trump is elaborating his answer when he is asked why he seem let Japan to have a nuclear weapon. Here, he is trying to serve his opinion why he seems to support Japan as well as South Korea to have nuclear weapons. He said the geographical factor is one of the main reasons why those countries should protect themselves from North Korea. The words „over there‟ and „very close‟ in the
conversation lead Trump to do an elaboration in this case. Another example can be seen in the example below.
Trump: We have to be extremely strong with ISIS. We have to wipe ISIS off the face of the Earth so fast and so violently we have no choice. We have no choice. (datum 39)
Trump uses the word „extremely strong‟ in dealing with ISIS existence.
The example below is another example of elaboration pattern.
Trump: When General Odiemo left recently, a year ago, I was watching him on maybe your show, one of the shows, and he said that the United States Army, the United States military forces have never been so - and I think he used the word depleted. But basically he said they're exhausted. (datum 59)
Trump gives his opinion about United States Army status in present day. Here, the elaboration can be noticed in the bold parts. In the beginning, Trump says „the United States Army‟ but after a pause, he elaborates his words in the conversation to make detail information about the topic by saying „the United
States military forces’, in case there are several definitions of Army that exist. g. Exemplification
Providing example in a conversation is one of the ways to make the conversation is easier to receive by the participants. In the talk show Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode the researcher found several examples of exemplification as seen below.
Trump: We are supporting nations now, militarily, we are supporting nations like Saudi Arabia which was making during the good oil days which was a year ago, now they're making less but still a lot, $1 billion a day. (datum 20)
As seen in the example above, Trump says „Saudi Arabia‟ as one of the
countries which accepts help from USA, militarily. Before he mentions the country‟s name, he previously says „we are supporting nations now‟ which means
there are other countries besides Saudi Arabia which also receive help from USA. Another similar case also can be seen in the example as follows.
