Findings
from the
Sociolinguistic Survey of the Lolo People
by Duane Reiman
Contents
1 Introduction
1.1 Motivation for research 1.2 The Lolo
1.3 The linguistic context
1.4 Area description and route followed 1.5 Significant materials by other writers 2 Purpose and aims
2.1 Purpose of the survey 2.2 Aims of the survey 3 Procedures
3.1 Word lists
3.1.1 Reason for use 3.1.2 Design 3.1.3 Administration 3.1.4 Analysis
3.2 Recorded Text Testing (RTT) 3.2.1 Reason for use 3.2.2 Design 3.2.3 Administration 3.2.4 Analysis
3.3 Sociolinguistic questionnaires 4 Tool results and findings
4.1 Word lists—Lexico-statistical findings
4.2 RTT results—Intelligibility of Chuwabu and Takwane by Lolo speakers 4.2.1 Chuwabu intelligibility evaluation
4.2.2 Takwane intelligibility evaluation 4.3 Results from sociolinguistic questionnaires 5 Conclusion and recommendations
Appendices
Appendix A Map sets Appendix B Word list data
Appendix C Score sheet: Takwane RTT for Lolo speakers Appendix D Questionário sociolinguístico
1 Introduction
1.1
Motivation for research
Late in 1998, we were asked by our supervisors in SIL–Mozambique to consider a work assignment among the Lolo of Zambezia Province, Mozambique. According to their latest official research (Shrum 1998), this language group had the most obvious need in Mozambique for language development by SIL.
However, further research—which we will specify and develop in this document—gave evidence contrary to this statement of need. As a result, we were asked to take a closer look at the linguistic situation of the Lolo. This paper will demonstrate from field findings the necessity for a separate
language development program for the speakers of Lolo.
1.2
The Lolo
The Lolo are a people group of Western Zambezia Province, living chiefly in the District of Morrumbala, and concentrated in the Administrative Post of Derre. Their population was estimated at 92,400 during the 1997 census (INE 2001). The speech variety is classified as Central Narrow Bantu (Grimes 2000), with linguistic lineage as indicated in Figure 1*, in Guthrie’s zone P (SIL 2000). Its linguistic neighbors include Chuwabu speakers to the south, Sena and Valade speakers to the Southwest, Nyanja speakers to the West and Northwest (near the Malawi Border), Takwane speakers to the East, and Maoni, Marenje, and Kokola speakers to the Northeast. (See Map Set 1 in appendix A).
The Lolo are largely horticulturists, relying almost totally on their
machambas (gardens) for sustenance, while also raising chickens, pigeons, goats,
pigs, and occasionally guinea pigs for consumption. Some will augment these staples by hunting small game. Nearly all large game was exhausted during the War for Independence and the Civil Conflict. Many families grow some cotton for a cash crop, which they sell to Agrimo, a state run cooperative.
Other sources of income include selling excess grain to markets, usually in Malawi (to the north). For some, the Mozambican markets of Morrumbala, Mocuba, Alto Benfica, and Quelimane are more accessible. When asked, those who felt they could choose market venue said they chose to sell in Malawi, since Malawi has a record of better prices.
1.3
The linguistic context
With the commercial importance of Malawi comes exposure to its official African language, Nyanja (also called Chichewa). Many reported ability to use Nyanja effectively in the markets, and that the Chichewa Bible is commonly (though not universally) used in the churches.
As to other linguistic contexts, many gain exposure to Sena through trips to the district capitol, Morrumbala. Many vendors in the local markets are nonresidents from Chuwabu-speaking areas like Nicoadala and Quelimane. Toward the edges of Lolo territory, there is casual contact with Takwane speakers, as well as reason to travel through Takwane-speaking areas, though there are no markets of attraction within them. There is no known influence from the other neighboring speech communities due to markets or worship; these have influence only through proximity, and possibly through regional schools, for example in Alto Benfica or Mocuba.
*
1.4
Area description and route followed
The majority of Lolo territory is low-lying hills, covered with moderate to dense woodlands. Water availability does not seem to be a problem, as the sizeable Luala River flows right through Derre Center. It and the Tambisa River seem to have many tributary creeks that drain most of the Lolo area.
The roads are all dirt, with the larger ones being of solid clay/sand construction. All these were in very good condition, with decent bridges everywhere except for two under construction, just east of Derre Center. The lesser roads we traveled were also passable, but could be problematic during the rainy season. One of our hosts said the bridge just before his property (in Dula) would be underwater by mid-season, and impassable until May. During our travels, we had no troubles with mobility. We hardly ever engaged four-wheel drive and never needed to lock the differential. Bicycles were brought on the first trip, and proved quite useful.
Two trips into the Lolo speech community were necessary. The first trip (21–29 July 1999) we gathered word lists, tested intelligibility with Chuwabu, and researched sociolinguistic opinions of the populace. When we later analyzed this data we discovered the need for intelligibility testing with Takwane, and so we planned a second trip (3–6 January 2000) specifically for this purpose. Both trips used essentially the same route. (See Map Set 2 in appendix A.)
A leading objective was to extend testing for inherent intelligibility. Therefore, a chief goal for our first trip was to locate populations most isolated from other language contexts, especially the Chuwabu context. A basic piece of history shaped this path. During Mozambique’s Civil Conflict, Renamo forces passed through Morrumbala District. They did this in such a way that many of the Lolo to the south of Derre Center fled to Chuwabu-speaking areas near Quelimane, while most of the Lolo to the north stayed put. If we wanted to test for inherent intelligibility, we would need to avoid the southern portion of the Lolo community, where there was great potential for learned
intelligibility and/or bilingual overlay. This could easily cloud the results. We settled on Dula and Nyanzaza—two sites to the north—and Derre Center itself, as the population center. (See Map 2a in appendix A.)
Our second route was planned along similar lines—to find communities with little potential contact with Takwane speakers. Dula was again a prime example. We started there, the most remote location, and worked our way back to Mocuba. (See Map 2b in appendix A.)
Mocuba was the base of operations for our surveys—Lolo and otherwise—though well outside of the Lolo speech community. At the start of our surveys, we traveled west to Alto Benfica1 (shown on some maps as
Macatanja), then turned south to Derre Center. We continued on the main road past Derre Center for 3.5 kilometers, then turned northwest on a secondary road. This secondary road traveled north for approximately 20 km to
Muaherua then about 5 km more to Dula, our most remote location. After gathering data there, we backtracked to Derre Center and, on the first trip, passed through and turned north 0.5 km east of there, continuing 20–25 km to our final area of Terla and Nyanzaza.
On our second trip we collected data in Dula as well, again backtracking through Derre Center afterward. This time, however, we continued on the main road toward Alto Benfica, stopping at Nacuela and Matecula, just west of the Manguze River. Our guide said this river was the accepted demarcation for the end of Lolo territory, as well as the border between Morrumbala and Mocuba districts. (See Map 2b in appendix A.) We then returned to Mocuba.
1.5
Significant materials by other writers
One paper of relevance to our subject is the survey report by Jeffery and Margaret Shrum, Western
Zambezia Language Survey in Mozambique (1998). The rapid assessment given by the Shrum survey gives us
quality information about the Lolo speech variety and the speech varieties that surround this group.
Their work addressed five undeveloped speech varieties in this area—Marenje, Kokola, Valade, Lolo, and Maoni. The following items gave us strong suggestion that Lolo was the most viable variety for SIL development:
• The Marenje community (approx. 75,000 persons) is much smaller than the Lolo community (approx. 200,000 persons). Additionally, several of those the Shrums interviewed had difficulty deciding whether they were Marenje or Kokola, showing an eroding sense of cultural identity (section 3.4.3). It was the Shrums’ opinion
1
that “pressure from the larger and more influential groups in the area may make Marenje nonviable [for their own language development program]” (section 5.3.1).
• The Shrums state that the Kokola community is also much smaller than the Lolo community (50,000–75,000 Mozambican Kokolani). Many of those interviewed preferred to speak other languages over Kokola. Nyanja was highly valued by those interviewed. Moreover, Nyanja is undoubtedly highly used by the Malawian Kokolani (75,000 persons), as it is an official language-of-wider-communication there. (section 3.4.4)
• The Maoni community was described by several sources as a variant of Marenje. All five of the Shrums’ Maoni participants identified their group as being related to Marenje. (sections 3.2.2, 3.5)
• Valade was elusive to the Shrums; they found no one at first who claimed to be Valade. In their observation log (1997), they record meeting a man 12km from Mepinha on the way to Quelimane who at first claimed to be Lolo. When the Shrums mentioned Valade, he admitted that he was Valade. In addition, several Lolo
informants on the author’s survey trips stated that the Lolo word list the Shrums’ collected is actually Valade. This evidence seems to suggest that Valade speakers view their language as a variant of Lolo.
• The Lolo view and esteem their language highly. Nearly all Lolo speakers prefer to use it over all other languages, and want their children to learn it first. (1998:section 3.4.5)
Additionally, the Shrums’ report gave evidence through statistical means that Lolo is lexically distinct from neighboring languages that were being actively developed (Sena, Chuwabu, Lomwe, and Nyanja). Because of these distinctions, the Shrums recommended Lolo for development.
Another paper of relevance is “The Chuwabu Language Cluster” (1999) by James and Virginia Vinton. This report on the Vintons’ survey work in southern Zambezia relevantly drew into question this recommendation. Their survey of the Chuwabu language and its variants had as one focus intelligibility testing, which was beyond the scope of the Shrum survey. In one area of the Vintons’ survey, just south and east of Derre Center, Lolo speakers showed a remarkably high understanding of Chuwabu2 (Vinton 1999:15, 19). An explanation of this apparent inconsistency would be necessary before any action could be taken on Lolo language development.
2 Purpose and aims
2.1
Purpose of the survey
We propose to resolve, through this survey, the differences in the results of the aforementioned surveys. We will extend, through more data over a greater geographic area, the understanding of how distinct Lolo is from its neighbors. We will also tell why these differences in assessment occurred. Ultimately, we will show conclusively that the Lolo speech community is a candidate for the assistance of SIL-Moçambique as a distinct language-development program.
2.2
Aims of the survey
The aims of our research were threefold:
• Develop a broader base of word list findings through several lists in diverse areas of the Lolo-speaking community.
• Research through a larger area the language views and cultural situation of the Lolo.
• Extend intelligibility research throughout the speech community, focusing on the more linguistically isolated zones.
2
3 Procedures
3.1
Word lists
3.1.1
Reason for use
One way of quickly assessing similarity/dissimilarity between speech varieties is by comparing the words they use for the same ideas. If, after following a specific, rigorous word list analysis, a certain level of (theoretical) shared language history—percent of cognates—is not found, the capacity for inherent intelligibility is very slim. Thus, word list analysis is a first step toward assessing intelligibility between speech varieties.
3.1.2
Design
We used the SIL/NELIMO 200-word list (NELIMO 1990) to obtain data for researching lexical similarity. It consists of 200 words of several grammatical categories. These are grouped first by grammatical category, then by semantic domain, for ease of recognition by the respondents. See appendix A for these lists.
3.1.3
Administration
The word lists were gathered from a panel of three to eight mother tongue Lolo speakers, appointed by the local governing official. He was asked to provide persons who were known as first-language Lolo speakers, and known to speak it well. All list elicitation was administered by the author. Following the procedure indicated by Wimbish (1989:80), suspect entries were checked and verified against word lists already obtained for the
neighboring speech varieties, as responses were given. The panel was permitted to discuss the word in question, but in general one spokesman, chosen by the group beforehand, gave the answer of consensus.
3.1.4
Analysis
Analysis was handled largely through the lexico-statistical computer application WORDSURV (v. 2.5.12). Word lists for Chuwabu, Takwane, Nyanja, Marenje, Kokola, Sena, Manyawa, and Lomwe speech varieties were jointly analyzed for cognate statistics. This was done after word-by-word inspection for (a) groupings of apparent cognates, and (b) the removal of incongruent data3 from the analysis. The results and their implications are detailed below.
3.2
Recorded Text Testing (RTT)
3.2.1
Reason for use
Shared cognate percentages between word lists of speech varieties have a threshold value for usefulness. Studies of this type use an upper confidence limit of 70% (cited by Bergman 1990:8.1.6). When the value is less than threshold, we can safely term these speech varieties as “mutually unintelligible”. When the value surpasses this threshold, further testing is necessary to determine intelligibility. Recorded Text Testing (hereafter “RTT”) is the next step recommended by our sources (Grimes 1989:4.1). RTT use was indicated by Lolo’s high cognate percentage with Takwane (lowest upper confidence limit = 85.8%), and by the prior RTT results for Chuwabu gathered by the Vintons (1999) (avg. score, 93%, st. dev. = 11%).
3.2.2
Design
The two RTTs utilized on this survey had slightly differing design. These differences are due to different lines of development. We will explain the distinctions in the following two sections.
3
3.2.2.1
Design of the RTT for intelligibility of Takwane
Takwane RTT design followed the guidelines set forth in Casad (1974), Blair (1990), and Bergman (1990:4.2). Two short texts (1–5 minutes each) are recorded from native speakers, one text of the speech variety under study (Lolo), the other text of the speech variety of comparison (Takwane in this instance). The former (called
the control text) establishes the test-taking capacity of the participant, while the latter examines the participant’s
understanding of the neighboring speech variety. Each text is listened to twice; once in its entirety, and again with intermittent pauses for context-relevant questions, used for evaluating participant understanding.
To establish the quality of the texts themselves, each is tested on speakers of that particular speech variety (called home testing) before it is used to test a speaker of another speech variety. This was done for both texts, and the questions that native speakers could not answer correctly were eliminated from the exam. In addition, the Takwane text had further quality confirmation in the high scores achieved on other surveys (91% average score during the Manyawa survey (conducted by the author, report forthcoming)).
3.2.2.2
Design of RTT for intelligibility of Chuwabu
As one aim of this survey was to extend the intelligibility research of the Vintons, we decided to use the RTT they developed for their survey. This would make the RTT results of the two surveys comparable. This RTT had no control test in the Lolo speech variety, but rather two Chuwabu texts, the official text for intelligibility evaluation, preceded by a shorter, simpler text to aid in evaluating each participant’s test-taking ability. Although we proceeded without a Lolo control test, we feel confident that post-test interviews brought to light any participants who had problems in test taking. As well, the adequacy of the test design was supported by the score differences between our three test locations. We will bring further light to this in our explanation of RTT results (see section 4.2.1.1).
Standard RTT design has the context-relevant questions recorded directly onto the test recording. In their report, as well as personal conversation, the Vintons detailed difficulties with this methodology (1999:14). Many test participants who understood the recorded text had great difficulty in responding well to the pre-recorded questions. Due to this, they opted to forgo the questions altogether, instead asking for a summary at each pause in the text. In an effort to maintain comparability of results (and avoid the same pitfalls), our testing also forwent the prerecording of the questions. Still, to achieve a comfortable level of objectivity, we decided to utilize questions read by a mother-tongue speaker,4 trained for this work. The same mother tongue speaker was used throughout both the Takwane and Chuwabu testing.
3.2.3
Administration
At the start of each test administration, our host (government administrator, local chief, or host compound owner) would begin gathering exam participants. We requested an equal number of young vs. old, and male vs. female. This was not always possible, and our ratios were sometimes 6 to 4. We would administer a brief pre-test questionnaire to each participant. This was to record basic demographics as well as ensuring the participant was from the location and speech community of focus.
The participant would then listen to each text twice, once in its entirety, and once with several interruptions for contextually based questions (given in Lolo by our interpreter).4 Records were kept of right and wrong
responses, as well as any answers that might reveal information useful to the survey. See appendix B.
The test was administered in three different locations for each RTT. Our aim was to collect data from monolingual or near-monolingual situations, as well as geographically diverse locations.
3.2.4
Analysis
Percentages of correct responses were recorded for each test administered. Average scores were calculated, as were statistical standard deviation, for specific demographic profiles, as well as for overall numbers. Each demographic was statistically analyzed to determine if there exists a significant difference between the two groups in question. Demographic profiles include age, sex, residence, outside language exposure, and long-term relocation outside of the Lolo speech community.
4
3.3
Sociolinguistic questionnaires
Questions fell into two basic categories: background demographics, and language opinion. The first was to offer profiles with which to examine our data, while the second was to give light to native opinions about Lolo in the context of the surrounding speech varieties. See sample questionnaire in appendix C.
The questionnaires were administered to either one or two persons at a time, through an interpreter when Portuguese was not understood. They were customarily completed just prior to RTT administration.
4 Tool results and findings
4.1
Word lists—lexico-statistical findings
Before we compare Lolo’s word list data with the other speech varieties, we would like to point out in background the very high percentages found between the Lolo variants themselves (94, 95, and 96 percent; potential maximum 96.8 percent lexical agreement between all three).5 This confirms the quality of choices for research locations, unifies the Lolo lists for comparison with the other speech varieties, and will give us a solid backdrop for the comparison of results from the Recorded Text Tests.
Since lexico-statistics is a tool with limitations, we hesitate to publish such a complete table as table 1. There is often a temptation to make more of the numbers than is reasonable or justified. As we have said above, less than a 70% upper confidence limit indicates that the speech varieties are inherently unintelligible. Greater values tell us the speech varieties could possess noteworthy intelligibility, but need further testing.
That being said, let us note the dividing line in table 1. Those speech varieties below the line share, by the methodology, no practical inherent intelligibility with those above the line. Hence, the development programs existent in Nyanja, Sena, and Lomwe should not be applicable to the other speech varieties (except for the dubious borderline case of Lomwe and Takwane). The values found above the line express the need for further investigation of these speech varieties, with other tools.
Table 1: Lexico-statistical Results—Percentage of Shared Cognates, with upper/lower confidence levels.
Lolo of Derre Center 94±2.8 Lolo of Dula
95±2.7 96±2.5 Lolo of Nyanzaza
88±4.9 89±4.8 88±5.0 Kokola
83±5.8 86±5.4 85±5.5 81±7.6 “Valade”
80±4.9 82±4.7 82±4.7 86±5.3 75±6.6 Marenje
83±4.5 81±4.8 81±4.8 77±6.5 74±6.7 72±5.5 Takwane7
70±5.6 71±5.6 69±5.7 66±7.2 69±7.1 66±5.8 71±5.5 Chuwabu7
56±6.1 56±6.1 55±6.1 57±7.6 52±7.6 55±6.1 65±5.8 59±6.0 Lomwe7
52±6.1 54±6.1 54±6.1 52±7.6 57±7.6 52±6.1 48±6.1 57±6.0 Sena7
45±6.1 48±6.2 47±6.2 48±7.7 47±7.7 49±6.2 42±6.1 43±6.1 Nyanja
5
Upper confidence limit of the lowest scoring pair. See table 1.
6
“Valade” is written within quotation marks because of the uncertainty of the name. The word list was gathered by colleagues in a place called Muandiua, and assumed to be Lolo. As our team was driving to our first survey destination, our guide (a Lolo mother-tongue speaker and native to the region) pointed out that Valade was spoken there. As we gathered my word lists and noted discrepancies, we asked several informants about them. At times they would state, “That’s another language”, but usually, “That’s Valade”. With the similarity shown here between the “Valade” list and the lists this survey gathered, we can take “Valade” to be at least a mixture of Lolo and another speech variety, and very possibly Valade itself.
7
Of the speech varieties above the threshold, Valade, Marenje, and Kokola do not have language
development programs. Since they had no such resources to offer Lolo development, they were beyond the scope of our research. We did not test Lolo speakers for intelligibility with these three speech varieties.
Only Chuwabu and Takwane have current language development programs. Hence, we must look at other test results to make decisions about the intelligibility of these two speech varieties by the Lolo. See section 4.2.
4.2
RTT results—Intelligibility of Chuwabu and Takwane by Lolo speakers
In general, the most valuable results from RTT studies are the overall averages—51.5% for Chuwabu, 56.67% for Takwane, with high variation in the scores of both (see table 2). Hence, intelligibility levels are well within the range to show them as separate “languages”, and variation indicates that much of the intelligibility is learned. Still, some demographic groups showed details of interest. These will be handled separately for Chuwabu and Takwane in table 2.
Table 2 – Overall
Takwane RTT 30 56.67% 29.0%
Chuwabu RTT 30 51.5% 36.7%
4.2.1
Chuwabu intelligibility evaluation
4.2.1.1
Background and Overall Score Evaluation
We started our testing in Derre Center, our southernmost and most densely populated point of contact. It is also essential to note that these participants largely fled south to Chuwabu speaking territories during the Civil Conflict and were the most broadly traveled of the three groups. With this increased exposure to Chuwabu came the expected high scores for intelligibility with Chuwabu (Derre Center had an average score of 74.2%—at least 35% higher than the other two locations. See table 3)
Table 3 – Chuwabu RTT scores
divided by location # of Participants Average Score Standard Deviation
Overall Score 30 51.5% 36.7%
Location A Derre Center 10 74.2% 22.0%
Location B Dula 10 39.2% 36.0%
Location C Terla/Nyanzaza 10 35.0% 40.0%
This fits quite well with the Vintons’ findings. They showed very high scores from their Lolo participants, all of whom were tested to the south of Derre Center, and nearly all of whom fled the conflict to Chuwabu speaking areas (Vinton 1999:18).
Although many participants had high scores, the average score was still below the accepted inherent intelligibility threshold (75%). Variation was quite high as well, indicating much of the existent intelligibility is learned.
The high scores of Derre Center in general provided an excellent backdrop to the lower scores in the next two more linguistically isolated areas. Certainly without this high-score backdrop, the extremely low scores in Dula and Nyanzaza would have shed doubt on test design and test administration.
4.2.1.2
Evaluation of Different Demographic Groups
Table 4 – Chuwabu scores divided by residence patterns # of Participants Average Score
Standard Deviation Overall Scores:
Never Lived in Chuwabu-speaking zone 21 37.1% 34.25%
Lived several years in a Chuwabu-speaking zone 9 80.8% 13.6%
Location A – Derre:
Never Lived in Chuwabu-speaking zone 2 41.7% 23.57%
Lived several years in a Chuwabu-speaking zone 8 83.3% 11.79%
Location B – Dula:
Never Lived in Chuwabu-speaking zone 10 39.2% 35.58%
Lived several years in a Chuwabu-speaking zone 0 N/A N/A
Location C – Terla/Nyanzaza:
Never Lived in Chuwabu-speaking zone 8 33.3% 38.05%
Lived several years in a Chuwabu-speaking zone 2 75.0% 23.57%
Data having figures above threshold levels for intelligibility indicated in bold
The reader will also note that older participants scored significantly higher than the younger participants (see table 5). This leads one to believe that increased life experience increases Chuwabu comprehension, and points once again to learned intelligibility. The lower scores of the younger participants allow us to also surmise that the Chuwabo-speaking area is probably not expanding through the current Lolo-speaking area.
Table 5 – Chuwabu scores divided by age
Older than 30 19 58.8% 34.2%
Younger than 31 11 39.4% 36.15%
Location A – Derre:
Older than 30 6 80.6% 15.52%
Younger than 31 4 64.6% 28.3679%
Location B – Dula:
Older than 30 5 43.3% 39.7%
Younger than 31 5 35.0% 35.06%
Location C – Terla/Nyanzaza:
Older than 30 8 52.1% 36.12%
Younger than 31 2 0.0% 0.0%
Data having figures above threshold levels for intelligibility indicated in bold
4.2.2
Takwane intelligibility evaluation
On our trip to evaluate Lolo intelligibility of Takwane, we started in the more linguistically isolated zones—Dula, then Muaherua (see Map 2b in appendix A.). If, here, we received low RTT scores, it would be a clear statement on intelligibility—we could then be quite certain the Lolo’s understanding of Takwane is not inherent. On the other hand, if the RTT scores were not low, we would have no such guarantee, and would need to labor further into the demographic and geographic dynamics of these intelligibility levels.
Table 6 – Takwane RTT scores
Overall Score 30 56.67% 29.0%
Location 1 Dula 10 35.45% 33.0%
Location 2 S. Muaherua 10 64.55% 25.0%
Location 3 Nacuela 10 70.00% 13.6%
This being established, we headed out of “deep Lolo”, towards areas closer to lines of commerce, in the direction of Takwane communities (see Map 2b in appendix A). Still, throughout our travels we were always testing Lolo mother-tongue speakers. As we progressed through Muaherua to Nacuela, the average scores increased (to 64.55% and 70.00%, respectively). Also the variance decreased (to 25% and 13.6, respectively), demonstrating more homogeneity in these groups toward Takwane bilingualism (see table 6).
There is no statistical difference8 between men and women in regard to these scores. The same is true between older (>30 years) and younger (<31 years) participants. Our only demographic figure that showed a difference in scores was exposure to other speech variety contexts. This figure was the culmination of several questions. Did the participant travel much? What were the mother tongues of the parents? Did he/she live outside of the Lolo speech community for extended periods? When these showed a broader exposure to other speech variety contexts, we studied their scores under the heading “High Exposure to Other Speech Varieties”. Overall, this division’s average scores fell above the threshold figure for intelligibility of Takwane (78.41%, threshold 75%. See table 7).
Table 7 – Takwane RTT scores divided by exposure to other speech varieties.
# of Participants Average Score
Standard Deviation
Low exposure, all locations 22 48.76% 28.2%
High exposure, all locations 8 78.41% 17.5%
Low Exposure, Location 1 (Dula) 9 29.29% 28.7%
High Exposure, Location 1 (Dula) 1 90.91% 0.0%
Low Exposure, Location 2 (S. Muaherua) 7
60.61%
16.9%High Exposure, Location 2 (S. Muaherua) 3
87.88%
10.5%Low Exposure, Location 3 (Nacuela) 8 High Exposure, Location 3 (Nacuela) 2
no statistical difference9
Data having figures above threshold levels for intelligibility indicated in bold.
We should note that in some areas, persons with such high exposure were not in abundance. Note that in Dula (Location 1), our test sample included only one person that met such criteria. We had low participation at South Muaherua (Location 2) as well. Although this is just a reflection of the linguistic isolation of the test locations, it still softens this conclusion.
We should also note that the figures from Nacuela (Location 3), our location closest to the Takwane community, did not demonstrate a statistical difference between the low exposure and high exposure groups. We might expect this, due to general proximity and hence high casual exposure to Takwane. Still, the general indication of these statistics (that linguistic exposure augments intelligibility) is not negated by the figures from Location 3; the figures are simply unable to support the indication.
Regardless of these weaknesses, we can be fairly certain our greatest contributor to score variation is exposure to Takwane.
4.3
Results from sociolinguistic questionnaires
Through lexico-statistical analysis and intelligibility testing, we have established from a linguistic point of view how the neighboring language development programs could not easily be applied to the Lolo community. The
8
Statistical validity for comparing these pairs of data was found using the Mann-Whitney U test.
9
question that remains is, do the Lolo themselves see it that way? Do they want their language developed independently from their neighbors?
The responses to the sociolinguistic questionnaires give us an overwhelming “yes”. No one in the Lolo speech community thought Lolo development should not happen. There is not even a hint of the sentiment that Sena, Chuwabu, Nyanja, or Takwane are superior speech varieties. Nor was it felt that what is developed by and for these others should be used for the Lolo.
The thirty participants described Lolo as nearly universal in its use at home, in the marketplace, and at church. Only one participant said they used Portuguese as the primary language at home, and three participants (all from Dula) said they used Nyanja in their market contacts. These three also described the use of Nyanja at church, but only with translation into Lolo. Various participants also mentioned Chuwabu, Portuguese, and Lomwe at times, but always as a secondary possibility for use in these contexts.
Seventeen responded to our question as to which language their children should learn first. All indicated Lolo except for one who thought it should be Portuguese.
5 Conclusion and recommendations
Of the six speech varieties bordering the Lolo community, that have or had a language development program,10 only Chuwabu and Takwane share sufficient cognates to possibly include the Lolo community in their scope of service. Of these two, Lolo speakers did not demonstrate sufficient intelligibility as to support inclusion in these language programs.
Regarding its comparison to the two other surveys, our work comes to the same basic conclusion found in the Shrums’ report (1998). Still, our results do not differ greatly with the Vintons’ results (1999). Rather, our results add focus to their results concerning Lolo. They found their test location to show a high level of intelligibility with Chuwabu. We found this area to have the highest level of such intelligibility throughout the Lolo community. Our research adds that the mean level of intelligibility does not reach a functional level, and is in fact learned.
Since there are no sociolinguistic opinions against such a course, the data recommends a separate
development program for the Lolo speech variety. Further, we recommend additional research on the applicability of a Lolo development program to the Marenje, Kokola, Valade, and Maoni. The data shows them as more lexically similar to Lolo than any other speech variety. The Lolo program could possibly be these communities’ best road toward language development.
Appendices
10
Map 1a: Mozambique, Province of Zambezia shaded.
Map 1b: Zambezia, District of
Morrumbala shaded.
Map 1c: Speech Varieties
of District of Morrumbala. Differing administrative posts shown by shading. Inset indicates area of Map 1d below.
Map 1d: General research area and
neighboring speech varieties.
Map 2a Route 1: Chuwabu RTT
July 1999
Map 2b Route 2: Takwane RTT
January 2000
Appendix B
Word list data
This should probably be titled “Morpheme List Data”, as there are few entire words listed here. All affixes, as best as possible, have been removed, so as not to skew the results. Each word asked for is listed in English and Portuguese, and is followed by the responses for the speech variety being investigated. Every response listed is preceded by a letter which indicates cognate grouping; all those responses utiliizing the same letter are judged to be cognates. Preceding this letter is the name of the speech variety.
1 arm braço
Lolo of Derre Center a| m uono***
Lolo of Dula a| wono***
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| m uono***
Takwane a| m ono***
Chwabo a| m ono***
Lolo(Valade?) a| !uonumoi
Manyawa Munguluni a| m uono*** Nyanja/Chichewa a| nk nnn***
Lolo of Dula d| tana
Lolo of Nyanzaza d| tana
Takwane c| duli*****
Lolo of Derre Center a| i0gulu
Lolo of Dula a| i0gulu
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| i0gulu
Takwane a| e gulu
Chwabo a| ru gulu
Lolo(Valade?) a| !i0gudu Manyawa Munguluni a| ru gulu
Nyanja/Chichewa c| mimb¡
Lolo of Derre Center a| sa0giri
Lolo of Dula a| sa0giri
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| sa0giri
Takwane a| sa0g'ri
Chwabo a| sa0g'ri
Lolo(Valade?) a| sa0gri Manyawa Munguluni b| mwasi Nyanja/Chichewa c| g¡zi
Marenji d| k ame
Lolo(Valade?) a| nu0gu
Manyawa Munguluni b| mwi:li Nyanja/Chichewa d| t*upi
Marenji c| t*ut*u
Lolo(Valade?) a| s is i
Manyawa Munguluni a| t it i Nyanja/Chichewa a| t5*is i
Marenji a| s is i
Cocola a| s is i
Sena a| s is i
7 bone osso
Manyawa Munguluni b| k uva
Nyanja/Chichewa c| fup¡
Manyawa Munguluni a| b'le Nyanja/Chichewa a| ere
Marenji a| b'le
Cocola a| b'li
Sena a| 'ri
Lomwe a| p'le
9 buttocks rabo
Lolo of Derre Center a| t au
Lolo of Dula a| t au
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| t au
Takwane a| t*au
Chwabo a| r ao
Lolo(Valade?) a| Ü au
Manyawa Munguluni a| r ao
Nyanja/Chichewa ==no entry===
Lolo of Derre Center a| aru
Lolo of Dula a| aru
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| aru
Takwane a| arÂ
Chwabo a| aru
Lolo(Valade?) a| arÂ
Manyawa Munguluni a| aro Nyanja/Chichewa d| k*utu
Marenji a| arÂ
Cocola a| aru
Sena d| k utu
Lomwe a| jaru
11 eye olho
Lolo of Derre Center b| so
Lolo of Dula b| so
Lolo of Nyanzaza b| so
Takwane a| nt o
Chwabo a| nt o
Lolo(Valade?) a| Ü*o
Manyawa Munguluni a| nt o
Nyanja/Chichewa b| su
Lolo of Derre Center a| buno
Lolo of Dula a| buno
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| buno
Takwane a| buno
Lolo of Derre Center a| jala
Lolo of Dula a| jala
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| jala
Takwane a| jala
Chwabo a| jala
Lolo(Valade?) a| jala
Manyawa Munguluni b| ek warukwa Nyanja/Chichewa d| k*¡&¡o
Marenji a| Õal¡
Cocola a| jala
Sena c| ngoli
14 foot pé
Lolo of Derre Center a| jalo
Lolo of Dula a| jalo
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| jalo
Takwane a| jalu
Chwabo a| Õalo
Lolo(Valade?) a| jalu
Manyawa Munguluni a| jalu Nyanja/Chichewa c| p*¡zi
Marenji a| alo
Lolo(Valade?) a| d and a
Manyawa Munguluni a| l a d a Nyanja/Chichewa a| dz¡n <a
Lolo of Derre Center b| muru
Lolo of Dula b| muru
Lolo of Nyanzaza b| muru
Takwane b| muru
Lolo of Derre Center a| rima
Lolo of Dula a| rima
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| rima
Takwane a| rima
Lolo of Derre Center b| njelu
Lolo of Dula b| njelu
Lolo of Nyanzaza b| njelu
Takwane c| ru bo
Chwabo c| ru bo
Lolo(Valade?) b| njelo
Manyawa Munguluni c| ru bu
Nyanja/Chichewa c| tumbo
Lolo of Dula a| bondo
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| bondo
Takwane b| kut a
Chwabo a| bo Ço
Lolo(Valade?) a| bondo
Manyawa Munguluni b| kut a Nyanja/Chichewa a| nndn
21 mouth boca
Lolo of Derre Center a| lomu
Lolo of Dula a| lomu
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| lomo
Takwane a| lomo
Lolo of Derre Center b| t5umbu
Lolo of Dula b| t5umbu
Lolo of Nyanzaza b| t5ombo
Takwane a| toku
Chwabo a| teku
Lolo(Valade?) b| t5ombo
Manyawa Munguluni a| tukwa Nyanja/Chichewa b| t5nmbn
Marenji b| t5ombo Nyanja/Chichewa a| khns i
Marenji a| k o i
Lolo(Valade?) a| p*uno
Manyawa Munguluni a| p*una Nyanja/Chichewa a| f unn
Marenji a| p uno! Nyanja/Chichewa b| k*ungu
Marenji d| kwiimba
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| sodi
Takwane b| t ori
Chwabo b| nt oi
Lolo(Valade?) a| !odi
Manyawa Munguluni b| t*ori Nyanja/Chichewa a| snzi
Marenji a| sodi
Cocola a| sodi
Sena a| sozi
Lomwe b| t ori
27 tongue língua
Lolo of Derre Center a| lu**mi
Lolo of Dula a| lu**mi
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| lu**mi
28 tooth dente Lolo of Derre Center a| no
Lolo of Dula a| no
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| no
Takwane a| no
Lolo of Derre Center c| o so
Lolo of Dula c| o so
Lolo of Nyanzaza c| o so
Takwane b| jedo
Chwabo b| riÇo
Lolo(Valade?) b| odo
Manyawa Munguluni b| rudo Nyanja/Chichewa c| kndzn
Marenji c| o zn
Cocola c| o so
Sena e| tindo
Lomwe b| jodo
30 child criança
Lolo of Derre Center a| ana
Lolo of Dula a| ana
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| ana
Takwane a| ana
Lolo of Derre Center a| ba ba
Lolo of Dula a| ba ba
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| ba ba
Takwane a| aba ba
Chwabo a| ba ba
Lolo(Valade?) a| ba ba
Manyawa Munguluni a| aba ba Nyanja/Chichewa a| ambo
Marenji a| ba ba
Cocola a| ba ba
Sena a| ba ba
Lomwe a| pa pa
32 human being ser humano
Lolo of Derre Center a| t*o
Manyawa Munguluni a| t u Nyanja/Chichewa a| nt*u
Marenji a| t u
Cocola a| u t*u
Sena a| u t*u
Lomwe a| c u
33 man homem
Lolo of Derre Center a| lombwana
Lolo of Dula a| lombwana
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| lombwana
Takwane a| lombwana
Chwabo a| lo bwana
Lolo(Valade?) b| ma
Manyawa Munguluni a| lombwana Nyanja/Chichewa d| mpnngn
Marenji a| lombwana
Cocola a| lombwana
Sena c| muna
Lomwe a| lo bwana
34 son filho
Lolo of Derre Center a| ana***
Lolo of Dula a| ana***
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| ana***
Takwane a| ana***
Chwabo a| ana***
Lolo(Valade?) a| ana0ga
35 twins gémios
Lolo of Derre Center b| anasambili
Lolo of Dula b| anasambili
Lolo of Nyanzaza b| anasambini
Takwane c| anapat*a
Chwabo a| anakono
Lolo(Valade?) b| anasambili
Manyawa Munguluni c| anapat a Nyanja/Chichewa e| map ¡s¡
Marenji b| anasambili
Cocola d| kamwini Manyawa Munguluni a| !i ana Nyanja/Chichewa b| k¡zi
Marenji a| iana
Lolo(Valade?) a| Õjama
Manyawa Munguluni a| n ama Nyanja/Chichewa a| Õ¡m¡
Lolo of Derre Center a| balam'
Lolo of Dula a| mbalame
Manyawa Munguluni a| k u ** Nyanja/Chichewa a| k*u ku
Marenji b| koo
Lolo(Valade?) a| 0ombe
Manyawa Munguluni a| 0ombe Nyanja/Chichewa a| Ônmbe
Marenji a| 0ombe
Cocola a| 0ombe
Sena a| Ônmbe
Lomwe a| mo pe
41 dog cão
Lolo of Derre Center a| nambw a
Lolo of Dula a| nambw a
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| nambw a
Takwane a| na bw a
Chwabo a| na bw a
Lolo(Valade?) a| nambw a
Manyawa Munguluni a| na bw'a
Nyanja/Chichewa b| galu
Marenji a| nambw a
Cocola a| nambw a
Sena a| nambw a
42 elephant elefante Lolo of Derre Center b| t embo
Lolo of Dula b| t embo
Lolo of Nyanzaza b| t embo
Takwane b| t*e bo
Chwabo b| d e o
Lolo(Valade?) a| d o u
Manyawa Munguluni b| t*e bo Nyanja/Chichewa a| nd<nvu
Marenji b| t 'mbo
Cocola b| t*'mbo
Sena a| n zo u
Lomwe b| t e bo
43 fish peixe
Lolo of Derre Center a| somb
Lolo of Dula a| somb
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| somb
Takwane a| somba
Chwabo a| o ba
Lolo(Valade?) a| somb¡
Manyawa Munguluni a| o ba
Nyanja/Chichewa a| somba
Marenji a| snmba
Cocola a| somba
Sena b| ¤jama za mazi
Lomwe c| hopa
44 goat cabra
Lolo of Derre Ctr. a| mbuzi******
Lolo of Dula a| mbudi******
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| mbuzi******
Takwane a| mbuzi******
Chwabo a| mbuzi******
Lolo(Valade?) a| mbudi!iiana Manyawa Munguluni a| mbusi******
Lolo(Valade?) b| k*alamu Manyawa Munguluni a| p o do goma
Nyanja/Chichewa d| kango
Lolo(Valade?) b| t*umbo
Manyawa Munguluni b| t*u bo Nyanja/Chichewa c| saw'
Marenji b| t*umbo Manyawa Munguluni a| n o a Nyanja/Chichewa a| nznka
Marenji a| Õjowa
Cocola a| Õjowa
Sena a| njnka
Lomwe a| n owa
48 tortoise cágado
Lolo of Derre Center a| w amba
Lolo of Dula a| w amba
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| o; amba
Takwane a| k*a ba
Chwabo a| k a ba
Lolo(Valade?) a| w amba
Manyawa Munguluni a| k a ba Nyanja/Chichewa a| k ¡mb¡
50 egg ovo Lolo of Derre Center a| zai Lolo of Dula b| ond<e Lolo of Nyanzaza a| zai
Takwane b| o d<e
DISQUALIFIED: multiple senses between lists: fat, oil.
52 feather of a bird pena
Lolo of Derre Center a| t*e0ga Lolo of Dula a| t*e0ga Lolo of Nyanzaza c| tete
Takwane c| t'te
Chwabo a| t 'ng
Lolo(Valade?) a| t*'0g¡ Manyawa Munguluni c| tet' Nyanja/Chichewa a| t*'0g¡
Marenji a| t e0ga Manyawa Munguluni a| Õja ga Nyanja/Chichewa a| Õ¡ng¡
Lolo of Derre Center a| ila
Lolo of Dula a| ila
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| ila
Takwane a| ila
Chwabo a| ila
Lolo(Valade?) a| ila
Manyawa Munguluni a| ila Nyanja/Chichewa a| 5ira
Marenji a| ila
Cocola a| ila
Sena a| ida
Lomwe a| ila
55 wing asa
Lolo of Derre Center b| p ep elo
Lolo of Dula b| p ep elo
Lolo of Nyanzaza b| p ep elo
Takwane b| ***p elo
Chwabo a| kapwa
Lolo(Valade?) b| p*ep*edu Manyawa Munguluni b| ***p elo Nyanja/Chichewa c| p*ikn
Marenji b| p ep elo
Cocola b| p*ep*elo
Sena b| p ap idu
Lomwe b| ***p*elo
56 lake lago
DISQUALIFIED: multiple senses between lists: “lake”, “puddle”, and “calm area in a river”.
57 mountain montanha
Lolo(Valade?) a| a0go
Manyawa Munguluni a| a0go Nyanja/Chichewa c| gnmn
Marenji a| a ko
Cocola a| a0go
Sena b| p*idi
Lomwe a| a ko
58 path caminho
Lolo of Derre Center a| d ila
Lolo of Dula a| d ila
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| d ila
Takwane a| d ila
Chwabo a| d ila
Lolo(Valade?) a| d il¡
Manyawa Munguluni a| d ila Nyanja/Chichewa a| d<ira
Marenji a| d ila
Cocola a| d ila
Sena b| njida
59 river rio Nyanja/Chichewa a| s in <'
Marenji a| +nd<e
Cocola a| iÔd<e
Sena c| kulo
Lomwe a| hi dze
60 village aldeia
DISQUALIFIED: multiple senses between lists: “neigbors”, “company-provided housing”, “intra-familiar dwelling area”, “small grouping, large grouping”, etc.
61 cloud nuvem
Lolo of Derre Center a| rambo
Lolo of Dula a| rambo
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| rambo
Takwane a| ra bo
Chwabo a| ra bo
Lolo(Valade?) a| rambo
Manyawa Munguluni a| ra bo Nyanja/Chichewa a| t¡mbu
Marenji a| rambn Nyanja/Chichewa a| 'zi
Marenji a| 'di
Cocola a| edi
Sena a| '<i
Lomwe a| eri
63 sky çeu
Lolo of Derre Center b| zulu
Lolo of Dula b| zulu
Lolo of Nyanzaza b| zulu
Takwane b| &ulu
Chwabo b| dulu
Lolo(Valade?) b| duru
Manyawa Munguluni b| dulu Nyanja/Chichewa d| kumu¡mb¡
Marenji c| wod<idimu
Cocola c| ****udimu
Lolo of Derre Center a| zuwa
Lolo of Dula a| zuwa
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| zuwa
Takwane a| & u a Nyanja/Chichewa a| Õ umba
Marenji a| Õjumba
Cocola a| Õjumba
Sena a| Õjumba
67 knife faca Nyanja/Chichewa a| p'ni
Marenji a| b'ne
Cocola a| b'ne
Sena a| p'ni
Lomwe b| mwalo
68 pot for cooking panela
Lolo of Derre Center c| jombwe
Lolo of Dula c| jombwe
Lolo of Nyanzaza c| jombwe
Takwane a| bia
Chwabo a| bi
Lolo(Valade?) c| jomb;e
Manyawa Munguluni a| bia Nyanja/Chichewa b| p*ika
Marenji c| d<nmbwe
Manyawa Munguluni b| go i Nyanja/Chichewa c| ingw'
Lolo of Derre Center a| inju
Lolo of Dula a| inju
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| inju
Takwane a| iÕju
Chwabo a| iÕju
Lolo(Valade?) a| iÕju
Manyawa Munguluni a| inju Nyanja/Chichewa b| t5'r'
Marenji a| iÕju
Cocola a| inju
Sena a| uÕju
Lomwe a| oÕ u
71 spear lança
Lolo of Derre Center a| ana0go
Lolo of Dula a| ana0go
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| ana0go
Takwane a| ala go
Chwabo a| ala go
Lolo(Valade?) a| ala0go
Manyawa Munguluni a| ala go Nyanja/Chichewa e| knndn
Marenji a| 0gala ko
Cocola 0 vot5a(most likely a verb)
Sena d| Èipa
Lomwe 0 vak*a (most likely a verb)
72 stool banco Nyanja/Chichewa b| nk*arira
Marenji a| b and o
Cocola a| p*and u
Sena c| b ank u
Lomwe a| p a t*o
73 ash cinza
Lolo of Derre Center a| dor a
Lolo of Dula a| dor a
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| dor a
Takwane a| dor a
Chwabo a| dur a
Lolo(Valade?) a| dor a
Manyawa Munguluni a| dur;a Nyanja/Chichewa c| p*ulusa
Marenji a| dor a
Cocola a| dur a
Sena b| Ènt*a
74 dew orvalho
Manyawa Munguluni b| 0game
Nyanja/Chichewa b| m ami
Lolo of Derre Center a| t*umbulu
Lolo of Dula a| t*umbulu
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| t*umbulu
Takwane b| t u bi**
Chwabo b| Ü*u bi**
Lolo(Valade?) a| t*umbudu
Manyawa Munguluni b| t*u bi** Nyanja/Chichewa b| f umbi**
Lolo of Derre Center a| lo
Lolo of Dula a| lo
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| n lo
Takwane a| nd o
Chwabo d| mot*o
Lolo(Valade?) a| lu
Manyawa Munguluni a| n lo Nyanja/Chichewa d| mnt o Manyawa Munguluni a| k w ini Nyanja/Chichewa a| k* uni
Marenji a| f uni
Manyawa Munguluni b| t ai a
Nyanja/Chichewa d| pansi
Lolo of Derre Center b| momba
Lolo of Dula b| momba
Lolo of Nyanzaza b| momba
Takwane a| gogo
Chwabo f| £ila
Lolo(Valade?) b| momb¡
Manyawa Munguluni a| gogo Nyanja/Chichewa c| t5*ulo
Marenji c| s ulo
Cocola b| momba
Sena d| utali
Lomwe e| tipo
80 rain chuva
Lolo of Derre Center a| zo0gwe
Lolo of Dula a| zo0gwe
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| zo0gwe
Takwane a| zo0gwe
Chwabo a| zo gwe
Lolo(Valade?) a| ndo0gwe
Manyawa Munguluni b| bula Nyanja/Chichewa b| vula
Marenji a| zo0gwe
Cocola a| zo0gwe
Sena b| vula
81 sand areia
Lolo of Derre Center b| seva
Lolo of Dula b| seva
Lolo of Nyanzaza b| seva
Takwane c| se0ga
Chwabo a| t*ak
Lolo(Valade?) b| use$¡
Manyawa Munguluni c| se0ga Nyanja/Chichewa c| t5'nga
Marenji b| useva
Lolo(Valade?) a| wit5*i Manyawa Munguluni a| i s i Nyanja/Chichewa a| ut5*i
Marenji a| wit5*i
Cocola a| wit5*i
Sena a| ut5*i
Lomw a| i s i
83 stone pedra
Lolo of Derre Center b| bwe
Lolo of Dula b| bwe
Lolo of Nyanzaza b| bwe
Takwane b| bwe
Lolo of Derre Center a| ind<e Lolo of Dula a| ind<e Lolo of Nyanzaza a| ind<e
Takwane a| ind<e
Chwabo a| n£ e
Lolo(Valade?) a| !i0g e Manyawa Munguluni b| & e
Nyanja/Chichewa a| a dzi
Marenji a| !ind<e
Cocola a| !i0d<e
Sena a| dzi
Lomwe b| h i
85 wind (move leaves) vento
Lolo of Derre Ctr. a| p*ev o Manyawa Munguluni b| t egu Nyanja/Chichewa c| kanpuripuri
Manyawa Munguluni b| t a0ku Nyanja/Chichewa b| t 'ngo
Marenji b| t engo
Cocola b| t*e0go
Sena a| ti
Lomwe a| ri
87 flower flor
Lolo of Derre Center b| t ondo
Lolo of Dula b| t ondo
Lolo of Nyanzaza b| t*ondo
Takwane b| t*o do
Chwabo a| Îu a
Lolo(Valade?) a| luwa
Manyawa Munguluni b| t u du
Nyanja/Chichewa a| luwa
Marenji a| luwa
Cocola a| lu a
Sena a| duwa
88 bark of a tree casca Nyanja/Chichewa d| k ok o
Marenji c| ku0gwa
Cocola b| 0gura
Sena d| k*ok*o
Lomwe a| kapa
89 leaf folha
Lolo of Derre Center b| t ak uru
Lolo of Dula b| t ak uru
Lolo of Nyanzaza b| t ak uru
Takwane b| t ak uru
Chwabo a| t a ba
Lolo(Valade?) a| t* amba Manyawa Munguluni b| t ak uru
Nyanja/Chichewa a| samba Manyawa Munguluni a| si si
Nyanja/Chichewa c| muzu
Manyawa Munguluni b| &o Nyanja/Chichewa c| t*angala
Marenji a| beu
Cocola a| beo
Sena a| beu
Lomwe a| peo
92 war guerra
Lolo of Derre Center a| k ondo
Lolo of Dula a| k ondo
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| k*ondo
Takwane a| k*o do
Chwabo a| k*o Ço
Lolo(Valade?) a| k*ondu
Manyawa Munguluni a| k*o Ço Nyanja/Chichewa a| k*nndn
Marenji a| k ondn
Cocola a| k ondo
Sena a| k nndo
Lomwe a| k n co
93 hunger fome
Lolo of Derre Center a| dal a
Lolo of Dula a| dal a
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| dal a
Takwane a| dal a
Chwabo a| dal a
Lolo(Valade?) a| dar a
Manyawa Munguluni a| dal a Nyanja/Chichewa a| <¡l ¡
Lolo of Derre Center a| zina
Lolo of Dula a| zina
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| zina
Takwane a| d ina
Chwabo a| zina
Lolo(Valade?) a| d ina
Manyawa Munguluni a| &ina
Nyanja/Chichewa a| dzina
Marenji a| zina
Cocola a| zina
Sena a| dzina
95 night noite
Lolo(Valade?) c| nama!iu Manyawa Munguluni a| !i u
Lolo of Derre Center a| ja ka
Lolo of Dula a| ja w a
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| ja ka
Takwane a| ja ka
Chwabo a| ja ka
Lolo(Valade?) a| ja w a
Manyawa Munguluni a| ja: ka Nyanja/Chichewa a| dza ka
DISQUALIFIED: onomatopoetic entries - all but Sena
98 to bite morder
Lolo of Derre Center a| luma
Lolo of Dula a| luma
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| luma
Takwane a| luma
Lolo of Derre Center a| ze**la
Lolo of Dula a| ze**la
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| ze**la
Takwane a| 8e**la
Chwabo a| de**la
Lolo(Valade?) a| de**d¡
Manyawa Munguluni a| &e**la Nyanja/Chichewa a| zi**ra Nyanja/Chichewa f| tet*a
Marenji a| t umea
Cocola c| vija
Sena d| pisa
Lomwe e| jela
101 to bury enterrar
Lolo of Derre Center c| vu elela Lolo of Dula c| vu!elela Lolo of Nyanzaza c| vu!elela
Takwane a| ti bela
Chwabo a| ti bela
Lolo(Valade?) b| !umber¡ Manyawa Munguluni a| ti b'la Nyanja/Chichewa f| kwirira
Marenji a| timbela
Cocola c| vu elela
Sena d| fikira
Lomwe e| hela
102 to come vir
Lolo of Derre Center a| ze
Lolo of Dula a| za
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| za
103 to cook cozinhar Nyanja/Chichewa a| p*ika
Marenji a| p ia
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| k ot omula
Takwane a| k ot omola
Chwabo a| k nt omol
Lolo(Valade?) a| k ot *omul¡ Manyawa Munguluni a| k ot omola Nyanja/Chichewa a| k nts*nmnla
Marenji a| k ot omola
Cocola a| k ot omula
Sena a| k o s **nla
Lomwe a| k*ot *omola
105 to count contar
Lolo of Derre Center e| contari
Lolo of Dula d| ale0ga
Lolo of Nyanzaza e| contari
Takwane b| anag a
Chwabo a| e0ges
Lolo(Valade?) a| i0ges¡ Manyawa Munguluni b| alak anha Nyanja/Chichewa d| 'renga
Marenji d| eli0ga
Lolo(Valade?) a| d a la
Manyawa Munguluni a| a la
Nyanja/Chichewa 0 ==no data===
Lolo of Derre Center a| kwa
Lolo of Dula a| kwa
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| kwa
Takwane a| kwa
Manyawa Munguluni b| wiri a
Nyanja/Chichewa a| mwa
Lolo(Valade?) a| d<a Manyawa Munguluni a| d<a Nyanja/Chichewa a| Èja
Marenji a| d<a
Cocola a| d<a
Sena a| dja
110 to fall cair
Lolo of Derre Center c| ****gwa
Lolo of Dula c| ****gwa
Lolo of Nyanzaza c| ****gwa
Takwane c| t*u0gwa
111 to fear ter medo
Lolo of Derre Center a| ova
Lolo of Dula a| ova
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| ova
Takwane a| ova
Lolo of Derre Center a| vava
Lolo of Dula a| vava
Lolo of Nyanzaza b| p urumuwa
Takwane a| vava
Chwabo a| vava
Lolo(Valade?) b| p*urumu a Manyawa Munguluni a| vava
114 to give birth dar a luz Lolo of Derre Center a| bala
Lolo of Dula a| bala
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| bala
Takwane a| bala
Chwabo a| bala
Lolo(Valade?) a| mbara
Manyawa Munguluni b| jara
Lolo of Derre Center a| vwa
Lolo of Dula a| vwa
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| vwa
Takwane a| wa
Lolo of Derre Center b| k oma
Lolo of Dula b| k oma
Lolo of Nyanzaza b| k oma
Takwane c| dwa&a
Chwabo a| vaÇa
Lolo(Valade?) b| k*oma
Manyawa Munguluni f| kut*a Nyanja/Chichewa d| m'Õ a
Marenji b| k oma
Cocola b| k oma
Sena d| m'Õja
117 to hunt caçar Lolo of Derre Center b| saja
Lolo of Dula b| saja
Lolo of Nyanzaza b| saja
Takwane b| saia
Manyawa Munguluni a| ip a Nyanja/Chichewa a| p*a
Marenji a| p*a
Cocola a| p*a
Sena a| p*a
Lomwe a| ip a
119 to know (a person) conhecer Lolo of Derre Center c| nona
Lolo of Dula a| + ziwa
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| + ziwa
Takwane c| nona
Chwabo a| ziwa
Lolo(Valade?) a| id iwa
Manyawa Munguluni b| &u ela
Nyanja/Chichewa a| dziwa
Manyawa Munguluni a| t e a Nyanja/Chichewa b| s'k¡
DISQUALIFIED: several word lists used “to break”, which is a synonym for “to leave” in Portuguese.
122 to lie down deitar-se
Lolo of Derre Center a| g ona t*i Lolo of Dula a| g ona t*i Lolo of Nyanzaza a| g ona t*i
Takwane a| k onant i
Chwabo a| g onant i
Lolo(Valade?) a| 0g ona t i Manyawa Munguluni d| wit*ua Nyanja/Chichewa a| g nn¡
Lolo of Derre Center a| t el**a
Lolo of Dula a| t el**a
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| t*el**u
Takwane a| t el**a
Chwabo a| t el**a
Lolo(Valade?) a| t*el**¡ Manyawa Munguluni a| t*el**a Nyanja/Chichewa d| kw¡tira
Marenji a| t 'liwa
Cocola a| t*el**a
Sena c| kazari
Lomwe a| t el**a
124 to play jogar (c bolo)
Lolo of Derre Center c| voka
Lolo of Dula g| poÕja Nyanja/Chichewa b| sew'ra
Marenji d| vot5a
Cocola d| vot5a
Sena e| sinz'ka
Lomwe f| ovia
125 to pour derramar
126 to press, squeeze espremer
Manyawa Munguluni a| wet a Nyanja/Chichewa f| knk¡
Marenji c| t*ut*umula
Cocola c| t*ut*umula
Sena d| kweja
Lomwe a| wet a
128 to push empurrar
DISQUALIFIED: multiple senses between lists: push, shove, etc.
129 to say dizer
Lolo of Derre Center b| mwandela
Lolo of Dula b| mwandela
Lolo of Nyanzaza b| mwandela
Takwane b| mwa dela
Chwabo e| mpa0g
Lolo(Valade?) b| mwandla
Manyawa Munguluni b| m u lela Nyanja/Chichewa g| n'n¡
DISQUALIFIED: multiple senses between lists: scratch, itch, pinch
131 to see ver
Lolo of Derre Center a| ona
Lolo of Dula a| ona
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| ona
Takwane a| ona
132 to send (somebody) enviar
Lolo of Derre Center c| va!ed**a
Lolo of Dula b| rumi!a
Lolo of Nyanzaza b| rumi!a
Takwane b| rum a
Chwabo b| rum
Lolo(Valade?) a| mamwandda
Manyawa Munguluni b| rum a Nyanja/Chichewa b| tum ¡
Manyawa Munguluni b| ni!a Nyanja/Chichewa d| wnnets*a
Marenji b| ni!a
Cocola b| ni!a
Sena c| pa0giza
Lomwe b| niha
134 to sing cantar
Lolo of Derre Center a| imba
Lolo of Dula a| imba
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| imba
Takwane a| i ba
Chwabo a| i ba
Lolo(Valade?) a| omba
135 to sit down sentar-se Lolo of Derre Center a| g arat i
Lolo of Dula a| g arat i
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| g arat i
Takwane a| k 'rat i
Chwabo a| k ilat i
a| g ilat i
Lolo(Valade?) a| k at i
Manyawa Munguluni a| k arat i Nyanja/Chichewa a| k*ala***
Marenji a| k arat*i
Cocola a| g arat i
Sena a| k ala***
Lomwe a| k irat i
136 to sleep dormir
Lolo of Derre Center a| gona***
Lolo of Dula a| gona***
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| gona***
Takwane a| konanti
Chwabo a| gona***
Lolo(Valade?) a| gona*ti
Manyawa Munguluni a| gona*** Nyanja/Chichewa a| gnna***
Marenji a| gona***
Lolo(Valade?) a| nu k a
Manyawa Munguluni a| u0 k a Nyanja/Chichewa a| nunk* a
Marenji a| nu k a Nyanja/Chichewa b| l¡pula
Marenji c| t*ap*a****
Cocola c| t*ap*a****
Sena b| pula
Lomwe c| t*ap*a****
139 to split rachar (lenha) Lolo of Derre Center a| p a rula
Lolo of Dula a| p a rula
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| p a rula
Takwane a| p*a rula
Chwabo a| p a rula
Lolo(Valade?) a| p a rula
Manyawa Munguluni a| p*a rula Nyanja/Chichewa c| w¡z¡
Marenji a| p*a rula
Cocola a| p*a rula
Sena a| p andula
Lomwe b| t ala
140 to stand up levantar-se Lolo of Derre Center a| venj a
Lolo of Dula a| venj a
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| venj a
Takwane a| venj a
Chwabo a| v'nj a
Lolo(Valade?) b| $eati
Manyawa Munguluni a| venj a Nyanja/Chichewa d| imirira
Lolo of Derre Center b| ba
Lolo of Dula b| ba
Lolo of Nyanzaza b| ba
Takwane a| ija
Chwabo a| i
Lolo(Valade?) b| ba
Manyawa Munguluni a| i a Nyanja/Chichewa b| a
Marenji b| ba
Cocola b| ba
Sena b| ba
142 to suck chupar
Manyawa Munguluni d| nu la
Nyanja/Chichewa h| j¡0¡
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| z imba****
Takwane a| & i ba****
Chwabo a| v i b****
Lolo(Valade?) a| d imba****
Manyawa Munguluni a| w i ba**** Nyanja/Chichewa b| tup¡
Marenji a| z imba****
Cocola a| z imba****
Sena a| pswimba****
Lomwe a| w i pa****
144 to swim nadar
Lolo of Derre Center a| ambel'la
Lolo of Dula a| ambel'la
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| ambel'la
Takwane b| raba
Chwabo a| !a belela
Lolo(Valade?) a| ambelela
Manyawa Munguluni b| raba Nyanja/Chichewa d| b¡dira
Marenji a| samberera
Lolo(Valade?) b| poÕja
Manyawa Munguluni b| voÕ a Nyanja/Chichewa b| poÕ a
Marenji a| vot5a******
Cocola a| vot5a******
Sena b| poÕja
Lomwe d| tik
146 to dry secar
Lolo of Derre Center a| um a
Lolo of Dula a| um a
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| um a
Takwane a| um a
Chwabo a| um
Lolo(Valade?) a| umia
Manyawa Munguluni a| um a
Nyanja/Chichewa a| um a
Lolo(Valade?) a| o0ga
Manyawa Munguluni b| lo da Nyanja/Chichewa c| j¡nk*ula
Marenji a| o ka
Cocola a| u0ga
Sena a| lo0ga
Lomwe b| lo ca
148 to get wet molhar
Lolo of Derre Center a| Õjet* a Manyawa Munguluni b| nan a Nyanja/Chichewa e| Õnw¡
Marenji c| vuega
Cocola a| Õj't* a
Sena d| tot'sa
149 to vomit vomitar Lolo of Derre Center a| raveja
Lolo of Dula a| raveja
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| raveja
Takwane a| raveja
Chwabo a| Üapika
Lolo(Valade?) a| ra$e a Manyawa Munguluni a| rapeja Nyanja/Chichewa c| s¡nz¡
Marenji a| ravea Nyanja/Chichewa a| 'nd a
Marenji a| end a
Cocola a| 'nd a
Sena b| famba
Lomwe a| '£ a
151 to want querer
Lolo of Derre Center a| funa
Lolo of Dula a| funa
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| funa
Takwane a| funa
152 to bathe(ysf) tomar banho Lolo of Derre Center a| amba
Lolo of Dula a| ! amba Nyanja/Chichewa a| s¡mb¡
Marenji a| amba
Cocola a| amba
Sena a| samba
Lomwe a| r a pa
153 to wash(a pot) lavar Lolo of Derre Center a| uwa
Lolo of Dula a| uwa
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| uwa
Takwane a| !u a
Chwabo c| fula
Lolo(Valade?) a| u a
Manyawa Munguluni a| su a Nyanja/Chichewa d| 5¡p¡
Lolo of Derre Ctr. b| lini
Lolo of Dula b| ludi
Lolo of Nyanzaza b| lidi
Takwane e| zulu
Chwabo d| **munÇui
Lolo(Valade?) b| livi
Manyawa Munguluni d| **mu dori Nyanja/Chichewa a| jimba luz i
Marenji b| lidi
Lolo(Valade?) b| imbo!i
Manyawa Munguluni a| mo&a
Nyanja/Chichewa c| modzi
Marenji b| m o!i
Cocola b| m o!i
Sena c| potsi
156 two dois Lolo of Derre Center a| bili
Lolo of Dula a| bili
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| bili
Takwane a| bili
Lolo of Derre Center a| t aru
Lolo of Dula a| t aru
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| t aru
Takwane a| Ü aru
Chwabo a| Ü aru
Lolo(Valade?) a| r aru
Manyawa Munguluni a| t*aru
Nyanja/Chichewa a| t atu
Lolo of Derre Center a| na i
Lolo of Dula a| na i
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| na i
Takwane a| na i
Chwabo a| na i^
Lolo(Valade?) a| na ii
Manyawa Munguluni a| na i Nyanja/Chichewa a| n¡ ji
Marenji a| na i
Cocola a| na i
Sena a| na i
Lomwe a| na i
159 five cinco
Lolo of Derre Center a| t anu
Lolo of Dula a| t anu
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| t anu
Takwane a| t*anu
Chwabo a| t anu
Lolo(Valade?) a| t ano
Manyawa Munguluni a| t anu Nyanja/Chichewa a| s ¡nu
Marenji a| t anu
Cocola a| t anu
Sena a| 5 anu
Lomwe a| t anu
160 six seis
DISQUALIFIED: phrasal, “1 + 5”
161 seven sete
DISQUALIFIED: phrasal, “2 + 5”
162 eight oito
DISQUALIFIED: phrasal, “3 + 5”
163 nine nove
DISQUALIFIED: phrasal, “4 + 5”
164 ten dez
Lolo of Derre Center a| k umi
Lolo of Dula a| k umi
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| k umi
Takwane a| k umi
Chwabo a| k umi
Lolo(Valade?) a| k umi
Manyawa Munguluni a| k umi Nyanja/Chichewa a| k*umi
Marenji a| k*umi
Cocola a| k umi
Sena a| k umi
Lomwe a| k umi
165 all todos
Lolo of Derre Center a| eteni
Lolo of Dula a| eteni
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| eteni
Takwane a| at'ne
Chwabo a| t'ni
Lolo(Valade?) a| otne
Manyawa Munguluni a| at'ne Nyanja/Chichewa b| nns'
Marenji a| 'teni
Cocola a| at'ne
Sena a| s'ni
166 dirty sujo
Lolo of Derre Ctr. b| t ak al******a Lolo of Dula b| t ak al******a Lolo of Nyanzaza b| t ak al******a
Takwane b| t ak an******a
Chwabo a| opigi&ea
Lolo(Valade?) b| t ak al******a Manyawa Munguluni e| onanara Nyanja/Chichewa f| rits*iro
Marenji b| t*ak*al******a
Cocola b| t*ak al******a
Sena b| t5ak uÕjanjasa
Lomwe 0 susu (Pt borrow?
(sujo))
167 dry seco
Lolo of Derre Center a| **** uma
Lolo of Dula a| **** uma
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| ****;uma
Takwane a| **** uma
Chwabo a| **** um
Lolo(Valade?) a| ****!uma
Manyawa Munguluni a| **** uma
Nyanja/Chichewa a| **** uma
Lolo of Derre Center a| zala
Lolo of Dula a| zala
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| zala
Takwane a| &ala
Chwabo a| éala
Lolo(Valade?) a| dala
Manyawa Munguluni a| &ala Nyanja/Chichewa c| dz¡dz¡
Marenji a| zala
Cocola a| zala
Sena a| t5ala
Lomwe b| ovona
169 good(thing) boa/bom
Lolo of Derre Center b| jap ama
Lolo of Dula b| jap ama
Lolo of Nyanzaza b| jap ama
Takwane b| jap ama
Chwabo a| ziv
Lolo(Valade?) b| jap ama
Manyawa Munguluni b| jap ama Nyanja/Chichewa d| winn
Marenji b| **p*ama
Cocola b| jap*ama
Sena c| adidi
Lomwe b| **p ama
170 left (hand) esquerdo
Lolo of Derre Center e| orumana
Lolo of Dula e| orumana
Lolo of Nyanzaza e| orumana
Takwane c| o0 ot*u
Chwabo a| nemara
Lolo(Valade?) b| konozweli
Manyawa Munguluni c| onjet u Nyanja/Chichewa d| **m¡nz'r'
Lolo of Derre Center a| od<ana Lolo of Dula a| od<ana Lolo of Nyanzaza a| od<ana
Takwane a| od<a**
Chwabo g| o£ a**
Lolo(Valade?) a| mad<u** Manyawa Munguluni a| od<a** Nyanja/Chichewa a| m¡n<¡** Takwane a| &i djindji
Chwabo e| gwe
Lolo(Valade?) a| $ind<i d<i Manyawa Munguluni c| &owada
Nyanja/Chichewa f| mbiri
Marenji b| vitt5i
Cocola a| vind<i d<i
Sena d| zin ji
173 new novo
Lolo(Valade?) b| ip i a
Manyawa Munguluni a| e 5 a
DISQUALIFIED: multiple forms: “rotate”, “wrap up”, “round”, etc.
175 black cor preta
Lolo of Derre Center a| ***jodimba
Lolo of Dula a| ***jodimba
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| ***jodi ba
Takwane a| *** ri ba
Chwabo a| *** ri ba
Lolo(Valade?) a| *** dimba
Manyawa Munguluni a| *** ri ba Nyanja/Chichewa b| Èa
Marenji a| kod<odimba
Cocola a| ***jodimba
Sena c| pswipa
Lomwe a| *** ri ba
176 red cor encarnada
Lolo of Derre Center a| fila
Lolo of Dula a| fila
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| fila
Takwane a| fila
Lolo of Derre Center a| it5ena
Lolo of Dula a| it5ena
Lolo of Nyanzaza a| it5ena
Takwane a| t5'na
Chwabo a| cen
Lolo(Valade?) a| t5na
Manyawa Munguluni b| jawela Nyanja/Chichewa b| j 'ra
Marenji b| wela
Cocola b| wela
Sena a| t5'na
Lomwe b| jawela
178 fat(thing) gordo
Lolo of Derre Ctr. d| ruva
Lolo of Dula d| ruva
Lolo of Nyanzaza b| oluk ula*******
Takwane d| oruva
Chwabo a| okuma
Lolo(Valade?) b| oluk* manu0ga
Manyawa Mungulun c| onen'va Nyanja/Chichewa c| nen'pa
Marenji d| oruva
Cocola d| ruva
Sena a| kuma
Lomwe c| onenava
179 large(thing) grande
Lolo of Derre Center a| indimua
Lolo of Dula b| *iluk ulu
Lolo of Nyanzaza b| *iluk ulu
Takwane c| e lubali
Chwabo a| 'nÇumu
Lolo(Valade?) b| *iluk*ulu Manyawa Munguluni c| enlubali Nyanja/Chichewa b| ** k ulu
Marenji b| uluk ulu Manyawa Munguluni a| k u ve a
Nyanja/Chichewa d| fupika
Marenji a| k wivia
Cocola a| k wiv a
Sena c| viva
