COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING
There are many ways to teach language. One is called Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). This method is learner-centered and emphasizes communication and real-life situations.
This paper will take a look at the communicative approach to the teaching of foreign languages. It is intended as an introduction to the communicative approach for teachers and teachers-in-training who want to provide opportunities in the classroom for their students to engage in real-life communication in the target language. Questions to be dealt with include what the communicative language teaching is, where it came from, and how teachers' and students' roles differ from the roles they play in other teaching approaches.
W h a t is co m m u n ica tive la n gu a ge te a ch in g?
Communicative language teaching is the generally accepted norm in the field of second language teaching. CLT suggests communicative language and language acquisition, and the approach proposes way for learners to internalize a second language and to experiment in a classroom context. Therefore, the classroom context is used to create activities to teach students how to react in a real world situation, not to fake real-world situations. Its basic features are:
1. An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language.
2. The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation (Authentic material is a must, because students cannot extrapolate to the real world from their learning on made-up material)
3. The provision of opportunities for learners to focus not only on language, but also on the learning process itself.
4. An enhancement of the learner's own personal experience as important contributing elements to classroom learning.
5. An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activation outside the classroom.
Communicative language teaching makes use of real-life situations that necessitate communication. The teacher sets up a situation that students are likely to encounter in real life. Unlike the audiolingual method of language teaching, which relies on repetition and drills, the communicative approach can leave students in suspense as to the outcome of a class exercise, which will vary according to their reactions and responses. The real-life simulations change from day to day. Students' motivation to learn comes from their desire to communicate in meaningful ways about meaningful topics.
W h e re d o e s co m m u n ica tive la n gu a ge te a ch in g co m e fro m ?
foreign language instruction. They felt that students were not learning enough realistic, whole language. They did not know how to communicate using appropriate social language, gestures, or expressions; in brief, they were at a loss to communicate in the culture of the language studied. Interest in and development of communicative-style teaching mushroomed in the 1970s; authentic language use and classroom exchanges where students engaged in real communication with one another became quite popular.
In the intervening years, the communicative approach has been adapted to the elementary, middle, secondary, and post-secondary levels, and the underlying philosophy has spawned different teaching methods known under a variety of names, including notional-functional, teaching for proficiency, proficiency-based instruction, and communicative language teaching.
W h a t a re s o m e e xa m p le s o f co m m u n ica tive e xe rcis e s ?
In a communicative classroom for beginners, the teacher might begin by passing out cards, each with a different name printed on it. The teacher then proceeds to model an exchange of introductions in the target language: "Good morning, what is your name?" Reply: "My name is Susan," for example. Using a combination of the target language and gestures, the teacher conveys the task at hand, and gets the students to introduce themselves and ask their classmates for information. They are responding in English to a question in English. They do not know the answers beforehand, as they are each holding cards with their new identities written on them; hence, there is an authentic exchange of information.
Later during the class, as a reinforcement listening exercise, the students might hear a recorded exchange between two English freshmen meeting each other for the first time at the Gymnasium doors. Then the teacher might explain, in Bahasa Indonesia, the differences among English greetings in various social situations. Finally, the teacher will explain some of the grammar points and structures used.
The following exercise, called "Eavesdropping," is aimed at advanced students.
Instructions to students: Listen to a conversation somewhere in a public place and be
prepared to answer, in the target language, some general questions about what was said.
1. Who was talking?
2. About how old were they?
3. Where were they when you eavesdropped? 4. What were they talking about?
5. What did they say?
6. Did they become aware that you were listening to them?
H o w d o th e ro le s o f th e te a ch e r a n d s tu d e n t ch a n ge in co m m u n ica tive la n gu a ge te a ch in g?
COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE LEARNING
1. Use of the target language
Communication in a foreign language must involve both teachers and pupils using the target language as the normal means of communication. Extensive use should be made of the target language in lessons at a level appropriate to the class.
In situations where, for reasons of safety, it is essential that instructions should be understood, they should be given in the language which is the normal medium of instruction for those pupils.When the teacher is satisfied that the instructions have been fully understood, they should be repeated in the target language. Pupils who do not hear or use enough of the target language will not develop the ability to understand and speak it outside a narrow range of prescribed situations.
2. Courses tuned to motivate pupils
Content of lessons must at every stage include the expressions in the target language which the pupils will need in everyday communication on topics which are intrinsically interesting to them, which relate to their life both at home and at school and which will motivate them to guess at new meanings and convey new ideas.
Pupils need to be trained to use the skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing in combination, interacting with resource materials, their teachers and each other. If care is taken to develop pupils' competence in speaking and understanding from the beginning, they will become progressively more able to use the foreign language as the normal means of communication to cope with basic tasks during their work.
3. Semantic primacy
New language becomes easier to learn when pupils put words from related sense groups together into sentences rather than trying to learn them separately in lists of unconnected words and phrases.
Some pupils will still have great difficulty in retaining vocabulary, and all need the chance to re-learn word groups regularly.
But simple repetition of earlier work is very de-motivating and it is vital that reinforcement of vocabulary should be done in contexts appropriate to pupils' levels of maturity.
4. Grammar
benefit from paying attention to accuracy from an early stage of learning. A good understanding of structure is also central to success in listening and reading comprehension.
To be effective, the necessary training in the recognition and use of structure and grammar needs to be an integral part of the way in which the target language is taught and practised rather than the subject of theoretical exposition.
5. Language learning and acquisition skills
Conscious techniques of memorisation and enhanced skills of listening (tuning of the ear, recognition of sound patterns) and speaking (training of the vocal organs to reproduce new words accurately), need to be developed in the learner throughout the course.
6. Independent learning
In order to develop the capacity for independent learning, as many activities as possible should train pupils to use their current stock of language to cope with the unfamiliar and to learn how to find out what they want to know.
They should be accustomed to making effective use of reference materials (including dictionaries) especially in developing reading and writing skills. An additional benefit is that even relative beginners can then work more autonomously; they can start to use the foreign language creatively and read and write short imaginative pieces, including poems.
7. Resources
The quality of teaching is probably the most important factor governing pupils' performance in a foreign language. No teacher however can fully realise the potential of their pupils without the support of the requisite material resources. Pupils need ready access to suitable authentic resources and provision needs to be made specifically for this. Welsh medium classes may need particular assistance in this respect.
The emphasis on communicative skills renders essential the provision of audio-visual and audio-lingual facilities, in classrooms readily adaptable for their use and with adequate auxiliary and technical staffing support.
Similarly the contribution of computer assisted techniques to language learning requires the provision of easy access for teachers in their classrooms to such equipment.
Furthermore, the need for individual study and practice, for conversational work in small groups and for the effective assessment of oral and aural competence requires the provision of accommodation suitable for these activities.
Assistants play a crucial role in this area and it is desirable that pupils have access to their services each year.
8. Methodology
Language learning takes place within a variety of different contexts e.g. at home, in the local community or on a visit abroad, but the classroom is where most language learning is done. The experiences which learners have in class therefore greatly influence their general attitude to language learning.
The classroom situation is complex. The teacher has specific objectives in teaching a certain aspect of the language, a range of strategies from which to choose and an established relationship with the learners. The learners too have expectations of what and how they wish to learn and of their relationship with the teacher. The nature of the class, the time of day and the location also create their own opportunities as well as their own constraints and demands. The teacher must therefore select those aspects of good practice which suit both the specific objectives of the lesson and the broader context.
9. Differentiation
• Activities are well matched to learners' ages, abilities and interests.
• Tasks are suited to the learners' stage of maturity and linguistic competence.
• Promoting a sense of challenge and achievement - nothing succeeds like success.
• Encouraging pupils to assess their own capabilities.
10. Some of the characteristics of good practice
are:-• Motivation
• Clear aims
• Clear explanations
• Varied Activities at an appropriate pace
• Range of skills practised
• Co-operative group work
• Independence
• Selective use of published course materials
• Reading for information and pleasure
• Insights into both their own and the foreign culture
• Regular contacts with native speakers
• Integrated Assessment
• Homework planned as part of the course
• Pupils acquire a good accent
• Pupils acquire a good range of vocabulary
• Teachers' Attitudes
• Understanding the target language
• Communicating in the target language
Motivation
One of the most characteristic features of good practice is the sense of enjoyment and motivation which is created.
Clear aims
Consistency of teaching approaches is not the same as uniformity, but a wide difference of approaches is confusing to learners as they progress through the school. There should therefore be agreed, clear objectives for pupils' progression for all abilities and the teaching methods and resources designed to achieve them.
Clear explanations are given about:
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• what they are expected to learn during the year;
• what's the purpose of current lesson;
• how to tackle the tasks and to set them;
• what to do when they meet problems in their work.
Activities are varied and taken at an appropriate pace
Especially in the long 55 minute lessons present in many schools, attention is best captured and held by a well-planned succession of activities of varying lengths and types, combining different skills. Pace is an important ingredient in providing variety.
Most activities benefit if taken at a lively pace. Even routine oral class repetition can be made enjoyable if taken briskly, especially if accompanied by gestures, movement round the class or an element of competition.
On the other hand there is also an important place for a more reflective pace, allowing learners a short pause for thought, or silent reading of a passage etc.
Activities that bring a range of skills into play
e.g. 1. A whole class listening exercise answering questions or ticking grid:-
• Hear tape twice.
• Whole class feedback on answers.
• Hear tape third/fourth time making more detailed notes so as to reconstruct the text orally in pairs/groups; then collaborate in groups on a written version.
• Groups report back to whole class and teacher can give extra guidance before setting task as written homework.
e.g. 2. A whole class reading activity:-
• Silent reading of text
• Answer comprehension questions
Extended topics provide opportunities for integrated skills and varied activities such as projects based on surveys, joint written accounts of events, imaginative writing/speaking, planning foreign trips, twinning arrangements, meeting foreign visitors etc.
Learners often work co-operatively in groups
Activities involving the whole class together and closely controlled by the teacher are necessary and valuable for introducing, reinforcing or clarifying elements of language.
However, to learn to use the language spontaneously, learners need frequent opportunities to work with each other on suitable tasks.
• Information-gap activities.
• Joint writing tasks.
• Group projects investigating, reporting and presentation of end product.
Learners become increasingly independent in their work
• Using language in unrehearsed situations.
• Using a range of sources to get linguistic and factual information.
• Deciding on aspect to be studied and end product to be presented.
Published course materials are used selectively
• Adapted to ability/ needs of learners.
• Adjusted to suit style of teacher.
• Used in conjunction with other materials reflecting interests of pupils, (up to date, realia, fashion, local colour).
Learners read extensively for information and pleasure
• Providing a wide range of reading material e.g. Jakarta Post, Newsweek, Reader’s Digest, etc.
• Some lesson time devoted to private reading.
• Learners keep a record of what they have read.
Learners are given insights into both their own and the foreign culture
• Start with learners' knowledge of topic.
• Use authentic materials, realia, magazines,etc.
• Establish links with native speakers.
Learners have regular contacts with native speakers
• School visits abroad. Reciprocal exchanges.
• Visiting native speakers, student teachers, assistants.
• Exchanging authentic materials.
Assessment is integrated with teaching and learning
Formative (continuous assessment) and summative testing (end of unit/term/year tests)
The latter gives a useful overview of achievement whereas the former:
• identifies learners' strengths and weaknesses;
• seeks to build on strengths and remedy weaknesses;
• learners motivated by being involved in own progress.
Homework is a planned part of the course
• Consolidates class work.
• Prepares for future work.
• Provides for all skills including oral work.
• Time consuming investigations can be done.
• Prepare project presentations.
Pupils acquire a good accent
• Early attention to pronunciation is important. Frequent exposure and use of the target language is essential.
• Sound discrimination, distinguishing between words, becoming accustomed to the rhythm of the language.
• Careful listening and active voice practice.
• Teachers often insist on silence and class discipline for this reason among others.
• Oral work can help aural discrimination.
• However, in the early stages of learning the written form can interfere strongly with pronunciation. To combat this, learners need ample opportunities to listen and respond before the written forms are involved.
Pupils acquire a good range of vocabulary
Much time is spent in class on introducing or reinforcing vocab. Many nevertheless find the retention of words difficult for any length of time. Therefore:-
• Learners encouraged to take charge of expanding their vocab, gathering words, using dicos.
• Vocab. introduced and learnt in a coherent context.
• Vocab. re-introduced regularly in new contexts appropriate to learners' changed age and knowledge.
• Attention to cognates, synonyms, opposites, stems and affixes.
Vocab. tests by listing Welsh/English equivalents are not the only way to test knowledge. A variety of tasks increases the stimulation and concentration of pupils, e.g. identify words from definitions, gap filling, having to use new words in real situations, self-testing etc.
Teachers' Attitudes
• Positive attitudes on the part of teachers to the teaching of languages and a good level of teaching skills are crucial to pupils' performance.
• Establishes a work-centered atmosphere.
• High but realistic expectations of the pupils expressed in challenging but attainable tasks matched to the ability of the pupils.
• We should avoid low expectations resulting in tasks being set which make too few demands on pupils.
• Thoughtful lesson planning and a well-organised approach to work.
• Focusing a variety of activities on one principal theme is particularly effective in securing learning.
• Failure to establish a proper working atmosphere will prevent pupils achieving satisfactory results in their work.
• The effective use of audio-visual aids and the imaginative use of other resources leading to active participation by pupils.
• Activities in lessons which lack focus and a clear purpose and which are not presented in ways which interest and involve pupils will often result in poor quality work from the pupils.
Understanding the target language
• Answers to listening or reading comprehension exercises can be noted in Welsh or English and later used to give oral answers in target language. Checking and discussing answers in Welsh or English reduces the amount of Foreign Language exposure
• Extracts often need to be replayed during the checking of answers to enable pupils to listen again.
• Listening comprehension should not simply be used as a vocab. test but also as a means of developing pupils' linguistic skills.
• Reading for comprehension and pleasure are ideal homework tasks as well as classroom activities. Extended reading at home needs to be encouraged and adequately monitored.
Communicating in the target language
• Working in pairs or groups gives the pupils the chance to practice oral work.
• However the monitoring of pupils' oral work in these situations must be effective and thorough.
• The activity should not go on for too long, but rather should have a known time limit in which to finish the task.
• Common errors can be noted by the teacher in order to give such errors attention latter without interrupting the flow of the activity.
Most written work should include free writing, mainly in the form of letters, pen portraits, and the results of mini-enquiries conducted in the classroom.
The role of grammar in communicative language teaching
“The role of grammar in communicative langauge teaching" suggests an uneasy relationship between two elements: namely, grammar on the one hand, and communication on the other. In my remarks I hope to dispel some of the
misunderstandings that promote its continuing existence. But, before I address the role that grammar has played in the history of second language teaching, I'd like to first explore the nature of grammar: What is it? Linguists define grammar as a set of components: phonetics (the production and perception of sounds), phonology (how sounds are combined), morphology (the study of forms, or how elements are combined to create words), syntax (how words are strung together into sentences), and semantics or meaning. Because all languages are characterized by these components, by definition, language does not exist without grammar.
However, grammar has not always been defined in these terms. Originally, the term grammar, grammatica, referred to the art of writing, as compared to rhetoric, rettorica, the art of speaking. As used today by many teachers and learners, grammar is loosely understood to be a set of rules that govern language, primarily its morphology and syntax. But morphology and syntax are only two components of grammar. Communicative language teaching has brought a renewed emphasis on the role that semantics plays in the definition of language. Communicative language teaching is fundamentally concerned with 'making meaning' in the language, whether by interpreting someone else's message, expressing one's own, or negotiating when meaning is unclear. Viewing grammar with all of its components helps us as language teachers understand the complexity of what it means to know the grammar of a language. Clearly, the goal of language learning in the communicative classroom is for learners to acquire the grammar of the second language in its broadest sense, to enable them to understand and make meaning; that is, to become proficient users of the second language. Research and experience have shown that explicit teaching of grammatical rules, even if we were able to formulate them all, does not produce such competence. How, then, should grammar be taught?
You may have noticed that I said that communicative language teaching has brought a renewed emphasis to the role of semantics, especially in the early stages of instruction. The title of my presentation also promises an historical perspective. What I will do now is demonstrate that the goal of developing learners' functional competence in a second language, the goal of communicative language teaching, is not a new idea: it has existed for at least the past five hundred years. And a look at the history of second language teaching will reveal characteristics of pedagogy that have been known to promote functional language competence as well as explain why language teachers have not had access to that pedagogy.
And as for teaching "men, not parrots"?
as if he were the teacher of the rest), to give his explanations in the same words, and to employ the same examples, and if he make a mistake he should be corrected. Then another can be called up and made go through the same performance while the rest listen. After him a third, a fourth, and as many as are necessary, until it is evident that all have understood the lesson and are in a position to explain it. In carrying this out great care should be taken to call up the fast learners first, in order that, after their example, the slow ones may find it easier to follow.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING IN SMK BASED ON 2004 CURRICULUM
Homogeneous Class
Since communicative language teaching demands an active communication among students in class, the homogenity (in terms of English proficiency) of students in one class is necessary. This is why levelling the students into the homogenous class is encoraged to be implemented in SMK. There are three levels in the curriculum, novice, elementary, and intermediate. It is believed that the same level of proficiency in one class will support the community language learning.
The Use of Self-Access Center
The use of Self-Access Center, in which authenic learning materials (magazines, newspapers, brochures, leaflet, etc.) are available for learners, will support the communicative language learning.
To start using the access center, teachers need to assign students to work in self-access center. The works varies from summarizing an article, doing self-assessment, listening, writing, et cetera. Teachers need to set up the self-access center accordingly so that learners will eventually feel comfortable working in the self-access center.
Students’ work need to be compiled, and at the end of the semester, all students work will be reviewed. This is what so called portfolio assessment.
Supporting Activities
Supporting activities through games or competition will also play an important role to help provide English speaking atmosphere. Through these activities, it is expected that learners are more encouraged to learn and to use the language actively.
