DESIGNING A SET OF INTEGRATED ENGLISH
SUPPLEMENTARY SPEAKING MATERIALS
FOR SPEAKING IV SUBJECT IN
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM
OF SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
A Thesis
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
A. Y. ADVENTA PRAMUSHANTI Student Number: 011214046
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM
DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION
FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
iv
Time grabs you by the wrist directs you where to go
So make the best at this test and don’t ask why
It’s not a question, but a lesson learned in time
(Time of Your Life,
a song by
Green Day)
vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
With the completion of this thesis, I would like to express my very first
gratitude to Jesus Christ, for his abundant love and grace upon my life. I thank
Him for His guidance and endless love that stand above all.
I am so much indebted to my major sponsor, Markus Budiraharjo, S.Pd.,
M.Ed. His guidance, encouragement and advice definitely contributed many to
the completion of my study. I thank him for being so inspiring. I would also
express my sincere gratitude to my co-sponsor, Henny Herawati, S.Pd.,
M.Hum., for her support, advice, and time to read and revise my thesis.
My deepest gratitude goes to my parents, Bapak Teguh C. Dalyono and
Ibu Ceacilia Indah Retnowati, who always give love, encouragement and support. Their effort in raising and educating me made me who I am now. I
cannot thank them enough for their love and patience. I also give my special
gratitude to my beloved sister, A. M. Theoterra Yoshanti, for being my rock in
my ups and downs. For me, she is the best sister one can ever have. I would like
to thank my uncle, Y. Puryanto, SCY. His continuous prayer and love played a
great role in my life.
I owe all lecturers in English Language Education Study Program for their
guidance and kindness during my study in Sanata Dharma University. My
gratitude also goes to Ms. Peggy Lowry for the encouragement and advice, and
vii
My next appreciation goes to Mbak Danik and Mbak Tari from the Secretariat and all library staffs for their encouragement and help.
I am very happy to give my endless thanks to my best friends, Widya,
Tuty, Desi, Icha, Ella, Shinta, Diah, Sito, Adis, Niken, Naomi, Widi, Fajar, Leo, Bowo, Gelar, and Yos (`). Their love, encouragement, and companionship
color my days. I also thank Tuty for the grammar correction in my designed
materials. My special thankfulness is given to Widya for being a truly friend. I
thank her for the patience, support and advice especially in my hard days.
My special appreciation goes to my friends in Youth English
Community, Mas Nunuk, Icha, Tunjung, Sisca, Endro, Retno, Mbak Retty,
Mbak Domi, Mas Ponky, Mas Silih and Mas Onggo for being a family. I really enjoyed the time when we worked and laughed. Thank for the coffee session and
the wonderful times we’ve been through.
My thankfulness also flies to my friends in Teater Toedjoeh, Tika, Dika,
Vita, Guntur, Rico, Adi, Otto and Wikan for helping me to find the meaning of life. I thank my dearest cousins, Tika ‘Cing’ and ‘Meme’ Dika for the laughter and the endless support. I would also thank Ceklex for all the gadget things and
Maseko for creating beautiful layout in the designed materials.
Last but not least, with my grateful heart, I would like to express my
special thankfulness to my only partner, Teddy Dwi Satrio Dumasthary for
always being there. His love, patience, and support mean so much in my life.
Thank you for being my other half.
viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE ………...
PAGE OF APPROVAL ……….
PAGE OF ACCEPTANCE ………...
PAGE OF DEDICATION ……….
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ………..
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ………...
TABLE OF CONTENTS ………...
LIST OF FIGURES ………...
LIST OF TABLES ………
ABSTRACT ………...
ABSTRAK ………...
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION
A. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY ……….
B. PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION ………...
C. PROBLEM LIMITATION ………...
D. PROBLEM FORMULATION ………..
E. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY ………..
F. BENEFITS OF THE STUDY ………...
G. DEFINITION OF TERMS ………...
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CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
A. THEORETICAL DESCRIPTION ………...
1. Communicative Language Teaching ………..
a. Theory of Language and Language Learning ….………..
b. The Roles of Teachers and Students ………...
c. The Roles of Instructional Materials ………...
2. Teaching Speaking ………...
a. The Nature of Speaking ………...
b. Principles for Designing Speaking Techniques ………...
c. Type of Classroom Activity ………...
3. Public Speaking ………..
a. Preparing Speech ………..
b. Delivering Speech ….………
4. Integrated Language Teaching ….………...
a. Task-based Instruction ….………...
b. Content-based Instruction ….………
5. Instructional Material Design Models ………
a. Kemp’s Instructional Design Models ………...
b. Yalden’s Instructional Design Models ….………...
B. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ….………...
CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY
A. RESEARCH METHODS ……….
1. Review of Related Literature ….………...
x
2. Survey Research ………...
a. Pre-design Survey Research ………...
b. Post-design Survey Research ….………...
B. RESEARCH SETTING ….………...
C. RESEARCH RESPONDENTS ………....
1. Respondents of the Pre-design Survey Research ….………...
2. Respondents of the Post-design Survey Research ….…………...
D. RESEARCH INSTRUMENT ………...
1. Questionnaire ….………...
a. Questionnaire of the Pre-design Survey Research ….…………...
b. Questionnaire of the Post-design Survey Research ….………….
2. Interview ….………
a. Interview of the Pre-design Survey Research ….………..
b. Interview of the Post-design Survey Research ….………
E. DATA GATHERING ………...
F. DATA ANALYSIS ….………..
G. RESEARCH PROCEDURES ….………..
CHAPTER IV: RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A. RESEARCH RESULTS ………...
1. The Results of Pre-Design Survey ….……….
a. Conducting Need Survey ….……….
1) Result of the Questionnaire for Students ….………...
2) Result of Interview with Lecturers ……….
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b. Stating Competencies ….………..
c. Listing Subject Contents ….………..
d. Selecting Teaching/ Learning Activities ….………..
e. Evaluation ….………
2. The Result of Post-Design Survey ….……….
a. Description of the Respondents ….………...
b. Data Presentation ….……….
1) Descriptive Statistics of the Respondents’ Opinions on the
Designed Materials ……….
2) Results of the Interview ….……….
3) Respondents’ Comments and Suggestions on the Designed
Materials ……….
B. DISCUSSION ON THE DESIGNED MATERIALS ….………..
C. PRESENTATION OF THE DESIGNED MATERIALS ….………
CHAPTER V
A. CONCLUSIONS ….………..
B. SUGGESTIONS ….………..
BIBLIOGRAPHY ……….
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A: Letter of Permission ………...
APPENDIX B: Questionnaires ………
xii
APPENDIX C: The Raw Data of the Post Design Survey ………..
APPENDIX D: General Description, Syllabus and Lesson Plan of the
Designed Materials ………...
APPENDIX E: Presentation on the Designed Materials ………....
112
116
xiii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1. Kemp’s Instructional Design Model ..………..
Figure 2.2. Yalden’s Instructional Design Model ..………
Figure 2.3. The Writer’s Model in Designing the Instructional Design …….
Figure 3.1. The Research Procedure ..………...
Figure 4.1. The Respondents’ Average Speaking Grade ..………..
Figure 4.2. The Students’ Difficulties in Learning Speaking: Language
Factors ..………
Figure 4.2. The Students’ Difficulties in Learning Speaking: Instructional
Factors ..………
Figure 4.4. The Communication Skills Needed ..………...
Figure 4.5. The Topic Selection ...………..
page 33
34
38
52
56
58
58
60
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1. The table of the description of the respondents of
questionnaire in post-design survey research ..………...
Table 3.2. The table of description of the respondents of the interview in
the post-design survey research ..………...
Table 3.3. The respondent’s opinion on the designed materials ..……...
Table 4.1. The Calculation of Respondents’ Average Speaking Grade …..
Table 4.2. The Respondents’ Opinion of the Speaking Class ..…………...
Table 4.3. The Results of Interview with Lecturers ..………...
Table 4.4. The Competencies and Indicators ..………
Table 4.5. The Description of the Respondents of the Questionnaire in
Post-design Survey ..………...
Table 4.6. The Description of the Respondents of the Interview in
Post-design Survey ..………...
Table 4.7. The Descriptive Statistics of Respondents’ Opinion on the
Materials Development ..………...
Table 4.8. The Descriptive Statistics of Respondents’ Opinion on the
Impact of the Designed Materials to Students’ Learning
Process ……...
Table 4.9. The Results of the Interview ..………
Table 4.10. Presentation of the Final Version of the Designed Materials ..
page
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50
56
59
63
66
75
76
77
79
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xv ABSTRACT
Pramushanti, A.Y. Adventa. 2007. Designing a Set of Integrated English Supplementary Speaking Materials for Speaking IV Subject in English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University. Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program. Sanata Dharma University.
One of the most fundamental skills required these days is the ability to communicate orally particularly using English language. A speaking class which generally employs segregated language instruction methods and put a heavy focus on linguistic functions is considered to be insufficient in developing students’ knowledge as it puts little emphasis on authentic communication. The integrated language instruction offers a real-life integration of language skills which is believed to provide students with meaningful learning experiences.
This study was intended to design a set of integrated English supplementary speaking materials for Speaking IV subject in the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University. There were two problems formulated in this study. The first problem concerned with how a set of supplementary integrated English instructional speaking materials for speaking IV subject on English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University was designed. The second one dealt with what the designed supplementary integrated English instructional speaking materials would look like.
In order to answer the two problems formulated previously, the writer employed the survey research which was divided to pre-design survey research and post-design survey research. To answer the first problem, the writer modified two instructional design models, which were Kemp’s and Yalden’s instructional design models. The writer applied five steps which were adapted from those two instructional design models. The steps were (1) conducting needs survey, (2) stating competencies, (3) listing subject content, (4) selecting teaching/ learning activities and resources (5) evaluation. Related to the second problem, the writer presented the final version of the designed materials which had been revised and improved based on the respondents’ comments and suggestions.
The final version of the designed materials consisted of ten units. Each unit consisted of two parts, namely the multimedia materials and the classroom materials. The multimedia materials consist of two sections namely reading section and listening section. The classroom materials covered activities used in the classroom which consists of speaking and writing activity.
xvi
ABSTRAK
Pramushanti, A.Y. Adventa. 2007. Designing a Set of Integrated English Supplementary Speaking Materials for Speaking IV Subject in English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris. Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Salah satu ketrampilan dasar yang dibutuhkan pada masa sekarang adalah kemampuan komunikasi lisan khususnya menggunakan bahasa Inggris. Sebuah kelas berbicara yang umumnya memiliki instruksi pengajaran yang tersegregasi dan menekankan pada fungsi-fungsi linguistik dianggap tidak memadai dalam mengembangkan pengetahuan siswa dikarenakan terbatasnya penekanan pada komunikasi otentik. Instruksi pengajaran yang terintegrasi menawarkan sebuah integrasi ketrampilan-ketrampilan bahasa yang otentik.
Studi ini bertujuan untuk menyusun seperangkat materi berbicara tambahan bahasa Inggris yang terintegrasi bagi mata kuliah Speaking IV di Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris Universitas Sanata Dharma. Ada dua permasalahan yang dirumuskan dalam studi ini. Masalah pertama berhubungan dengan bagaimana seperangkat materi berbicara tambahan bahasa Inggris yang terintegrasi bagi mata kuliah Speaking IV di Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris Universitas Sanata Dharma disusun. Masalah kedua berkaitan dengan bentuk dari seperangkat materi berbicara tambahan bahasa Inggris yang terintegrasi.
Untuk menjawab kedua permasalahan diatas, penulis menggunakan survei riset yang terbagi menjadi survei sebelum penyusunan materi dan survei setelah penyusunan materi. Untuk menjawab rumusan permasalahan pertama, penulis menggabungkan dua model materi pengajaran dari Kemp dan Yalden. Penulis menerapkan lima langkah yang diadaptasi dari kedua model tersebut. Langkah-langkah tersebut adalah (1) melakukan survei kebutuhan, (2) menyebutkan tujuan pembelajaran, (3) mendaftar isi materi, (4) menyeleksi aktivitas belajar mengajar dan sumber-sumber belajar, dan (5) melakukan evaluasi. Sehubungan dengan permasalahan kedua, penulis menyajikan rancangan akhir materi yang telah direvisi dan dikembangkan berdasarkan komentar-komentar dan umpan balik dari responden.
Rancangan akhir materi terdiri dari sepuluh unit. Setiap unit terdiri dari dua bagian, yaitu materi multimedia dan materi kelas. Materi multimedia terbagi menjadi dua bagian, yaitu membaca dan mendengarkan. Materi kelas meliputi aktifitas-aktifitas yang digunakan dalam proses pembelajaran di kelas yang terdiri dari aktifitas berbicara dan menulis.
1
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents some important points to initiate a discussion of the
main problem of this study. They include the background of the study, the
problem identification, the problem limitation, the problem formulation, the
objectives of the study, the benefits of the study, and the definition of terms.
A. Background of the Study
Today, as the world is becoming more globalised, the needs, demands, and
aspiration of the society let a new trend taking place. Zarefsky explained that
today’s society undergoes a shift in economy, from “dominance in economy to
dominance by information” (Zarefsky, 1996: 5). In Grice and Skinner, Hasling
(1990) also pointed out that in a civilized culture, to defend our lives, the verbal
ability is the one which we rely more than our physical strength, properties, and
principles. Clearly, good communication skills, including oral communication
(both interpersonal and public), listening, and written communication, play a
critical role in this era. People are facing greater competitive pressures in many
aspects of life, such as in school, communities, or workplaces. Therefore, only
those who are well-prepared and multi-skilled will be able to survive.
Possessing good communication skills is inseparable from mastering
language. The mastery of language will surely be a valuable asset for those who
in this global era. In Indonesia, mastering English is no longer a luxury, yet it is a
must, a minimum requirement for people who wish to stand out.
According to Lazaraton (2001), for most people, knowing a certain
language means being able to speak that language. Even speaking is viewed as the
most demanding, most language learners also feel it to be the most difficult skill
to master. This is even felt by those who specially learn this language in their
education, such as students of English Letters or English Language Education
Study Program. While there are classes which are specially designed to promote
student’s oral skill, they still find difficulties to organize their ideas and express
them orally, especially when they face real situation such as to speak in public or
interact with others outside the class.
This phenomenon leads us to look in depth about what happen in a
common speaking class. When someone learns to speak a certain language, s/he
has to get used to the elements of that language, such as vocabulary, grammar,
pronunciation, expression used, and the manner of using it. A speaking class
provides all those elements in its materials and instructions. Students are equipped
with materials which focus on knowledge of language elements as well as
language functions and then practice to use it continuously through a variety of
tasks, such as games, role play, and discussion. To assure that students speak in
the target language all the time, speaking is taught exclusively, meaning to say
that it is taught with little presence of another skill. The tradition of teaching the
language skills in segregated fashion brings about assumption that the presence of
the learning of speaking. It potentially limits students’ chance to speak and
distract students’ attention to the speaking process.
The description above provides an overview on the instruction and
materials given in a speaking class. We may conclude that a speaking class
commonly tends to have segregated-fashion teaching and focus on linguistic
functions. Oxford (2001) pointed out that learning the language in a segregated
fashion, meaning to say to put a heavy focus on one specific skill and eliminate
other skills may be considered as less meaningful to the learning process. She also
stated that learning language skills in a segregated fashion which was believed to
maximize the learning would not ensure adequate preparation for later success in
the use of the language in everyday life. It is contrary to the integrated way that
people use language in normal communication.
The materials which are often limited to functional linguistic and
task-based oriented do not allow students to develop their critical thinking. There are
very few materials related to a more in-depth discussion on certain theme or topic.
Whereas, exposing students to certain topic or theme is widely known to have
some advantages, such as providing a wider knowledge, developing their thinking
and collaborative skill, and furthermore, using the language to fulfill a real
purpose. Practicing memorized expression is considered not challenging,
although practicing those expressions is important because it might lead to
boredom and the use of L1 since the use of such expressions were not a new thing
was caused by a heavy focus on learning about and analyzing the language itself
with little emphasis on authentic communication.
From the discussion above we may conclude that not only that it is found
to be less meaningful, a speaking class which has segregated-fashion teaching and
focuses on functional linguistic is also found to be less relevant and efficient.
Thus, integrating the speaking skills to other skills such as listening, reading, and
writing will surely promote the meaningfulness of learning. Integrating all four
skills together with characteristics of the teacher, the learner, the setting, and the
relevant languages is known as integrated-skills approach (Oxford: 2001). The
integrated-skill approach exposes English language learners to authentic language
and challenges them to interact naturally in the language. It is authentic because it
reflects how we really use the language.
As it was described in the previous paragraphs, besides the instructions
carried out, kinds of materials plays significant role in language learning. Careful
selection on kinds of materials used is necessary. The use of authentic materials
which shows the real use of language has been suggested by language teaching
experts for years. Exposing students to a certain theme or topic provides
advantages which are valuable for students’ development; moreover it is relevant
to the real life situation both on their daily and academic life. This approach is
known as content-based instruction. As discussed in the previous paragraph, it has
advantages such as provide a wider knowledge and develop students’ thinking and
Based on the explanation above, the innovation of using integrated-skills
approach and content-based instruction with interesting authentic materials will
give significant contribution on student’s competence in English. The advantages
gained of using integrated skills approach and authentic materials considered
being able to promote English proficiency of students of English Language
Education Department of Sanata Dharma University. This study was intended to
design supplementary materials for students of English Language Education
Department of Sanata Dharma University based on integrated skills approach. The
materials designed in this study are particularly for the speaking IV subject on
English Education Department.
B. Problem Identification
One of the most fundamental skills required these days is the ability to
communicate orally (both interpersonally and publicly), particularly using English
language. Even speaking is viewed as the most demanding, most language
learners also feel it to be the most difficult skill to master. This is even felt by
those who specially learn this language in their education, such as students of
English Letters or English Language Education Study Program. Even they
perform well in the speaking class, sometimes they still have difficulties when
they face real communication such as to speak in public or interact with others
outside the class especially native speakers.
Based on the previous description, common speaking class, which
function, is considered to be insufficient in promoting student’s oral competence.
Oxford (2001) stated that incapability of using language in a real life was caused
by a heavy focus on learning about and analyzing the language itself with little
emphasis put on authentic communication. Instruction which employs the use of
authentic communication will surely be meaningful for learners and lead them to
communicate effectively.
The description given previously becomes the main reason for the writer
to design a set of English speaking materials which is able to give meaningful
learning to language learners. The instructional speaking materials will be
designed in an integrated fashion. Here, the speaking skill is integrated with other
skills such as listening, reading, and writing. The materials given is not only
restricted to communicative expressions, it also pays attention to vocabulary and
pronunciation. The materials designed also make use the principles of
content-based language instruction since it has advantages such as such as providing a
wider knowledge and develop thinking skills that surely promote meaningful
learning.
The materials in this study are specially designed for the Speaking IV
subject on English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma
University. There are some reasons of choosing this subject. Speaking IV has
different characteristic from the other speaking class. There are distinct
differences from the previous speaking classes, which are Speaking I, Speaking II,
and Speaking III, which focus on the mastery of language functions. In the
speaking IV subject, students begin to be introduced to public speaking skills.
The ability to express ideas in front of audiences surely will be a valuable asset,
especially in an increasingly competitive working world.
The increasing role of public speaking urges a need to set a good basis in
learning public speaking skill. Designing a set of integrated English instructional
materials for speaking IV subject is believed to be able to promote student’s oral
competency in accordance to the goal of this subject. The integrated materials will
cover multi skills which link topics, communicative functions, pronunciation,
vocabulary, and also the four language skills, such as listening, speaking, reading,
and writing. The writer will use both written and audio sources in the designed
materials. Such sources set a good preparation on students before they express
their ideas orally, moreover the ability of expressing response and interpretation
on information on the message conveyed in the source is expected to provide a
meaningful learning to students as well as set a good basis for the mastery of
public speaking skill.
C. Problem Limitation
The problems to be discussed in this study are limited on designing a set of
supplementary integrated English instructional speaking materials for speaking IV
subject on English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma
University. This study is not intended to be an experimental project.
D. Problem Formulation
Based on the explanation in the previous parts, the writer formulates the
1. How is a set of supplementary integrated English instructional speaking
materials for speaking IV subject on English Language Education Study
Program of Sanata Dharma University designed?
2. What will be a set of supplementary integrated English instructional speaking
materials for speaking IV subject on English Language Education Study
Program of Sanata Dharma University look like?
E. Objectives of the Study
Based on the problems that have been formulated above, this study is
undertaken to:
1. design a set of supplementary integrated English instructional speaking
materials for speaking IV subject on English Language Education Study
Program of Sanata Dharma University.
2. present the designed set of supplementary integrated English instructional
speaking materials for speaking IV subject on English Language Education
Study Program of Sanata Dharma University.
F. Benefits of The Study
This study is expected to be beneficial for the following people:
1. The lecturers
The materials designed in this study offers an alternative in giving
materials to the lectures of English Education Study Program especially those
who teach speaking IV subject. The materials are expected to be able to promote
meaningful learning.
2. The students
The materials designed may give different atmosphere to the learning
process of students of English Language Education Study Program, especially
those who are involved in speaking IV subject. The integrated materials are
expected to foster their English interactive communication competence and to
help learners to develop all language skills as well as their thinking and
collaborative skill.
G. Definition of Terms
In order to avoid misinterpretation, there are several terms used in this study that
need to be operationally defined.
1. Design
According to Webster (1981: 611) design means a particular purpose held
in view by an individual or group: a planned intention or the process of selecting
the means and contriving the elements, steps and procedures for producing what
will adequately satisfy some needs. Houle defines design as a develop plan to
guide educational activity in situation. In this study, design means a set of plans to
arrange supplementary materials which are used for leaning process in accordance
2. Supplementary
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English defines
supplementary as additional or extra. In this study, supplementary means
additional.
3. Instructional material
According to Leslie J. Briggs (1984), instructional materials refer to the
entire process of the analysis of learning needs and goals and the development of
a delivery system to meet the needs; including the development of instructional
and the activities and the tryout and revision of all instruction and learner
assessment activities. Dick and Reiser (1989) stated that instructional materials
refer to materials planned or designed for the use of teachers. In this study,
instructional materials means set of activities and materials designed based a
previous analysis on learners’ needs.
4. Speaking
According to Widdowson (1979) speaking refers to a kind of active and
productive interaction that makes use of aural mediums such are lips and tongue,
and the other oral activities. In speaking activity, face to face interaction is
emphasized including dialogue, cooperative learning, discussion, or other forms
of verbal exchange as an act of communication. In this study, speaking refers to a
process of oral communication.
5. Integrated materials
Richards and Rogers (1988) define integrated materials as a set of
speaking, reading and writing. In this study, integrated materials refer to a set of
instructional materials that cover multi skills, including communicative functions
and vocabulary and also the four language skills. These materials are employed by
teachers as a mean to help the learners develop all four English skills, to obtain
learners’ desired performance and to foster English interactive communication
competence.
6. Speaking IV subject
Speaking IV subject is a compulsory subject in English Language
Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University. According to Panduan
Akademik Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, the goal of speaking IV
subject is that students are able to express themselves in oral communication in
term of state their preference and opinion, to argue and to differ, to question and
represent as fluently as possible in both everyday and formal situation. In this
study, Speaking IV is a subject taught in English Language Education Study
Program of Sanata Dharma University which purpose is promoting students’
12 CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter presents detailed discussion about some theories underlying
the study. This chapter is divided into two sections, namely: Theoretical
Description and Theoretical Framework. In the first section, the writer will
describe some theories which serve as a foundation for this study. The theoretical
framework summarizes the writer’s framework and the steps in designing the
instructional materials for Speaking IV subject.
B. Theoretical Description
This section deals with the discussion of theory of communicative
language teaching, theory of teaching speaking for English as a second language,
theory of public speaking, theory of integrated language teaching, and theory of
instructional materials design model according to Kemp and Yalden.
1. Communicative Language Teaching
Today, Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is being the most
widely used approach in language teaching. It has influenced many other language
teaching approaches and methods. Richard and Rodgers (1986) define
communicative language teaching as:
CLT is a product of educators and linguists who had grown dissatisfied
with the audiolingual and grammar-translation methods of foreign language
instruction. They observed that students could produce sentence accurately in a
lesson, but could not use it in the real communication outside the classroom. As
Hymes (1971), as cited in Larsen-Freeman (2000), said that being able to
communicate required more than linguistic competence; it required
communicative competence. This perspective became the basis of the goal of
Communicative Language teaching, which is communicative competence.
a. Theory of Language and Language Learning
Communicative Language Teaching viewed language as communication.
Larsen-Freeman said that beside the linguistic competence (the knowledge of
forms and their meaning) language learners also need knowledge of functions
language is used for. Thus, learner needs knowledge of forms and meaning, and
functions of a certain language. Therefore, CLT considers developing
communicative competence as the goal of language teaching. Richard and
Rodgers (1986) stated 4 characteristics of this communicative view of language:
1. Language is a system for the expression of meaning.
2. The primary function of language is for interaction and communication.
3. The structure of language reflects its functional and communicative uses.
4. The primary units of language are not merely its grammatical and structural features, but categories of functional and communicative meaning as exemplified in discourse (161).
Based on how language viewed as discussed in the previous paragraph, there
are some elements that can be discerned in some practices of Communicative
communicative principle, task principle, and meaningfulness principle.
Communicative principle believes that activities which involve real
communication will promote learning. The task principle is when language is used
for carrying out meaningful tasks in the teaching-learning activities, it will
promote learning. In the meaningfulness principle, language that is meaningful to
the learner supports the learning process.
b. The Roles of Teachers and Students
In Communicative Language Teaching teachers and students have
different roles form those found in more traditional language classroom. Breen
and Candlin (1980) in Richard and Rodgers (1986) see students as negotiator
between the self, the learning process, and the object of learning. Larsen-Freeman
(2000) considers students as communicators. They are actively engaged in
negotiating meaning even they have lack competence in the target language.
Students are more responsible managers of their own learning.
According to Breen and Candlin (1980) as cited in Richard and Rodgers
(1986), teacher has three main roles, as facilitator, independent participant, and
researcher and learner. As facilitator, the teacher facilitates the communication
process between all participants in the classroom, and between these participants
and the various activities and texts. At other times, the teacher might be an
independent participant within the learning-teaching group; he is engaging in the
communicative activity along with students. As researcher and learner, the teacher
has the competence of appropriate knowledge and abilities, actual and observed
c. The Roles of Instructional Materials
Richard and Rodgers (2001) state that the primary role of materials in
Communicative Language Teaching is promoting communicative language use.
There are three kinds of materials used, which are text-based materials, task-based
materials, and realia. Text-based materials used consist of a theme, a task analysis
for thematic development, a practice situation description, a stimulus presentation,
comprehension questions, and paraphrase exercises. The second type materials,
task-based materials, consist of sets of tasks need to be completed by students,
such as a variety of games, role plays, simulations, and other task-based
communication activities. The last material is realia. This material is also known
as authentic or from-life materials. They include language-based realia, such as
signs, magazines, advertisements, and newspapers, or graphic and visual sources
around which communicative activities can be built, such as maps, pictures,
symbols, graphs, and charts.
The principle of Communicative Language Teaching, which is
communicative competence, becomes the basic principle in designing the
integrated English supplementary speaking materials. The principle was applied in
the As the principle of being able to communicate required more than linguistic
competence; it required communicative competence. This perspective became the
basis of the goal of
2. Teaching Speaking
As foreign language learners are primarily interested in learning how to
skills, which are listening, reading, speaking and writing. However, it is also been
considered one of the most complex skills of the teaching-learning process.
a. The Nature of Speaking
Levelt (1989) proposed that speech production involves four major
processes, which are conceptualization, formulation, articulation, and
self-monitoring. Conceptualization is concerned with planning the message content.
Speaker checks everything that occurs in the interaction to ensure that the
communication goes to plan. After conceptualization, speaker is being a
formulator. The formulator finds the words and phrases to express meaning,
sequencing them, and putting in appropriate grammatical markers. The third
process, articulation, involves the motor control of articulator organs, such as lips,
tongue, teeth, mouth cavity, and breath. The last stage, self monitoring, is
concerned with language users being able to identify and self-correct mistakes.
All this happen very fast and, to be successful, depends on automation (Bygate,
1987 as reviewed by Carter and Nunan, 2001).
The nature of speech production and the time constraint result on the
characteristic of spoken language that is different to the written one. Gabrielatos
(1992) cited that the syntax of the spoken language tends to be less complicated
than written language (Brown and Yule, 1983). In the spoken language, instances
of “ungrammatical” utterances are common (McCarthy, 1991); pauses, repetition
and false starts are rather frequent (Brown and Yule, 1983). It also uses
“time-creating devices”, such as filters, pauses, and hesitations (Bygate, 1987).
Contrasted to the written language, the spoken one has immediate feedback (Van
In order to speak in another language, possessing language competence is
not sufficient; one should have communicative competence. Nunan (1991) stated
that communicative competence includes linguistic competence, sociolinguistic
and conversational skills that enable the speaker to know how to say what to
whom, and when.
b. Principles for Designing Speaking Techniques
Brown (2001) stated that there are several principles of designing speaking
techniques:
a. Use techniques that cover learner needs
Use techniques that cover learner needs, from language-based focus on
accuracy to message-based focus on interaction, meaning, and fluency. When
doing a task such as game, discussions, and role play, make sure that the tasks
include techniques designed to help learners to perceive and use the building
blocks of language.
b. Provide intrinsically motivating techniques
Many learners equate being able to speak a language as knowing the
language and therefore view learning the language as learning how to speak the
language. Therefore if they do not learn how to speak or do not get any
opportunity to speak, they may get de-motivated and lose interest in learning. The
right activities which are taught in the right way can raise general learner
motivation. Teacher also needs to help learners to see how the activities will
c. Encourage the use of authentic language in meaningful contexts.
Learners need to be introduced to real interaction pattern, such as the basic
interactional pattern as follow: initiate, respond, and follow up. That pattern could
be introduced through the use of dialogue to be read or listening activity before a
spoken task. One should be remembered is to keep the models meaningful.
d. Provide appropriate feedback and correction
Learners may get feedback not only from the teacher; in ESL situation
they may get such feedback “out there” beyond the classroom. Yet, teacher still
needs to give corrective feedback that are appropriate for the moment.
e. Capitalize on the natural link between speaking and listening
Many interactive techniques that involve speaking will also of course
include listening. Teacher can get benefits by integrating these two skills since
they can reinforce one another. Skills in producing language are often initiated
through comprehension.
f. Give students opportunity to initiate oral communication
Part of oral communication competence is the ability to initiate
conversation, to nominate topics, to ask questions, to control conversations, and to
change the subject.
g. Encourage the development of speaking strategies
Learners use communication strategies in order to compensate their
imperfect mastery of the language when faced with a communicative need, such
as paraphrasing, miming, or even reducing the message. Learners may have not
purpose, so teacher may give a chance to practice such strategies as asking for
clarification (What?), using fillers (Uh, I mean, Well), or using conversation
maintenance cues (Uh, huh, Right, Yeah, Okay, Hm).
In summary, the design of a set of speaking instructional materials should
consider the use of techniques that cover the spectrum of learners’ needs, from
language based focus on accuracy to massage-based focus on interaction,
meaning, and fluency. The technique should be intrinsically motivating. It also
should encourage the use of authentic language in meaningful context as well as
the development of speaking techniques. Integrating the natural link between
speaking and listening since these two skills is beneficial. The technique should
give opportunities to students to initiate oral communication. And, finally make
sure that the technique provide appropriate channel for feedback and correction.
c. Type of Classroom Activity
According to Ur (1996), there are four items defining a successful speaking
activity:
the opportunity for learners to talk most of the time instead of a class centered on the teacher; the whole students’ participation; high motivation due to the topic of discussion chosen by the teacher, and finally the acceptable level of language accuracy among the whole group (120).
David Nunan (2003) suggested sort of speaking activities as follows:
a. Information Gap
This is an activity in which one person has information that the other lacks.
They must use the target language to share that information. For instance, one
b. Jigsaw Activity
This is a bidirectional or multidirectional information gap. Each person in a
pair or group has the same information the other persons need. For example, one
learner describes his family to another, while his partner draws a family tree
diagram and labels it with name and information about the speaker’s family.
c. Role Plays
In this activity, students are given particular roles in the target language.
For example, one student plays a hotel receptionist handling complaint from his
guest. The other plays the role of a hotel guest complaining the late wake-up call.
Role plays give learners practice speaking the target language before they must do
so in a real environment.
d. Simulation
Simulation is more elaborate than role-plays. In a simulation, props and
documents provide somewhat realistic environment or language practice. For
instance, in a language lesson about the grocery store, students bring in “products”
(biscuits, fruits, vegetables, coffee) to be sold and even play money for making
their purchases.
e. Contact Assignment
This activity involves sending students out of the classroom with a stated
purpose to talk to people in the target language. For example, students are asked
to interview tourists. Afterwards, the students report the result of the interview. In
designing contact assignment, be sure the required information can not be gotten
by reading available information. The point is to get students to speak with people
When we talk to someone, we usually do so for transferring information
(transactional speech) and also social purpose (interactional speech); thus,
speaking activities inside the classroom need to embody both interactional and
transactional purposes.
3. Public Speaking
As a form of public communication, public speaking has always been
considered important in societies. Mastering public speaking skill brings
advantages to those who posses it, such as promoting individual achievement in
school, work, and life in general. Grice and Skinner (1994) divide the advantages
of studying public speaking skill into three levels: personal, professional, and
public. On the personal level, it helps someone to promote academic achievement.
As an active form of learning, it increases knowledge and also builds one’s
confident and self-esteem. Furthermore, skills learned in studying public speaking
can be used in other courses or study. Mastering public speaking skill also
increases one’s chance to get desired job and advancing in it. Finally, public
speaking binds people into groups and propels social movement and social
change.
a. Preparing Speech
Preparing the speech is an important stage in public speaking. It makes the
speaker feel more confident, speak more fluently, and generally improve the
content and quality of the speech. Ross (1995) stated that the basis of speech
central idea. However, he also stated some steps of preparing the speech which
are elaborated as follows:
a. Selecting a topic
For some people, finding a topic may lead to a trouble. Whereas topics can
be found anywhere, it can be based on someone’s personal interests and hobbies,
academic major or interests, or even people that interest him/ her. Problems that
are in the news or situation of the speaker’s environment are also sources of
topics.
Speaker may start by listing a speech topic followed by collecting interesting
information from magazines, newspapers, and other mass media. This step is
followed by formulating title. Topics and title might be worded identically. The
title of speech is important for several reasons. Good title helps speakers to
consolidate their thoughts and purpose. It should also fit the audiences and
occasions.
b. Stating the purpose and central idea
The general purposes of speaking are to inform, to persuade, and to
entertain. The speaker who would inform has the obligation of making the
information clear and interesting as well as easy for the audiences to learn,
remember, and apply. The goals of informative speaking are clarity, interests, and
understanding. One key means to these goals is appropriate organization of
materials. The goals of persuasive speaking are to convince people to believe
something, convince them to do something, and stimulate them to a higher level
themselves or even help them escape from reality; he is speaking to entertain. This
speech contains jokes, stories, and varieties of humors.
After deciding the general purpose and choosing a topic, the purpose is
limited to one specific aspect of the topic. The specific purpose aims to describe
precisely what it is that you want your audience to understand, believe, feel, or
what you are going to say. When preparing or outlining the speech, always start
with a precise statement of the specific purpose.
The specific purpose is followed by central idea which is a mini-outline of
what is going to be said. It may be in the form of a summary of the main thoughts,
the thesis and claim the speaker made, or the action or belief the speaker wishes
the audiences to adopt.
c. Gathering materials
Major ways and aspects of gathering speech materials are conversation
and interview, library study, and note-taking.
d. Forms of support
In order to make the point of the speech clear and interesting, speaker
needs forms of support. Forms of support include illustration or example, analogy
or comparison, statistics, testimony, and restatement. In using the forms of
support, especially testimony and statistics, speakers need to make these concrete
and interesting. The testimony and statistics must be used correctly and can be
combined with other forms of support. Speaker must identify his sources as well.
b. Delivering Speech
Speech delivery is an important element of public speaking. Grice and
Skinner (1994) define speech delivery as the manner in which a speaker presents
his/ her speech through voice qualities, bodily actions, and language. For some
listeners, strong delivery is able to cover up the weak content. It can also support
important and well-organized ideas; in the contrary, poor delivery can diminish
the impact of those same ideas. Effective delivery doesn’t only help the speaker, it
also help the listener to get the key points of a speech. Speech is best delivered in
a natural, comfortable, and spontaneous look; above all, it is best when the listener
is not aware of it at all. Let the audiences notice the hard work of creating a best
delivery is momentarily distracting them for what the speaker is saying.
There are three elements of effective delivery: voice (vocal delivery), body
(physical delivery) and language. This section focus on vocal and physical
delivery which will be discussed as follows:
1) Vocal Delivery
Zarefski (1995) stated that voice is both a resource available to the speaker
and a sign for the listener of the speaker personality. The elements of vocal
delivery include rate, pause, volume, pitch, articulation, and pronunciation. For
the listeners, the rate or speed of speaking may evoke a thought about speaker’s
motives of speaking, disposition, or involvement with the topic. Grice and skinner
(1994) suggest using variety of rate. Reduced rate is used when presenting
detailed or complex information, while, speaking slightly faster than the rate of
important to make emphasis both on something that has just said and something
that is going to say. It also enables the speaker to mark transitions.
The volume, or the loudness or softness of a speaker’s voice, is an important
element. The volume used in delivering speech depends on the setting in which
the speech is delivered and also the facility provided, such as the use of
microphone. Zarefski (1995) states that vary the volume at a certain key points are
a good idea as well as regulate the general volume of an entire speech. It can be
used either to understate ideas or to over-claim them. As well as volume, speaker
has to pay attention to pitch, the placement of voice in the musical scale which are
ranging from high to low. Using a monotone, in which the entirely speech is
delivered at the same level undoubtedly cause boredom. To sustain audiences’
interest, mark transitions, and add emphasis to parts of the speech, a speaker
should vary the pitch.
The final focal delivery elements are articulation and pronunciation.
Zarefski (1995) defines articulation as the clarity with which individual sounds
are produced. Speaker should be careful since most of articulation errors are made
from habit. According to Grice and Skinner, articulation errors take four principal
forms: deletion, addition, substitution, and transposition. In contrast to
articulation, there is pronunciation, which is how the sounds of a word are to be
said and which parts are to be stressed. Mispronunciation may change the
meaning or prevent listeners from getting the intended meaning, or even worse, it
2) Physical Delivery
The body gives the speaker valuable set of visual resources, just as the voice
does by giving verbal and auditory resources. The body is used to enhance the
message of the speech. According to Grice and Skinner (1994), there are six
elements of physical delivery, namely: appearance, posture, facial expression, eye
contact, movement, and gestures. Speakers need to pay attention to their
appearance which is the physical features, including dress and grooming.
Appearance is important; it determines audience’s first impression. There are
some considerations in selecting the proper attire, such as the occasion when
delivering speech, the audiences, the topic carried out, and the image that the
speaker wish to create.
The next point to be concerned is posture, which is the position of a
speaker’s body while delivering a speech. Speech delivery must be free of
annoying mannerism such as shifting weight back and front or tapping one foot on
the floor. There are two things must be avoided: rigidity and sloppiness.
4. Integrated Language Teaching
Brown (2001) states that the practice of English Language Teaching all
around the world has considered the ‘four skills’: listening, speaking, reading, and
writing- as of paramount importance. In an English language classroom, those
four skills and language components such as grammar, vocabulary, and
meaning to say that one skill or component is taught with the absence of another
skills or components.
There are reasons that underlie the question why courses are not integrated
in the first place, such as the notion of logicality it is easier to teach one skill
separately from the other (skills) and the administrative considerations. According
to Mohan (1986) as cited by Oxford (2001), in the segregated-skill approach,
which is also known as language-based approach, the key of successful learning is
seen from the mastery of discrete language skill. For that reason, in the
segregated-skill classes, the instruction presented is frequently in terms of
skill-linked learning strategies, such as reading strategies, speaking strategies, listening
strategies, and writing strategies.
Oxford (2001) states that such approach would not ensure adequate
preparation for later success in the language use. It is contrary to the integrated
way that people use language in normal communication. According to Brown
(2001), in daily life, language is used in a communicative and interactive
framework. In the real world of language use, most of our natural performance
involves not only the integration of one or more skills, but also connection
between the way we think and feel and act.
Based on the fact that the segregated language instruction restricts
language learning to a non communicative range that does not prepare learners to
use the language in everyday life, an instruction which suggests real-life
approach. The language arts –listening, speaking, reading, and writing- are
interrelated and interdependent processes. The language process can be learned
more effectively in connection with each other, rather than in isolation, because
they support each other. Brown (2001) stated that this model provides real-life
integration of language skills, gets students to perceive the relationship among
several skills, and provides teacher with a great deal of flexibility in creating
interesting and motivating lesson.
McCloskey describes the term integrated in four ways:
(1) Language is taught with integration of listening, speaking, reading, and writing in conjunction with our rich multicultural literary erutage; (2) language instruction is integrated into content area instruction; (3) Students from various language and cultural background are integrated in the classroom and work collaboratively; (4) Student’s home experiences and native culture experiences are integrated into school experiences in the new culture (1992: 2).
The integrated language instruction benefits students as well as teacher in
some ways. It exposes students to the authentic use of language and challenges
them to interact naturally in the target language. They are given opportunities to
learn through language by applying their knowledge of applying their knowledge
of language to their speaking, listening, reading, and writing experiences. Here,
the learning of real content is promoted, not just the dissection of language form.
It also motivates students, both internally and externally.
According to Oxford (2001), there are two types of integrated-skill
instruction: content-based language instruction and task-based language
through language, while the second type stresses doing tasks that require
communicative language use. The explanation of those two types is elaborately as
follow:
a. Task-based Instruction
In task-based instruction, students participate in communicative tasks in
English. According to Brown (2001) task-based curriculum specifies what a
learner needs to do with the English language in terms of target tasks and
organizes a series of pedagogical tasks intended to reach those goals. Target task
is target which students must accomplish beyond the classroom, while
pedagogical task which form the nucleus of classroom activities. Those targets are
different with function of language. They are more related to classroom
instruction. Basic pair work and group work are often used to increase student’s
interaction and collaboration. The goals of a course with task-based instruction
center on learner’s pragmatic language competence.
b. Content-based Instruction
Content-based language learning integrates the learning of some
specific subject-matter content with the learning of a second language. Students
learn about this subject using the language they are trying to learn, rather than
their native language, as a tool for developing knowledge and so they develop
their linguistic ability in the target language. This is thought to be a more natural
way of developing language ability and one that corresponds more to the way
people originally learn their first language. Brinton, Snow, and Wesche (1989)
1) Theme-based language instruction
In such instruction, the language class is structured around topic or themes.
The course might be organized around several unrelated topics or, it might
involve organizing curriculum for an entire course around one major topic. The
primary purpose of theme-based instruction is to help student develop L2
competence within specific content areas. The evaluation in this model focuses on
language skills and functions.
2) Sheltered content instruction
The second type of instruction, sheltered content, consists of content course
taught in the second language by a content area specialist. This course assumes an
institutional framework such as high school, community college, or university. Its
primary purpose is to help students to master content material, while the focus of
evaluation is on the content mastery.
3) Adjunct language instruction
In this model, students at the same time are enrolled in two link courses: a
language course and a content course. The idea is that the two courses share the
content base and complement each other in terms of mutually coordinated
assignments. The purposes of the course is not only helping students to master the
content material, but also introducing students to L2 academic discourse and
develop transferable academic skills. The evaluation is done to both the content
mastery and the language aspect.
Brinton, et al. (1989) stated some points that show how the content-based
language development and academic achievement while providing students with
worthwhile and interesting subject matter. It also enhances both language and
concept development and promotes positive attitudes. The models also provide
students with opportunities to learn conversation and conversation skills which
may not be practiced as effectively in the more traditional literature-based
curriculum. (Giauque, 1987 as reviewed by Brinton et. al, 1989).
Peachey (2002) states that by taking information from different sources,
re-evaluating and restructuring that information can help students to develop very
valuable thinking skills that can then be transferred to other subjects. The
inclusion of a group work element within the framework given above can also
help students to develop their collaborative skills, which can have great social
value.
5. Instructional Material Design Models
There are two models that will be presented in this section. The first model
is Kemp’s model and the second one is Yalden’s. Those two models will be
combined and used as the basis in developing the instructional materials.
a. Kemp’s Instructional Design Models
Kemp (1977) proposes a program development which consists of
interdependent elements in it. According to kemp, this plan is designed to answer
three questions which are considered to be essential elements of instructional
technology. The first question is about what must be learned. The second one is
levels. The last question is about how to notice that the required learning has
taken place.
Kemp’s instructional design plan consists of eight parts:
1. Considering goals, and then listing topics, stating the general purposes for
teaching each topic.
2. Enumerating the important characteristics of the learners for whom the
instruction is to be designed.
3. Specifying the learning objectives to be achieved in terms of measurable
students behavioral outcomes.
4. Listing the subject content that supports each objective.
5. Developing pre-assessments to determine the student’s background and
present level of knowledge about the topic.
6. Selecting teaching/learning activities and instructional resources that will treat
the subject content so students will accomplish the objectives.
7. Coordinating such support services as budget, personnel, facilities, equipment,
and schedules to carry out the instructional plan.
8. Evaluating student’s learning in terms of their accomplishment of objectives,
with a view to revising reevaluating any phases to the plan that need
The relationship of each element is illustrated in the diagram as follows:
Figure 2.1. Kemp’s Instructional Design Model
The circular shape of the model gives a sense that the design and the
development process is a continuous cycle that requires constant planning, design,
development and assessment to insure effective instruction. Revision line
encircles all elements of the model shows that changes in the content or treatment
of elements are allowed at any time. The idea is to improve any weak parts of the
program to better insure learners to accomplish the instructional objectives at a
satisfactory level. Yet, Soekamto (1993) proposes weakness of this model which
is there is no explanation about what should be done in the steps which related
with the decision of learning-teaching activities and instructional resources.
b. Yalden’s Instructional Design Models
Janice Yalden (1987) proposes a design for communicative syllabus, a
Need n of classroom procedures communication. The syllabus is designed to describe classroom experiences
which more closely approximate an environment of real languages use. The
stages in the language program development are illustrated as follow:
Figure 2.2. Yalden’s Instructional Design Model
Those stages are elaborately explained as follow:
a. Stage I: Need survey
Yalden sees the need survey as a survey of the communicative needs for
the learners and also a survey of the physical resources. Needs survey is
conducted to study the learners’ needs and state objectives that are suitable for the
learners. By understanding as much information as possible about the learners, the
objectives being established are realistic and acceptable. Generally, the
investigation is conducted to find out about the classroom needs (classroom
language) and the learner’s own desire and wants.
b. Stage II: Description of Purpose
This stage aims to clarify the purpose of the language program. This will
establish the foundation before the designer decides the selection of syllabus type
in Stage III. Student’s characteristics and student’s skills before and after the
program are being a great deal of attention in determining the purpose of a
teaching/learning activities. It is necessary to select certain aspects of the target
language which will be given special prominence in the preparation of the
syllabus.
c. Stage III: Choice of a syllabus type
The choice of a syllabus type is done when the general category of a
language program has been decided. According to Yalden, a syllabus is an
instrument by which the teacher can achieve a degree of fit among the needs, the
aims of the learners, and the classroom activities. She employs a proposed range
of syllabus from a structural syllabus to completely learner-centered one in which
there would be no prospective or input syllabus at all, but only one which would
grow out of situation as the course progressed.
d. Stage IV: Production of proto-syllabus
At this stage, the designer will turn to the description of the content that
the syllabus will have, that is, the preparation of syllabus specification. This
includes the description of language and language use to be covered in the
program. The data gathered in the previous stages has considerable contribution to
the determination of the syllabus content.
e. Stage V: Production of pedagogical syllabus
Yalden describes this stage as a stage for the development of teaching,
learning, and testing approaches. It includes two major points. The first point is
the development of teaching materials where the repertoire of words and phrases
