DISKRIMINASI
Tokoh Pejuang Wanita
Indonesia
Pemikiran Raden Adjeng
Kartini
Dunia wanita hanya sebatas tembok
rumah.
Tidak bebas mendapatkan akses
pendidikan.
Dipingit dan dinikahkan dengan pria
Penduduk yang Bekerja
(Februari 2012)
Tena ga P
rofe siona l Kepe mim pina n Tata Usa ha
TU P enju
alan
TU Ja sa
Penduduk yang Bekerja
(Februari 2012)
Jenis Pekerjaan
Utama
JENIS KELAMIN
Jumlah
Pria
Wanita
Tenaga Profesional
3.473.057
3.983.193
7.456.250
Kepemimpinan
934.988
184.125
1.119.113
Tata Usaha
3.541.749
2.518.306
6.060.055
TU Penjualan
9.755.566 11.003.698
20.759.264
TU Jasa
3.108.946
3.295.852
6.404.798
TU Pertanian
25.116.020 15.441.120
40.557.140
Produksi
22.938.665
6.876.405
29.815.070
Lainnya
610.65
20.465
631.115
Rata-rata Upah (2006)
0 400,000 800,000 1,200,000 1,600,000 Pertanian Pertamban gan
Ind
ustri Listrik Bangun an
Perdag angan
An gku
tan Keuangan JasW a
an
it
a Pria
Rata-rata Upah (2006)
Penduduk yang Bekerja Berdasarkan
Jam Kerja (Februari 2012)
0 1-9 10-14 15-24 25-34 35-44 45-59 ≥ 60 0 5,000,000 10,000,000 15,000,000 20,000,000 25,000,000 30,000,000 35,000,000 40,000,000
1,379,487 1,039,073 1,590,396
Konsep
Konsep Diskriminasi
Differences in
EARNINGS
and
EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES
among equally skilled workers
employed in the same job simply
because of the worker’s race,
gender, national origin, sexual
orientation, or other seemingly
irrelevant characteristics.
Konsep Diskriminasi
Discrimination means treating people
differently and less favourably because
of characteristics that are not related to
their merit or the requirements of the job.
The
The Discrimination Coefficient
The Economics of Discrimination
(1957)
The Discrimination Coefficient
Basic Concept :
Taste Discrimination
Assumption
Two types of workers :
White workers : wage
w
W
The Discrimination Coefficient
If the employer is prejudiced againts
black, employer gets
disutility
from
hiring black workers.
Disutility : employer will act as if costs
for black worker
w
B
(1 + d),
where
d
is
positive number and is called :
The Discrimination Coefficient
Suppose that
w
B
= $10
, and that
d
=0,5
;
the employer will then act as if hiring a
black worker costs
$ 15
The greater the prejudiced, the greater is
the disutility from hiring black workers,
and the greater is the discrimination
The Discrimination Coefficient
If these black employers
prefer
to hire
black workers, they will act as if hiring a
black worker is
cheaper
than it actually is.
Labor Market Discrimination
Analysis
FIRM
Non Discriminatory
Firm
W = VMP
Discriminatory
Firm
White Firm
againts Black
againts Black
Black Firm
Discrimination
Coefficient
Skill and Labor Market Outcomes (2001)
WHITE
BLACK
HISPANIC
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Highschool Graduate or
more
(Percent)
84.3
85.2
78.5
78.9
56.1
57.9
Bachelor’s degree or more
(Percent)
29.1
25.4
16.4
17.5
11.0
11.2
Labor Force Participation
Rate
(Percent)
79.9
59.9
72.1
65.2
83.8
59.3
Unemployment Rate
(Percent)
4.7
3.6
8.0
7.0
5.2
6.6
Annual Earnings (in $1,000)
49.8
29.6
33.5
26.0
30.8
22.3
Annual Earnings
Fact :
1. Employer Discrimination
Assumption :
White Workers
and
Black Workers are
Perfect Subtitutes in Production
.
Firms’s output depends on the total
number of workers hired,
regardless
of
their race
have the same
Marginal
Employer Discrimination
Production function:
q = f ( E
W
+ E
B
)
q
firm’s output
Employment in
Employment in a non
Discriminatory Firm
Both groups of workers have the same
Value
of Marginal Product
, a non discriminatory
firms will hire whichever group is
Cheaper
Suppose that
w
W
>
w
B
,
a firms that doesn’t
discriminate will hire black workers up to
the point where
w
B
= VMP
E
*
B
The Employment Decision of a Firm
That Does Not Discriminate
Dollar
wage is less than
Black workers
white wage
How many worker
will be hired..??
?
VMP
Ew
B= VMP
EB
Employment in
a
Employment in a Discriminatory Firm
The employer act as if black wage is not
w
B
,
but instead equal to
w
B
(1 + d).
Where
d
is discrimination coefficient.
The employer’s hiring decision based on a
comparison
w
W
and
w
B
(1 + d)
Employment in a
Discriminatory Firm
As long as black and white workers are
perfect subtitutes, firms have a
segregated
workforce.
Employer’s who have little prejudice and
hence have small discrimination coefficient,
will hire only BLACKS
(called “
Black Firm”
).
Employer’s who are very prejudice and have
Employment in a
Discriminatory Firm
The white firm hires workers up to the
point where : w
W
= VMP
E
Assumption : w
W
> W
B
The white firm is paying an excessively
high price
for its workers and hires
WHITE FIRM
*
W
The Employment Decision of a
Prejudiced Firm
Dollar
Employment
VMP
EWhite Firm
W
Employment in a
Discriminatory Firm
Non discriminatory firms :
w
B
= VMP
E
If discrimination coefficient d
0
:
Price of Black Labor
w
B
( 1 + d
0
)
Amount of Labor hired :
BLACK FIRM
*
B
Employment in a
Discriminatory Firm
BLACK FIRM
The number of black workers hired,
The Employment Decision of a
Prejudiced Firm
Dollar
Employment
VMP
EBlack Firm
Discrimination Coefficient
B
w
*
E
1 B E0
E
1
d
0
w
B
1
d
1
Discrimination
and
Discrimination and Profits
Firms that discriminate lose on two counts :
The prejudiced employer could have hired
the same number of black worker at
lower
wage
. Because black and white workers are
perfect subtitutes
.
Discriminatory black firms are
hiring too
few
workers ( or )
they are giving
up profits in order to minimize contact with
0
B
Profit and Discrimination
Coefficient
Dollar
Discrimination
Black
Firm
max
wd
w0
White Firm
Discrimination and Profits
The Most Profitable Firm
Employee Discrimination
Diskriminasi dilakukan oleh “Fellow Worker”
Misal : White worker yang bekerja pada Black Firm
dengan upah w
Wakan merasa mendapat upah w
W(1- d).
Tidak berpengaruh terhadap “Profitability of Firms”
3. Customer
Customer Discrimination
Dikemukakan oleh Harry J. Holzer dan Keith R.
Ihlanfeldt (1998)
research di Atlanta, Boston,
Detroit dan Los Angeles.
Keputusan membeli tidak ditentukan oleh Actual Price
( p ) tapi oleh The Utility-Adjusted Price
p (1 + d).
Employer dapat mengatur tenaga penjualan sesuai
Customer Discrimination
TYPE FIRM
More than 50 %
Of the firm’s
customers are
Black
More than 75 %
Of the firm’s
customers are
White
PERBEDAAN
Customer &
worker
bertemu
58,0 %
9,0 %
49,0 %
Customer &
worker tidak
bertemu
46,6 %
12,2 % 34,4 %
Perbedaan
-
-
14,6 %
Customer Discrimination and
NBA
Lawrence Kahn and Peter Sherer 1998)
:
A study of attenance records indicates
that
replacing a black player
with an
eqqually talented
white player
bring in
about
9,000
additional fans per year.
At $50 a head (a very conservative estimate of
ticket prices and concession revenues), the
Measuring Discrimination
Diskriminasi : selisih average wage, yaitu :
Asumsi :
Tenaga kerja terdiri dari
•
Male, dengan average wage
•
Female, dengan average wage
___
M
W
___
F
W
___
___
___
F
M
W
W
W
Measuring Discrimination
Pengembangan model :
Schooling mempengaruhi pendapatan
Earning Function :
•
Male :
•
Female :
menyatakan pendapatan pria meningkat bila
M
M
M
M
S
w
F
F
F
F
S
w
Measuring Discrimination
Model Regresi :
F
F
F
M
M
M
F
M
W
s
s
W
W
___
___
Measuring The Impact of
Discrimination on the Wage
Dollars
Schooling
Women’s
Earning
Function
Men’s
Earning
Function
Women’s Schooling
Women’s Earning
Men’s Schooling
Men’s Earning
Measure Discrimination :
Woman’s Earning Men’s Earning
M
F
___ FW
___
M
W
*
F
w
__
__
*
F
Global Gender Gap 2012 :
Indonesia - Rank
68
81
93
92
Global Gender Gap 2012 :
Indonesia - Score
0.65 0.65 0.66 0.66 0.67
0.65 0.66
0.65
0.66
0.66
