i
LEARNING MATERIAL AT THE VOCATIONAL SCHOOL
A THESIS
Presented as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
to Obtain the Degree of Magister Humaniora (M. Hum.)
in English Language Studies
by
Yiyis Krisnani
056332024
THE GRADUATE PROGRAM IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
iv
STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY
This is to certify that all ideas, phrases, and sentences, unless otherwise stated
are the ideas, phrases, sentences of the thesis writer. The writer understands the full
consequences including degree cancellation if she took somebody else’s idea, phrases
or sentences without proper references.
Yogyakarta, May 27
th, 2009
Yiyis Krisnani
vi
My praise and thankfulness is dedicated to God the Almighty for blessing my
life with health and chance to finish this thesis as a partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of Magister Humaniora at the graduate program in English
language studies in Sanata Dharma University of Yogyakarta. During the time of my
study, I learnt a great deal of knowledge from the outstanding lecturers who have
taught valuable information about the current issues in the English language education.
My deepest appreciation is for these lecturers who have added the knowledge
significantly to the impact of my own career for being an English teacher.
I would like to express my special thankfulness to Dr. J. Bismoko, my thesis
supervisor, whose knowledge of the English researches is only surpassed by his
kindness in sharing the information with his students. Without his tremendous talent,
this thesis would have been a very different work. Without his great help this thesis
might have remained as an unfulfilled dream. I sincerely thank him on his invaluable
insight and ideas which he generously shared with me during my time working on this
project.
My special gratitude is for my linguistics and CALL lecturer, Dr. B.B.
Dwijatmoko, M.A., who allowed his students to share of his extraordinary knowledge
and experiences. I would also like to thank him for correcting my mistakes to make my
thesis more readable and well organized. I thank him for his most helpful advices and
the comments on the thesis review as such feedback is vital in helping me do my job
properly.
My special thankfulness is aimed to Dr. Novita Dewi, M.S., M.A., from whom
I learn to enjoy more about the great beauty of the literature. I always feel amazed of
her talents, her tremendous skill and enthusiasm she brought to our classes. I would
like to thank her for the suggestion to make my thesis sharper.
In particular, I would like to thank Dr. Fr. B. Alip, M.Pd., M.A. who has kindly
given meaningful comments on my thesis. I thank him for his keen questions on my
thesis defense. I am very grateful for his suggestion to improve this thesis.
vii
Surtantini, M.Hum) who is my teacher, my mentor and a trusted friend forever. 3. Kak
Mus (Musmuliadi, S.Si., M.Pd) who is my young and smart competitor that makes me
proud of him. 4. Bu Samsi and Pak Samsi (Prof. DR. Samsi Haryanto, Mpd) who
always treat me generously and forever believe that I can pursue my dreams. I thank
them for the best gift of all: friendship and sincerity.
My grateful thanks are tendered to my research participants: Pak Bambang, Bu
Nina, Bu Yuni and the students (Maya, Dewi, Venie, Putri, Puruhita, Adji and
Sumardi). Without them, this thesis would have never been completed. I thank them
for helping me interpreting their lived- experience to promote the intention for
everybody to become more autonomous.
I sincerely delivered my thankfulness to my friends in the hilarious and
cheerful class A. I will never forget the hectic schedules we shared and the crucial
moments to do our tasks for being students and teachers as well. I want to thank my A
friends for the generous sharing of their experiences, their insight, their problem. I
would also express lots of thankfulness to Mbak Lely, the administrative staff of the
English language studies who has given me the information I needed to know
concerning the schedules and other arrangements.
This thesis is affectionately dedicated to my great family: Mr. Yan, Tommy,
Tya, Yeni, Adie, Seva, Rafa, Gifari and Zavier. I’m not certain what has meant more
to me over the years, your confidence in me or your endless love. I want to thank these
beloved people for their unconditional enthusiasm and support.
Last but not least, I would like to express my great honor and thankfulness to
LPMP of D. I. Yogyakarta and the ‘Pemkot of Yogyakarta’ for giving me the
scholarship to take the graduate program in the English Language Studies in Sanata
Dharma University of Yogyakarta. I was lucky to be one of the thirty English teachers
to have this great chance.
May God bless all of us.
viii
Page
TITLE PAGE ……….
i
APPROVAL PAGE ………..…….
ii
THESIS DEFENSE APPROVAL ……….
iii
STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY ……….……..
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ………...
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS ……….……..
vii
LIST OF FIGURES ………..……..
x
LIST OF TABLES ……….
xi
LIST OF APPENDICES ………
xii
ABSTRACT ………..…….
xiii
ABSTRAK ……….
xiv
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ………..……..
1
A. Background of the Study ……….……..
1
B. Problem Identification ……….……..
4
C. Problem Limitation ……….……..
6
D. Research Question ………..……. ……….
7
E. Research Goals .……….
8
F. Research Benefits ………..…….
8
CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW ………
11
A. Theoretical Review ………..…….
11
1. Autonomy of teachers ……….………...
11
a. Meaning ……….
11
b. Teacher autonomy ……….
14
c. Devising the English learning material ………..
17
2. The variety of the English learning material ………..
19
a. Source………..
19
1) The authentic material ………
19
2) The non authentic material ……….
22
b. Technology: Computer Assisted Language Learning/CALL ………
24
c. Activity: Games ………..
26
3. The vocational school ……….
28
a. The variety of the student’s study program ………
28
b. The school-based management ………. ………....
29
c. The vocational school curriculum ………..……
31
d. English competencies standard of the vocational graduates ………..
34
4. Lived- experience in progressive qualitative research …...
36
a. Features of the progressive qualitative approach ………..….
36
b. Meaningful understanding ……….
38
ix
B. Research design ……….
45
C. Nature of data ………..
47
D. Data setting and sources ………
47
E. Data gathering instruments ………
48
F. Data collection ……… …………..………
50
G. Data analysis and data presentation ………..
50
H. Trustworthiness of the study ……….
51
CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS RESULT ………
52
A. Descriptions ………...……
52
1. Processing observation data ………..…….
52
2. Constructing interview questions ………..…….
54
3. Conducting in-depth interview to gain interview data ………..…….
58
4. Processing observation and interview data ………...…….
60
5. Thematizing the relationship between teacher’s understanding of
teacher autonomy and teacher’s performance ………
62
6. Constructing the tentative understanding of teacher autonomy in
devising the learning material ………
64
7. Conducting teacher’s reflection ……….
65
B. Findings ……….
65
1. The categories of the observation and interview data ………
65
2. The students’ opinion and expectation concerning the teacher’s
choice of the English learning material ………..
70
3. The profile of the participants’ personal understanding of teacher
autonomy in devising the English learning material ………...
72
C. Interpretation ……….
76
1. The participant individual understanding of teacher autonomy and
their students’ perception and expectation ………
76
a.
Tom’s understanding of teacher autonomy in devising the
English learning material at the vocational school ………..
76
b.
Tary’s understanding of teachers’ autonomy in devising the
English learning material at the vocational school ………...
88
c.
Tania’s understanding of teachers’ autonomy in devising the
English learning material at the vocational school ………...
100
2. Holistic understanding of teacher’s autonomy in devising the
English learning material at the vocational school ………
115
3. The participants’ understanding of teacher autonomy in devising the
English learning material seen from the existing theory ……….
x
B. Implications ………..…….
125
C. Recommendations ……….
126
BIBLIOGRAPHY ………..
129
APENDICES ………..
132
Appendix 1: Observation data ………
132
Appendix 2: Interview questions ………
139
Appendix 3: Interview data/ tape scripts of interview ………...
150
Appendix 4: Category of observation and interview data ………..
175
Appendix5: The profile of students’ opinion and expectation
concerning the teacher’s choice on the learning material…
182
Appendix 6: The profile of participant personal interpretation of
teacher autonomy ………...
xi
Pages
Figure 2.1 Theoretical Framework for teacher autonomy in devising the
English learning material
40
Figure 3.1 the interactive links of the research procedures and the research
results as determined in the research goal
xii
Pages
Table 3.1 Blueprint for the observations
49
Table 4.2 First interview questions of Tom
53
Table 4.3 A sample of questions formulated for Tom’s students
55
Table 4.1 Tom’s understanding of teacher autonomy
60
Table 4.2 Tom’s understanding of using the variety of the English learning
Material
61
Table 4.3 Tom’s understanding of devising the English learning material
61
Table 4.10 Tom students’ opinion and expectation
62
Table 4.6 The tentative profile of Tania’s personal understanding of
teacher autonomy in devising the English learning material
64
Table 4.1 Tom’s understanding of teacher autonomy
66
Table 4.2 Tom’s understanding of using the variety of the English learning
Material
66
Table 4.3 Tom’s understanding of devising the English learning material
67
Table 4.4 Tary’s understanding of teacher autonomy
67
Table 4.5 Tary’s understanding of using the variety of English learning
Material
68
Table 4.6 Tary’s understanding of devising the English learning material
68
Table 4.7 Tania’s understanding of teacher autonomy
68
Table 4.8Tania’s understanding of using the variety of English learning
Material
69
Table 4.9 Tania’s understanding of devising the English learning material
69
Table 4.10 Tom students’ opinion and expectation
70
Table 4.11 Tary students’ opinion and expectation
71
Table 4.12 Tania students’ opinion and expectation
71
Table 4.13 The profile of Tom’s personal understanding of teacher
autonomy in devising the English learning material
72
Table 4.14 The profile of Tary’s personal understanding of teacher
autonomy in devising the English learning material
74
Table 4.15 The profile of Tania’s personal understanding of teacher
autonomy in devising the English learning material
xiii
Page
Appendix 1: Observation data
131
Appendix 2: Interview questions
139
Appendix 3: Interview data/ tape scripts of interview
150
Appendix 4: Category of observation and interview data
175
Appendix5:The profile of students’ opinion and expectation
concerning the teacher’s choice on the learning material
182
Appendix 6:The profile of participant personal interpretation of
teacher autonomy
xiv
material at the vocational school.
Yogyakarta: English Language Studies, Graduate
Program, Sanata Dharma University.
School reform and accountability initiatives call for a new role for autonomy in
the career paths of teachers. In vocational schools, teachers need the autonomy to
respond to the dynamics of the classroom, to teach using various strategies during the
process of students’ learning and to develop the learning material relevant to the
students’ study program whether it is tourism, automotive, health, business or one of
many others. The study attempts to address the research question ‘what is teacher
autonomy in English learning material at the vocational school?’
Prior to the interview, I had formed some pre-understanding about teacher
autonomy in devising the English learning material at the vocational school related to
teacher’s freedom in adjusting the learning material with the students’ specific
program at the vocational school. During the interviews my pre-understanding helped
clarify the participant’s concepts with a special care not to impose anything on them,
so they were able to give more important narratives. It is hoped that the teacher’s
improved understanding will empower her/him better, so the students will be better
served and their English competences improves. It is also hoped that the teacher
narratives I have described and my interpretation will improve the audiences and other
stake holder’s emphatic understanding.
It was progressive qualitative research conducted with three English teachers
from three different vocational schools in Yogyakarta, namely technology, tourism and
art and craft schools. To construct teacher autonomy in devising the English learning
material, participants of the study were observed prior to and during their teaching
practice. They were also interviewed to follow the observations. The participants
shared experiences in devising English learning materials relevant to various study
programs in the vocational school. They showed the planned teaching materials and
the spontaneous and responsive teaching materials which were developed during the
teaching learning process. To ensure the validity of the data, interviews were also
conducted to six students of the three schools involved on the research.
xv
Yiyis Krisnani. 2008
.
Teacher autonomy in devising the English learning material at
the vocational school.
Yogyakarta: English Language Studies, Graduate Program,
Sanata Dharma University.
Reformasi dalam dunia pendidikan memberikan ruang bagi peran baru
mengenai otonomi dalam jenjang karir guru. Di sekolah kejuruan guru membutuhkan
kebebasan untuk menjawab tantangan dinamika kelas, untuk mengajar dengan
menggunakan bermacam strategi pembelajaran selama proses belajar siswa, dan untuk
mengembangkan bahan ajar yang sesuai dengan program study siswa apakah
kelompok pariwisata, otomotif, seni dan kerajinan, perdagangan atau jurusan-jurusan
lainnya. Penelitian ini mencoba untuk menjawab pertanyaan tentang ‘apakah otonomy
guru dalam menentukan materi pembelajaran bahasa Inggris di sekolah kejuruan?’
Sebelum wawancara dilakukan, telah ada pemahaman awal tentang otonomi
guru dalam perencanaan, pengembangan dan penggunaan materi pembelajaran bahasa
Inggris di SMK sehubungan kebebasan guru untuk menyesuaikan materi pembelajaran
bahasa Inggris sesuai jurusan dan program study siswa di SMK. Selama wawancara,
pemahaman awal tersebut dapat membantu memperjelas konsep guru, dengan tanpa
mempengaruhi apapun pendapat mereka, sehingga partisipan dapat memberikan kisah
(pengalaman) yang lebih penting. Diharapkan bahwa dengan adanya pemahaman guru
yang lebih baik, guru akan lebih berdaya sehingga siswa akan belajar secara lebih baik
dan penguasaan bahasa Inggris mereka meningkat. Diharapkan juga bahwa
pembahasan dan interpretasi tentang ceritera pengalaman guru akan meningkatkan
empati dan pengertian dari semua insan terkait.
Ini adalah riset progresif kualitatif yang dilaksanakan bersama tiga guru bahasa
Inggris dari tiga sekolah kejuruan yang berbeda di Yogyakarta; yakni sekolah teknik,
pariwisata dan seni dan kerajinan. Untuk membangun (pemahaman) tentang otonomi
guru dalam menentukan materi pembelajaran bahasa Inggris semua partisipan di
observasi sebelum dan selama proses pembelajaran. Semua partisipan juga
diwawancarai setelah selesai diobservasi. Semua partisipan berbagi pengalaman dalam
hal otonomi guru dan dalam materi pembelajaran sesuai dengan keragaman program
study yang dimiliki sekolah kejuruan. Guru-guru ini memperlihatkan baik materi yang
terencana sebelum pembelajaran berlangsung maupun materi yang berkembang secara
spontanitas atas respon siswa selama proses belajar berlangsung. Untuk keabsahan
data yang terkumpul, wawancara juga dilakukan terhadap enam orang siswa dari tiga
sekolah yang terlibat dalam penelitian.
Hasil penelitian
menunjukkan bahwa otonomi guru dalam menentukan,
menggunakan dan mengembangkan materi pembelajaran bahasa Inggris di SMK
adalah fenomena yang kompleks. Diharapkan bahwa hasil penelitian ini akan dapat
memberikan informasi bagi para guru tentang prinsip- prinsip teori yang terbaru dan
memanfaatkan penemuan- penemuan dari berbagai riset dalam realitas praktek/ proses
pembelajaran di kelas dan untuk menawarkan arah dan ide- ide baru dalam
pengembangan materi bahan ajar bahasa Inggris yang bisa dikembangkan, dirancang,
dibuat dan diaplikasikan sendiri oleh para guru.
Hasil penelitian juga menunjukkan bahwa guru memiliki kebebasan, komitmen
kesadaran dan komitmen dalam hal kompetensi mengajarnya dengan cara aktif
1
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this chapter is to define a case of teacher autonomy in devising
the English learning material at the vocational school. In this chapter I describe the
orientation of the study and by so doing, attempt to orient the reader about it. It also
surveys the application of teacher autonomy in English classes and the extent to which
it influences teachers in devising the learning material at the vocational schools. It
discuses the background of the study,
the problem identification, the problem
limitation, the research questions, the research goals and the research benefit.
A. Background of the study
School reform and accountability initiatives call for a new role for autonomy in
the career paths of teachers. Current research shows a strong correlation between
teachers’ teaching and students’ success. Teacher autonomy is one of the most current
issues in education. Little (1995:175) explains teacher autonomy when he states that:
"...successful teachers have always been autonomous in the sense of having a
strong sense of personal responsibility for their teaching, exercising via
continuous reflection and analysis the highest possible degree of affective and
cognitive control of the teaching process, and exploiting the freedom that this
confers".
Sustainable development of teacher autonomy may however require a specific
and contextually sensitive discussions and definition. Little (1995:175) continued that
the discussion of teacher autonomy focuses especially on understanding the contexts in
which this study works. Furthermore, teacher autonomy can be described as the ability
full potential. It is ongoing teaching and learning process in which teachers engages
voluntary to learn to adjust their teaching to the learning need of their students.
Education is according to Brumfit (2001:5) specifically concerned with
intervention by one part of society in the lives of others’. In Education, such
intervention is meant to be positive rather than negative and safeguards of various
kinds are provided to ensure that unsatisfactory intervention is avoided. Furthermore,
Brumfit (2001:5) points out that ‘when it works successfully, this activity should
lead-though often indirectly and after a long time lag- to more sensitive policy making at
local and national levels, and to improve methods of teaching particular areas of the
curriculum’. To answer to the challenges of reaching the excellent learning
environment, teacher autonomy is in its capacity to equip teachers individually or
collectively to act as sharper, promoters, and well informed critics of reform. It is
understandable that teacher autonomy promotes innovations in the teachers’ own
development. It leads teachers to increase the quality of Education. It motivates
teachers to increase their professional ability to get optimal achievement in the form of
the job promotion and position. It gives appreciation for teachers on all levels to have a
maximum and highest rank. English teachers for the example must have the freedom
and opportunities to develop understanding of how students with various interests,
abilities, and experiences make sense of English. It would be beneficial if teachers
have the opportunity to study and engage in research on English teaching and learning,
and to share with other colleagues what they have learned and what they have done to
support and guide all students.
Indonesian government set law for teachers and lecturers to enable
law number 14/2005 gives rooms for teachers to become autonomous in their
teaching-learning process. District autonomy law covers Indonesian republic law
number 32/2004 about district government of Indonesian republic and law number
33/2004 about the financial balance between the central government and district
government. This law creates a climate of educational reform as it influences an
important consideration in the educational context in which it is carried out. The role
of the district autonomy promotes any schools’ autonomy to become the excellent
learning environment for the scope of Local, National and International excellences. It
supports the competition on all aspects of education.
Some factors contributing to ‘teacher autonomy’ at vocational schools is
related with the implementation of the recent Curriculum, the school-based
curriculum/
Kurikulum Pada Tingkat Satuan Pelajaran (KTSP) model. The KTSP
model has become increasingly important as a way to ensure that teachers succeed in
matching their teaching goals with their students’ learning needs. In the case of
English teachers, teacher autonomy is needed to enable them to help their students
develop proficiency in the target language and understanding of the cultures associated
with the language. Therefore, teacher autonomy refers to activities done by teachers to
apply their knowledge of science, technology and skills to increase the quality of the
teaching learning process. In their daily tasks teachers do their responsibility on
arranging the teaching-learning program, presenting the materials based on the
curriculum, evaluating and analyzing the achievement and proficiency tests, mentoring
and guiding students.
One of the teachers’ ways to become autonomous is the teachers’ effort in
problem in anticipating the dynamic changes on the vocational schools’ curriculum. In
the current research context, the vocational schools, teachers understand that their
students need to learn English not only to pass the national exams but also to
communicate in the future work field relevant to their study programs. Teachers’
creativity in applying knowledge and skills is important to increase the quality of
English teaching-learning processes. In response to these problems I decided to focus
the aim of my research to share the experience on how teacher autonomy affects
English teachers in devising the English learning materials at the vocational school.
It is necessary to do research on this topic, as the characteristic of the
vocational school differs greatly with the general school. It is a wonder to me to know
how teacher autonomy is contextualized in English teachers’ performances, how
English teachers devise the learning materials in those various six study groups
(tourism, business, farming, arts and crafts, health and technique) and one
hundred-and-twenty one study programs of the vocational school. In this thesis, I attempt to
incorporate the aspects of teacher autonomy and its relation to the learning material in
the context of students’ study program at vocational schools. It is the research report of
the teachers’ narratives on the current issue of teacher autonomy in devising the
English learning materials at the vocational school. The most important thing is to
know the English teacher’s personal reason to take chance on their self development to
become the professional as well as competent teachers in their career by devising the
learning material suited to their own specific class characters.
B. Problem Identification
In the vocational school, the need for being ‘autonomous’ has become
function are as the creator, facilitator, motivator, educator and evaluator. Vocational
teachers are currently given the autonomy to plan the schools’ own curriculum/ the
KTSP, the teaching methodology, the stated objectives, the syllabus specifications, the
types of activities and the roles of teachers and learners. They also have the autonomy
to decide the organization for learning and teaching, the choice of the teaching media
and the teaching-learning material.
In the vocational school, teacher autonomy has the central role to work at its
best capacity to make teachers be autonomous and self fulfilling especially in devising
the learning material for their own classes. As the vocational school has one hundred
and twenty one study programs, the situation of choosing and deciding what material
is to be presented in the classroom is relatively difficult. As this study relates with
teachers daily tasks, it encourages English teachers to explore and examine the
meaningfulness on increasing teacher autonomy in devising the learning material
which is suitable for the vocational schools. The arrangements concerning the units of
presentation refer to the competency standards which are clearly stated on the
curriculum document. The arrangements of the units of presentation and the choice of
the learning material are done by teachers. By doing so, teachers reflect their
autonomy to contribute to the science of the English language education.
The research focuses on the teacher autonomy in devising the English learning
material at vocational schools. How do teachers actualize themselves concerning the
teacher autonomy? What activities do teachers do to create effective classroom
practice? In what ways do teachers facilitate themselves of everything needed in the
material for their teaching practices? What have teachers done to fulfill the students’
needs concerning the learning material?
Information concerning the effectiveness of teacher autonomy in devising the
English learning material at the vocational school is gained from three main sources;
the class observations, the interviews and the documentation of the research. As this
study uses the qualitative research, it uses natural series of activities including
observations and interviews. It is hoped that it will be able to help teachers to
contextualize their understanding in devising the English learning material at the
vocational school. English teachers are hoped to be able to contextualize the goals and
objective in teaching English. Teachers can then know well how to choose, organize,
sequence and develop teaching materials to support their teaching learning process.
C. Problem Limitation
There are many ways of teachers to put themselves to be called autonomous
teachers. On the discussion of the background of the study and the problem
identification, it has been mentioned the whole complex of elements to refer to teacher
autonomy. Delimitation is based on both the conceptual considerations and the
practical considerations. Teacher autonomy covers some probable coverage, as some
of them are mentioned in the previous problem limitation. The discussion of teacher
autonomy will become the dynamic live-experience for teachers. As decision makers
in devising the English learning material at the vocational school, teachers’ belief and
their action will become rich sources of the study.
The limitation of the study is
expected to open the other possibilities of conducting some further studies on the issue
The necessity to limit the study only to focus on devising the English learning
material at three vocational schools is hoped to make it possible to capture a clear
picture about the issue. Hopefully, the data collected in this research can interpret the
meaning of the teacher autonomy in devising the English learning material at the
vocational school. The limitation of the study, the size and nature of the samples, is
expected to draw more attention for the next studies concerning teacher autonomy and
the factors which concern with the teachers’ actual involvement in devising the
English learning material for the betterment of the English education further forward.
The difficulties confronted by my-self concerns with the time management.
Due to the hectic schedules facing the participants and I for being the teachers, the
schedules which we had agreed were very often changed so we had to re-arrange the
new schedules. Referring to six study groups of one hundred and- twenty one study
programs at the vocational school, this study is then limited only in three study
programs at the vocational school.
D
.
Research Questions
The need to determine what I wanted to find out within the area of the topic
that I have chosen, the research question is formulated as follows:
What is teacher autonomy in devising the English learning material at the
vocational school?
The research question is elaborated from the concept to the operation as the following:
1. How do teachers actualize themselves concerning the teacher autonomy?
2. What activities do teachers do to create effective classroom practice?
3. In what ways do teachers facilitate themselves of everything needed in the
4. How do they contextualize teacher autonomy in devising the learning
material for their teaching practices?
5. What have teachers done to fulfill the students’ needs concerning the
learning material?
E. Research Goals
Related to the research question, the goals of this study are:
1. To discover the meaning of teacher autonomy in the context of devising the English
learning material at the vocational schools.
2. To find out how teacher autonomy is contextualized through devising the English
learning material at the vocational schools.
By exploring how some teachers contextualize their autonomy, self
actualization, belief and intention in devising the English learning material at the
vocational school, the following processes show the procedural objectives to follow in
the study:
1. To describe the narrative of teacher autonomy in devising the English learning
material based on teacher’s lived- experience in the teaching-learning process at the
vocational school.
2. To interpret English teacher personal reasons in devising the English learning
material on their teaching practices.
3. To identify the ways teachers devise their own English learning material as a part of
teacher autonomy based on their experience in teaching-learning process at the
vocational school.
As the study attempts to address the research question ‘what is teacher
autonomy in devising the English learning material at the vocational school?, I had
formed some pre-understanding about teacher autonomy in devising the English
learning material at the vocational school related to teachers’ freedom in adjusting the
learning material with the students’ specific programs at the vocational school. When
the research goals are gained, it is expected that the teachers’ understanding will
empower her/him better, so the students will be better served and their English
competences improves. It is also hoped that the teacher narratives I have described and
my interpretation will improve the audiences and other stakeholders’ emphatic
understanding. When the audiences and other stakeholders get involved as the
curriculum designers, book writers, educators, school managements and the policy
makers, they will likely produce more appropriate products, for the students to learn
better. The research benefits of the study cover the theoretical benefit to add to the
literature on the area of teacher autonomy and the practical benefits presented in the
following:
1. Theoretical benefits
The study is meant to provide scientific information in education in general,
especially in encouraging teachers to make effective use of their autonomy to focus on
the topics materials and situation most relevant to the students’ needs. It may function
as comprehensible input in the development in education in general, language teaching
and English language teaching at the vocational school.
2. Practical benefits
The study may provide teachers, educators, school managements, curriculum
autonomy in devising the English learning material to
increase the quality of the
English language teaching. It may provide teachers/ educators some information of
devising the English learning material, to adjust to their classes at the vocational
school so that they can take active roles in devising topics materials for their own
teaching. It may also function as the information of devising the English learning
material for the school management and other policy makers to support teachers in any
obstacles/problems found in devising the English learning material. Furthermore, the
curriculum designers or the other policy makers may find the input of English learning
material, to adjust the flexibility of curriculum design. It may provide other
perspectives for the book makers to create suitable materials using suitable activities
most relevant to the students’ needs at vocational schools. Finally, the study may help
the researcher and the participants to become more self-fulfilling in devising the
English learning materials for the teaching learning process. The researcher and the
participants of the study may find out the actual English learning material needed by
11
LITERATURE REVIEW
In this chapter, I attempt to take the discussion in the previous chapter further
forward, exploring some theoretical review and framework of thinking. It focuses on
the issues related to teacher autonomy and the factors involved in teachers’ function at
the vocational schools peaking in the important role of teachers in devising the
learning material for his/her English classes. Furthermore in this chapter, I try to build
up the theoretical framework of the study to clarify construct and concepts used in this
study to arrive at the theoretical answer of the research question.
A. Theoretical Review
The theoretical review in this section discusses relevant theories concerning the
research. The current literature on related topics in this section covers the review on
(1) autonomy of teachers (2) the variety of the English learning material (3) the
vocational school and (4) lived- experience in progressive qualitative research.
1. Autonomy of teachers
a. Meaning
The similar meaning of the word autonomy is freedom; self-government. The
term self-government may be applied both to the individual person and to a group or
an institution. Quoting one of the best known philosophical theories of autonomy
developed by the great philosopher Kant (1724-1804), an autonomous person is,
fundamentally, one who is able to act according to his or her own direction. Kant
(1724-1804) defines the word autonomy in philosophical contexts which refers to
self-determination in the context of moral choices. The meaning of autonomy can be
demonstrated by a person who decides on a course of action out of respect for moral
duty. An autonomous person acts morally solely for the sake of doing well. It is clear
that Kant applied this concept to create a definition of personhood. He suggests that
such compliance with moral law creates the essence of human dignity.
Ideas about individual autonomy are closely linked to conceptions of
‘freedom’. Literatures to support the meaning of autonomy in educational field lead to
understanding, belief, action and intention for the betterment in the process of the
teaching- learning. For teachers the idea of personal autonomy is to have personal rule.
They are free from interference by others. The autonomous teacher acts in accordance
with a freely self-chosen and informed plan. The meaning of autonomy for teachers of
the vocational school can be distinguished by the relation between the self-government
of a group and individual autonomy. Teacher autonomy is complicated by the need to
distinguish between the collective self-government of a group and the self-direction of
an individual member of that group. As the intention is to empower students to be
self-fulfilling, teachers should be able to work on their own affair. As individual members
of the school management, teachers should work cooperatively with others to pursue
the studets’ sucsess.
As also defined by Allwright (1999), any definition of autonomy should take
into account the desirability of creating as democratic classroom and communication
environment as possible, but at the same time recognize the many limitations of
democratic classroom behavior and practice for the example, what is not negotiable
between teachers and students or between students themselves. Applying the theory to
there are rights and privileges in learning; students must be allowed the right to learn
what they wish to and need to learn, and teachers must also be allowed the right to
teach what they think is important for students to learn. Allwright’s definition is
relevant with the condition of the vocational school where there is one hundred-and-
twenty one study programs using language for specific purpose. Allwright continued
how these two rights connect and how teachers and students share responsibility for
ensuring that complementary teaching and learning takes place constitutes a crucial
element of autononomy. It is unproductive to speak of teacher-centered as being in
opposition to student-centered pedagogical methodology or orientation. Nowadays
teacher’s function develops to being a facilitator to facilitate students’ learning. More
usefully, autonomy should be conceived as collaborative: students and teachers
teaching, researching, and learning in a mutually beneficial symbiotic relationship that
continually nurtures freedom with responsibility, and which aims at critical inquiry,
and intellectual and affective development.
It is clear that autonomy is essential for those claiming the status of teachers or
educators. It is believed that most of us want to be autonomous because we want to be
accountable for what we do. Kernan (2003) defines the word ‘autonomy’ to refer to the
process by which the occupation becomes a profession, thus signaling socialization
into the profession through some educational routes. It is the manner of allowing one’s
self to work on her own, to establish and achieve goals within the limits of what they
know. In order for autonomous teachers to be successful, it must be on line with
teachers’ career development.
Understanding how the theorists define the meanings of the word autonomy
in their professional development. In the case of the teachers of the vocational schools,
they should be free to assert their autonomy in devising the learning material to the
students of various study programs. Teachers should feel confident and value
negotiation and democracy to regulate any situation and condition faced in the
teaching practice. When the teachers are successful, they can lead the students to
become autonomous to prepare themselves in facing their future career.
b. Teacher autonomy
Teacher autonomy is characterized by awareness that teaching is always
contextually situated. It is a continual process of inquiry into how teaching can best
promote autonomous learning for learners. This characteristic implies that teachers
should understand the different situations and conditions that they may face in the real
practice. As teachers nowadays are given more spaces to adjust the present practices in
the real classroom, teachers can then create the schools’ curriculum and the teaching
materials based on the students’ needs. Another characteristic of teacher autonomy can
be recognized in the ways that an autonomous teacher works with his or her students
openly and accountably to stimulate the best learning condition. An autonomous
teacher continually searches for better answers to the different problems arising in
developing learner autonomy further. Citing Little’s argument (1995:175), teacher
autonomy is a precondition for learner autonomy, so it can be described as the ability
to take control of the learning in order to maximize the student’s full potential.
Relating it with the topic being discussed, the involvement of teachers in devising the
learning material can encourage teachers to become more autonomous, self-directed in
their professional lives and enable them to realize the benefits of gradually introducing
As the vocational schools should always be in line with the current situations of
the industries, teacher autonomy is important to adjust the learning material which is
needed by the industries. In the vocational schools, teacher autonomy relates with the
personal and professional improvement in the career path and professional
development. It is explicit that as being autonomous teachers have the opportunities to
deal with challenges to shape the curriculum which is in line with the industries and
the teaching material which is relevant with the students’ study programs. It enables
teachers to apply the methodology of teaching, the teaching media and the evaluation
formats to develop their professionalism further. As a professional, an autonomous
teacher must be knowledgeable about the current situations and continue to learn more
about it. For vocational teachers, teacher autonomy involves ideas of professional
freedom and self-directed professional development.
The basic premise of teacher autonomy is, in Ashwell’s opinion (2001), that
teachers are best placed to develop their own teaching in order to provide the best
learning experiences of their students. The idea can mean that teacher autonomy is
needed for these innovations in teacher education and on-going teacher development.
It can be intrerpreted that rather than accepting the received wisdom, the autonomous
teacher interprets ideas about teaching and learning for himself and sometimes in
collaboration with others making the meaning more real for him self. The autonomous
teacher searches for new answers to new problems which inevitably occur to teachers
as individuals in the unique teaching/learning situations. In the real situation teachers
seek the meaning for their self empowerment not only on the classroom area but also
for other teachers. They become the asset for other colleagues in doing the
collaboration on the educational field.
Teacher autonomy focuses specifically on how teachers construct their
professional identities in ongoing interaction with learners, Brumfit (2001). It means
reflecting their actions in the classroom and adapting them to meet the student’s
explisit or implicit learning needs. Brumfit’s opinion can be apreciated that the attempt
to develop appropriate teaching procedures, through experimentation with new
materials and techniques is arising out of dissatisfaction with the old ones. It leads
simultaneously to criticism of current models of learning and teaching to greater
support for the teaching profession in its task within the educational system. As a
matter of fact, development, enquiry, improvement, and critique operate
simultaneously and interactively. Teachers are challenged to develop their own
learning materials in order to give better learning experiences of their students.
Teacher autonomy supports teacher functions that are fundamental if teachers are to
provide authentic, active learning experiences as aimed by education reform goals.
These functions include developing and tailoring the learning materials, conducting
ongoing assessment of student learning, expanding teachers’ content and instructional
knowledge, and communicating with students and other stakeholders. In addition to
being necessary for providing the kind of learning experience, these functions
constitute important aspects of the professionalization of teachers, another goal of
education reform. Linked the statements above with the truth of being teachers, we are
challenged to always actualize ourselves with all current affairs on the educational
field. Being teachers, we are responsible for the quality of being useful for other
The definitions of autonomy as proposed by some theorist, should take into
account the desirability of creating as democratic a classroom and communication
environment as possible. Teacher autonomy may enable teachers to have more
meaningful interaction and negotiation with the students. It may enable teachers to
create a democratic classroom behavior and practice. As the vocational school’s
students are prepared to go to industries right after they are graduted from the school,
students have rights and privileges in learning English that will support their future
career. Understanding teacher autonomy may enable teachers to allow their students to
have the right to learn what they wish to and need to learn. In this situation, teachers
are better to be allowed the right to teach what they think is important for students to
learn. More meaningfully, teacher autonomy can be perceiped as collaborative and
interactive teachers teaching and students learning in a mutuall understanding of
interaction. The constructs of teacher autonomy will then be aimed at any attempts to
create as democratic classroom and communication environment as possible. Teacher
autonomy is contextualized by the teachers’ freedom to regulate their own affair
without any interference from others. Autonomous teachers will make learners be as
autonomous as possible, and let their students make the language of their own. The
characteristic of teacher autonomy is that teachers have personal rule of understanding,
belief, action and intention in the process of the teaching- learning.
c. Devising the English learning material
One facet of the teacher autonomy is in devising the learning material. This is
the ‘empowerment’ of teachers so that they can take charge of their own professional
lives.
Hadley (1993:481) points out that ‘because curriculum planning involves such
individual course), the selection of materials and teaching approaches, the design of
the testing program, and the appropriate use of program-evaluation procedures,
effective teachers need to be familiar with all aspects of program design’. Comenting
on Hadley’s criticism, in organizing for learning and teaching, teachers make decisions
about their classroom context, the content of their programs and the strategies they will
employ. For the vocational teachers, the planning and programming are based on
knowledge of students' study program. The plans and programs are made to meet the
students' needs to face the job field in the industries.
In devising the learning material, teachers develop it to be in line with the
requirements of the graduate competencies set on the curriculum. Graves (2000)
describes materials development as the planning process by which a teacher create
units and lesson within those units to carry out the goals and objective of the course.
Graves (2000:149) argues Apple (1986) who views the condition that ‘When teachers
are required to strictly adhere
to a textbook and timetable there is little room for them
to make decision and to put to use what they have learn from the experience, which, in
effect “deskills” the teachers. Viewing both Graves and Apple’s statements, in the
reality of the teaching practices, some teachers are creative to make some modification
in using the available textbooks. Some teachers do not have the time in their schedules
to develop all materials for every course they teach while some others are active in
devising the suitable-current learning material for their students. As a matter of facts,
teachers are considered to be involved in devising the learning materials from the
moment they pick up a text book and teach from it even if they only change names of
The word devise in this study refer to ‘contrive, plan, or elaborate invent from
existing priciplesof ideas to devise a method. It the free interpretation the term
‘devising’, it has the sense as the act that result in something coming to be. In devising
the learning material teachers plan, act and develop the learning material on the
processes of teaching. In devising the learning material teachers plan, sequence and
organize the compiled learning material. In the processes of teaching teachers may
develop further the pre- planned learning material by doing the addition,
simplification, modification, or creation of totally new material. Teachers make
necessary adjustment of the learning material to suit to the students’ need in learning
English.
In order that the graduates can reach the competencies standards, teachers are
expected to be actively involved in devising the learning material. Particularly in the
vocational school, in devising the learning materials teachers may always consider
major skills of their students and what are important for them. As the part of the
teacher’s function, the learning material and task design should constitute the goals of
the school curriculum. For English teachers of vocational schools, the exsisting school
curriculum and the vocational syllabus may be the first things to guide them in
devising the learning materials.
2.
The variety of the
English learning material
a.
Source
1) The authentic material
The definitions of the authentic material are slightly different in literature.
What is common in these definitions is 'exposure to real language and its use in its
goals, objectives, learners’ needs and interest and 'natural' in terms of real life and
meaningful communication. It is the learning material which involves the natural-
language occurring as communication in native-speaker contexts of use, or those
selected contexts such as the real newspaper reports, the real magazine articles, the real
advertisements, the real cooking recipes, etc. Some teachers seem to believe that
authentic texts or material are beneficial to the language learning process, and as a
matter of facts; students of vocational schools need to be familiar with the authentic
learning material which they would deal with after they graduate from their schools.
By using authentic English for vocational schools, learners are confronted with 'real
life' experiences in which they will have to function in their future career. Some
teachers may feel excited to use authentic materials in their classroom practices to try
to get more of the students’ attention. Teacher can then focus on variations to express
meaning.
In learning to practice the language, students of the vocational school may
use the ‘language functions’ to communicate in the every day context in the social life
and the future work field.
The term ‘Authentic materials’ may also refer to spoken and written text that
are used by native speakers in the real world. The examples of the authentic material
found in the English for vocational school are abundant. In the business and economic
vocational schools, for example, there are business (English) letters and other business
formats. In the home economic schools there are authentic English material related to
food, clothing and beauty study programs such as recipe, English fashion magazine,
cosmetic manuals and the like. In the tourism schools the examples of the authentic
material are the brocures of the hotel reservation and accommodation. An important
goals and objectives stated on the specific group of the vocational curriculum. The
authentic material used in the tourism school may be totally different with the
authentic material used for technical schools.
Some students may feel eager to enjoy dealing with authentic material since
they enable them to interact with the real language and its use. They may feel that the
authentic situations or material are interesting. By using authentic materials teachers
will have the opportunity to encourage students to read for pleasure especially certain
topics of their interest. The example of the listening practice is found when teachers
present the visual material to enlarge the students' comprehension. The
audio-visual material is beneficial since it will prevent students especially beginning ones
from being frustrated about authentic materials. Another example of the authentic
material is popular and traditional songs. They may help teachers to create a
non-threatening environment. The main advantages of using authentic materials mentioned
by Richards (2001) should have a positive effect on learner motivation, provide
exposure to real language and relate more closely to learners ' needs.
Some vocational teachers use the authentic material to guide guide their
students to know the current situation of the industries and the language terms used in
those places. Using the authentic English which is used in the jobfield, these teachers
hope that this kind of learning material will complement the English classes by
enlivening the class and creating a more positive attitude toward learning. As there are
one hundred and twenty one study programs in the vocational schools in Indonesia, the
authentic learning materials help vocational students to have better understanding
about their subject area. There are wide choices of the authentic materials which can
exposed to real language, they feel that they are learning the 'real' language. As there
are one hundred and twenty one study programs, the English teachers of the vocational
school are challenged to be more creative to present English which is interesting to
students of certain study program. To face the global era, in the food study program,
for example, students are expected to be able to describe in English the process of
making certain menu and other special food which is popular in the area where they
live. Students of the art and handy crafts should be fluent in describing the story, the
material, the process and the use of certain products. In using the authentic material,
besides talking about common expressions students will also have the communicative
competence in talking about anything which relates to their study program. They learn
to use authentic communication as it will be used on their future jobs.
2) The non authentic material
English for the vocational school focuses on real communication and the
exchange of information refers to content based instruction (CBI). Richard and
Rodgers (2001) describe that ‘one of the core principle of content based instruction is
that people learn a second language more successfully when they use the language as a
means of acquiring information, rather than as end in itself’. Students learn best when
instruction addresses students’ needs. This principle emphasizes that in CBI the
content that the students study is selected according to their needs. As the majority of
the vocational school graduates will directly enter the job field, the content based
instruction/ CBI is suitable for the vocational students.
In teaching English at the vocational school, teachers should decide as to which
type of class materials is more suitable for their classes. The choices are between
memos, hotel brochures, manual machine instructions, advertisements, business letters,
and the like and the text books prepared especially for the lesson by the book makers
or some other English teaching sources. The argument for the authentic materials is
that the materials should represent what learners will be confronted with in every day
life when using English. On the other hand, refering to the textbook materials, some
teachers feel that by preparing the material students are introduced to issues that may
be beyond the scope of the current level. Both arguments are equally valid, and in the
reality vocational English teachers use both types of materials in the English classes.
Textbooks are the most popular sources of the English learning material for
students to learn English. Nowadays, English teachers have a lot of choices in terms of
textbooks. Many teachers prefer textbooks that focus students' attention on
grammatical structures. More teachers concern with the textbooks which give special
focus on reading. Teachers’ want their students to be able to read for information and
pleasure and for understanding instructions to support their future career. Students
lacking motivation to learn a language need variety and excitement. Teachers should
help the students to notice that learning a language is not just learning its grammatical
rules, vocabulary items and so on.
In the vocational schools, where there are more than one hundred study
programs, students’ need of learning English are ussualy focused on English for
general communication and English for specific purpose related to students’ study
programs. The average textbooks may be more meaningful if the vocational English
teachers make some modification, addition, or simplication, to adjust to the specific
To refer to the current research of teacher autonomy in devising the learning
material, it may then enable teachers at the vocational schools to select the textbooks
which they think suitable for their students. Teachers may be flexible, following the
dynamic of the classroom. Both the teacher and the students may become the active
participants in the language class. Using the textbooks as the core materials, a
purposeful communicative situation may then be built to lead to real communication.
b.
Technology
1) Computer – assisted language learning/ CALL
Another variety of learning materials which involve the technology in
vocational schools can be found on the application on the computer assissted language
learning/ CALL. Some schools have encouraged teachers to develop the self access
center where English teachers ussualy create or modify the existing materials and store
them for students to use anytime they want to study English. The self access center is
usually facilitated with the computers for the CALL. Smith (1999) states that by using
multimedia for input and interaction in computer assissted language learning/ CALL
environments, teachers provides exposure to language (input) in a variety of modes
and representations and opportunities for interaction or negotiation with the language
(output) in a variety of modes. CALL can be used to provide opportunities for
exposure and production of the language learning. The program design is adjusted to
the students’ level of English integrating the four skills of the language and the
vocabulary and grammar exercises. Some teachers use these multimedia teaching
materials on their English teaching at vocational schools. Smith (1999) summarizes
that CALL gives students the opportunity to engage in many different styles of
excitement of contact with exotic environment and the global community. Using the
multi media learning material may enable students to work on their own speed.
In relation to the teacher’s autonomy, the multi-media learning material using
the modern technology like the computers supports teacher functions in providing
authentic, active learning experiences. Teacher’s autonomy as envisioned in the
educational reform include developing the learning material, conducting the
assessment of student learning and expanding teacher’s professionalization in
instructional knowledge. It is expected that teachers are able to draw on technology
resources to develop the learning materials to better meet individual student needs.
They would like to be able to adapt instructional materials to meet the needs of their
particular students, however only few teachers have the programming skills. Other
teachers conduct the English class using the multi-media text book program which is
ready made for the high school and the vocational school. To foster students to have
their autonomy in learning, the computer assisted language teaching trains students to
be autonomous. In this activity, students pursue different questions, work at different
speeds, use a variety of materials, engage in different activities, and work in flexible
groupings.
As nowadays computer technology is applied in daily activities at the
vocational schools, the learning English using the multimedia or CALL has become
easy and ready to use. Some teachers of vocational schools have applied the real
CALL program in their schools successfully. Through the internet, they create links of
vocational students in many provinces and the whole country. This mailing list of
vocational students exposes students to a vast range of experiences and promotes
anywhere in the whole country, allowing them to share experience and other
information for being the vocational student. For the English teachers of the vocational
school, one English trainer of the vocational education teacher development centre
(VEDC) in Jakarta has been very successful in linking hundred of English teachers in
the
‘smketi’
(smk English teachers) mailing list. Through this mailing list, vocational
English teachers from all over the Indonesia share the experience in the computer
assisted (English) language learning for the students and other things related to
teaching- learning English at the vocational school. These teachers must continually
update their skills so that they can instruct and use the latest technology in the
classroom to help students to have their own active learning.
c. Activity.
1) Games
Games are another variety of English learning materials viewed from the class
activity. Paul (2003) suggests using games in teaching English to children in Asia
“games play a central role in a child- centered lesson and make it ossible for children
to fully emmerse themselves in learning. To speak frankly, the English proficiency of
most of vocational students is still low therefore teachers are encouraged to use games
for their teaching focusing on the student- centered methods. Games are examples of
student-centered activity. Students feel comfortable and get involved in learning
English through the games which are devised by the teachers.
Some teachers use games for their learning materials at the vocational school
because they are enjoyable and lessen the tension of learning English. In vocational
schools, English support their ‘productive’lessons. Most teachers link the English
English teacher of the food study program for example, plays ‘keep the ball rolling’
