Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:I:International Journal of Educational Management:Vol11.Issue1.1997:

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Go lnaz Sadri and Ge o rge A. Marc o ulide s An e xaminatio n o f ac ade mic and o c c upatio nal stre ss in the USA

Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 1 [1 9 9 7 ] 3 2 –4 3

p er s on a lit y a n d t h e m et h od s t h a t p eop le a d op t t o cop e w it h st r es s ? Sim ila r t o Ma r cou lid es a n d Sa d r i (1995), Sa d r i a n d Ma r cou lid es (1994a ; b ) a n d Sa d r i et a l. (1996), it w a s h y p ot h esized t h a t a t lea st s om e ele-m en t s of t h e st r es s p r ocess ca n b e ele-m ea su r ed . Secon d , ca n a m od el b e d evelop ed con sis t en t w it h p r ev iou s t h eor y t h a t est im a t es t h e effect s of sever a l d im en sion s t h ou gh t t o r e p r esen t a ca d em ic a n d occu p a t ion a l st r ess? It w a s h y p ot h esized t h a t , t h r ou gh st r u ct u r a l eq u a t ion m od ellin g t ech n iq u es, a m od el of t h e d im en sion s of t h e st r ess p r ocess cou ld b e d evelop ed wh ich wou ld b e con sist en t w it h p r ev iou s r esea r ch a n d wh ich wou ld p er m it u s t o a n a ly se a n in d iv id u a l’s p sych ologica l, p h y sioologica l a n d b eh av iou r a l ou t -com es.

T h e r em a in in g p a p er is d iv id ed in t o t h r ee s ect ion s. T h e fi r s t s ect ion p r es en t s a con ce p -t u a liza -t ion of -t h e m od el u s ed -t o exa m in e -t h e effect s of va r iou s com p on en t s of p er son a lit y, a ca d em ic a n d occu p a t ion a l st r es s on ou t com e m ea s u r es. T h e secon d sect ion focu ses on t h e m et h od s u s ed in ga t h er in g t h e d a t a a n d p r e-s en t a t ion of t h e r ee-su lt e-s. T h e fi n a l e-sect ion d iscu s s es t h e im p lica t ion s of t h e fi n d in gs for im p r ov in g r es ea r ch a n d p r a ct ice in ed u ca t ion a n d m a n a gem en t .

Testing a model of the stress

process

F igu r e 1 p r es en t s ou r p r op os ed t h eor et ica l m od el of a ca d em ic a n d occu p a t ion a l st r es s. T h e ou t com es of in t er es t a r e m en t a l a n d p h y s ica l h ea lt h , sch ola s t ic gr a d e p oin t aver -a ge (GPA) -a n d job s-a t is f-a ct ion . T h e p r op os ed m od el p os it s t h e exis t en ce of sever a l la t en t va r ia bles w h ich t oget h er com p r is e va r iou s a s p ect s of a n in d iv id u a l’s p er s on a lit y a n d st r es s or s t h a t , in con cer t , a r e b elieved t o in fl u en ce s t r es s -r ela t ed ou t com es. Ty p e A b eh av iou r, locu s of con t r ol (LOC) a n d cop in g a r e a ll s een a s exogen ou s va r ia bles, in t h a t t h eir va r ia b ilit y is d et er m in ed by fa ct or s ou t s id e t h e m od el. St r es s or s (a ca d em ic a n d occu p a t ion a l) a r e v iew ed a s en d ogen ou s, in t h a t t h eir va r ia b ilit y is d et er m in ed by ot h er va r ia bles in t h e m od el. T h e exogen ou s va r ia bles, t h er efor e, ia r e seen ia s in d ir ect ly ia ffect -in g t h e ou t com e t h r ou gh t h e en d ogen ou s va r ia bles in t h e m od el. T h is gr ou p of la t en t va r ia bles is v iew ed a s loos ely com p r is in g t h e fou r gr ou p s of p er s on a lit y, cop in g, s t r es s or s a n d ou t com es or igin a lly s u gges t ed by Coop er a n d Ba glion i (1988), Rob er t s on et a l. (1990) a n d Sa d r i a n d Ma r cou lid es (1994a ).

Precursors of stress

T h er e a r e t h r ee la t en t va r ia bles t h a t a r e con -sid er ed p r ecu r sor s of s t r ess. T h ese in clu d e t y p e A b eh av iou r, locu s of con t r ol (LOC) a n d cop in g. As p r es en t ed in F igu r e 1, it is p r o-p osed t h a t o-p er son a lit y va r ia bles (i.e. t y o-p e A b eh av iou r a n d LOC) a n d m et h od s of cop in g d et er m in e t h e p er ce p t ion of occu p a t ion a l a n d a ca d em ic st r es s.

Type A behaviour

Ty p e A b eh av iou r is ch a r a ct er ized by a ch r on ic sen s e of t im e u r gen cy a n d a n exces-sive com p et it ive d r ive. P a st r esea r ch h a s d em ost r a t ed t h a t t h is t y p e of b eh av iou r h a s a clea r lin k w it h s t r ess-r ela t ed ou t com es (e.g. Zy la n sk i a n d J en k in s, 1970). Ty p e A in d iv id u -a ls u n d er est im -a t e t h e t im e r eq u ir ed t o a ccom p lis h t a sk s a n d , t h er efor e, exp er ien ce t im e p r essu r es. T h ey wor k q u ick ly a n d sh ow im p a t ien ce a n d d ecr ea s ed wor k p er for m a n ce if for ced t o wor k slow ly. Ty p e As ign or e, su p p r ess or d en y p h y sica l or p sych ologica l sy m p -t om s w h ile wor k in g u n d er p r es su r e, a n d r e p or t su ch sy m p t om s on ly w h en t h e wor k is fi n ish ed . T h ey wor k h a r d er a n d exp er ien ce p h y siologica l a r ou sa l w h en a t a sk is p er ceived a s ch a llen gin g; exp r ess h ost ilit y a n d ir r it a t ion in r esp on se t o a t h r ea t ; a n d n eed t o b e in con t r ol of t h e im m ed ia t e en v ir on m en t t o s u ch a n ext en t t h a t a la ck of con -t r ol m ay elici-t a h os-t ile, com p e-t i-t ive r esp on se (F r ied m a n a n d Rosen m a n , 1974; F r ogga t t a n d Cot t on , 1987; Ga n st er et a l., 1989; Willia m s, 1989).

Locus of control

Locu s of con t r ol (LOC) is r e p r esen t ed by a con t in u u m w it h in d iv id u a ls w h o b elieve t h a t t h ey a r e m a st er s of t h eir fa t e fa llin g on t h e in t er n a l sid e of t h e con t in u u m , a n d t h ose w h o b elieve t h a t t h eir lives a r e r elia n t on lu ck , ch a n ce, fa t e or p ow er fu l ot h er s fa llin g on t h e ext er n a l sid e (Rot t er, 1966). A n u m b er of st u d ies im p ly t h a t in t er n a ls p er ceive t h eir job s t o b e less st r es sfu l t h a n d o ext er n a ls (e.g. Gem m ill a n d H eis ler, 1972). In t er n a ls r e p or t few er p sych ologica l s t r a in s r esu lt in g fr om job sp ecifi cit y, few er som a t ic com p la in t s a s a r esu lt of r ole con fl ict , a n d a r e less lik ely t o r esp on d t o n or m a l or ga n iza t ion a l fr u st r a -t ion s w i-t h a ggr ession , s a b o-t a ge or

w it h d r aw a l t h a n a r e ext er n a ls (An d er son et a l., 1977; F u s ilier et a l., 1987; Gem m ill a n d H eisler, 1972; Ma r in o a n d Wh it e, 1985; St or m s a n d Sp ect or, 1987).

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w h ich im p or t a n t ou t com es a r e con t r olla ble (Rot t er, 1966). T h e m ea s u r e u sed in t h e p r e-sen t s t u dy r e p r es en t s a s t a t e m ea s u r e, or a su b ject ive a p p r a isa l of con t r ol of t h e in d iv id -u a l’s wor k sit -u a t ion a n d h a s d em on s t r a t ed a r ela t ion s h ip w it h im p or t a n t a sp ect s of t h e in d iv id u a l’s wor k exp er ien ce a n d w ellb ein g (M a r cou lid es a n d Sa d r i, 1995; Rees a n d Coop er, 1992; Sa d r i a n d M a r cou lid es, 1994a ). Con s eq u en t ly, a lin k is su gges t ed b et w een t h is s t a t e m ea s u r e of LOC a n d wor k st r es s or s, bu t n on e w it h a ca d em ic s t r es s or s (a s s h ow n in F igu r e 1).

Coping methods

Cop in g r efer s t o b eh av iou r t h a t m ed ia t es t h e im p a ct t h a t societ ies h ave on t h eir m em b er s t h r ou gh p r ot ect in g p eop le fr om b ein g p sych o-logica lly h a r m ed by p r oblem a t ic socia l exp r ien ce (P ea r lin a n d Sch ooler, 1978). T h e p r e-sen t m od el su gges t s t h a t t h er e a r e lik ely t o b e in d iv id u a l d iffer en ces in t h e m et h od s t h a t p eop le a d op t t o cop e w it h given sit u a t ion s, a n d t h a t t h e cop in g a lt er n a t ives w h ich a r e p er ceived t o b e ava ila ble t o ea ch p er s on w ill a ffect h is / h er su b s eq u en t p er ce p t ion of st r es s fu l even t s. T h er e is p r ior ev id en ce t h a t cop in g is a n a ct ive, con t in u ou s for ce, sh a p in g w h a t w ill occu r d u r in g su b s eq u en t cop in g e p is od es, a n d t h a t in d iv id u a ls a r e r ela t ively

con sist en t in t h e cop in g st r a t e gies w h ich t h ey a d op t (Coh en a n d E dw a r d s, 1988; Dola n a n d Wh it e, 1988; F leish m a n , 1984). Resea r ch a lso in d ica t es t h a t t h e m er e exist en ce of som e for m s of cop in g, su ch a s socia l su p p or t n et -wor k s (ir r es p ect ive of w h et h er or n ot t h ey a r e u sed ), ser ves t o a ct a s a bu ffer a ga in st st r ess (Cu m m in gs, 1990; H ou se, 1981; J aya r a t n e et a l., 1988).

In t h is st u dy, six m et h od s w h ich p eop le com m on ly a d op t t o cop e w it h st r ess a r e m ea -su r ed :

1 socia l s u p p or t (t h e d e gr ee t o w h ich in d i-v id u a ls r ely on ot h er s a s a m ea n s of cop in g w it h st r ess);

2 t a sk st r a t e gies (t h e d e gr ee t o w h ich in d i-v id u a ls cop e t h r ou gh s t r a t e gies d ir ect ed a t r eor ga n izin g t h eir wor k , su ch a s p la n n in g a h ea d , set t in g p r ior it ies a n d d ele ga t in g); 3 logic (cop in g t h r ou gh a t t em p t s t o b e r a t

io-n a l a io-n d h a io-n d le sit u a t ioio-n s iio-n a io-n ob ject ive m a n n er );

4 h om e a n d wor k r ela t ion sh ip (t h e ext en t t o w h ich h om e is v iew ed a s a r efu ge, a n d t h e exist en ce of in t er est s a n d a ct iv it ies t h a t a p er s on en ga ges in ou t sid e of wor k ); 5 t im e (t h e in d iv id u a l’s u se of t im e, e.g.

w h et h er h e/ sh e d ea ls w it h p r oblem s im m ed ia t ely r a t h er t h a n s t a llin g); Figure 1

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6 in volvem en t (t h e d e gr ee t o w h ich t h e in d i-v id u a l for ces h im s elf/ h er s elf t o com e t o t er m s w it h r ea lit y, t h r ou gh st r a t e gies lik e r ecogn izin g h is / h er lim it a t ion s, b ein g a ble t o r elea s e t en sion , a n d con cen t r a t in g on s p ecifi c p r oblem s).

Stressors

T h e p r es en t st u dy is con cer n ed w it h b ot h a ca d em ic a n d occu p a t ion a l st r es s or s. Fou r p ot en t ia l s ou r ces of a ca d em ic st r es s a n d s ix sou r ces of occu p a t ion a l st r es s a r e exa m in ed . As p r es en t ed in F igu r e 1, it is su gges t ed t h a t a ca d em ic a n d occu p a t ion a l st r es s or s w ill n e ga t ively a ffect a n in d iv id u a l’s h ea lt h , gr a d e p oin t aver a ge a n d job sa t is fa ct ion . In a d d i-t ion , ii-t is b elieved i-t h a i-t h igh er levels of a ca d e-m ic st r es s or s w ill lea d t o t h e exp er ien ce of h igh er levels of occu p a t ion a l st r es s.

Occupational stressors

T h er e a r e a r a n ge of en v ir on m en t a l fa ct or s, in t h e wor k p la ce a n d a t t h e wor k / n on -wor k in t er fa ce, w h ich h ave b een lin k ed t o st r es s -r ela t ed ou t com es (Coop e-r, 1986; Coop e-r a n d Ma r s h a ll, 1976; F r ew a n d Br u n in g, 1987; J a ck -son a n d Sch u ler, 1985; Va n Sell et a l., 1981). T h e p r es en t p a p er exa m in es s ix p ot en t ia l sou r ces of s t r es s. T h ese in clu d e s t r es s a r isin g fr om :

1 fa ct or s in t r in sic t o t h e job, e.g. h av in g t oo m u ch wor k t o d o, a n d h av in g t o wor k lon g h ou r s ;

2 a la ck of p ow er a n d in fl u en ce, a m b igu it y, con fl ict in g t a sk s a n d d em a n d s a r is in g fr om m u lt ip le r oles t h a t t h e in d iv id u a l p lay s ;

3 r ela t ion s h ip s w it h ot h er p eop le, s u ch a s cop in g w it h office p olit ics, h av in g t o su p er v is e ot h er s, la ck of s u p p or t fr om collea gu es a n d la ck of en cou r a gem en t fr om s u p er ior s ;

4 h ow va lu ed p eop le feel a n d w h et h er or n ot t h ey a r e sa t is fi ed w it h t h eir op p or t u n it ies for a dva n cem en t a t wor k ;

5 t h e s t r u ct u r e or clim a t e of a n or ga n iza -t ion , in -t er m s of in a d eq u a -t e gu id a n ce fr om su p er ior s, p oor q u a lit y t r a in in g a n d d evelop m en t p r ogr a m m es a n d ev id en ce of d is -cr im in a t ion or favou r it ism ; a n d

6 t h e h om e-wor k in t er fa ce, w h ich m ay in clu d e t h in gs lik e h av in g t o t a k e wor k h om e, or in a b ilit y t o for get a b ou t wor k w h en t h e in d iv id u a l is a t h om e.

Academic stressors

T h er e a r e a n u m b er of fa ct or s in t h e a ca d e-m ic en v ir on e-m en t w h ich h ave b een lin k ed t o st r ess -r ela t ed ou t com es (Ca h ir a n d M or r is, 1991; F im ia n et a l., 1989; Ga d zella , 1994;

Wh it m a n et a l., 1984). T h e p r es en t st u dy exa m in es fou r p ot en t ia l sou r ces of a ca d em ic st r es s. T h ese in clu d e st r ess a r isin g fr om : 1 fr u st r a t ion s w h ich a st u d en t m ay exp er

i-en ce, su ch a s d a ily h a ss les w h ich in t er r u p t t h e a t t a in m en t of goa ls or fa ilu r es in a ccom p lis h in g t h e goa ls t h a t a s t u d en t h a s set ;

2 con fl ict s a r isin g fr om d iffer en t a ca d em ic exp er ien ces, su ch a s con fl ict s p r od u ced by t wo or m or e d esir a ble a lt er n a t ives, or con fl ict s w h en a goa l h a d b ot h p osit ive a n d n e ga t ive a lt er n a t ives ;

3 p r essu r es a s a r esu lt of com p et it ion , d ea d -lin es or in t er p er son a l r ela t ion sh ip s; 4 ch a n ges ow in g t o a ca d em ic life w h ich

st u d en t s m ay exp er ien ce a s u n p lea sa n t or d isr u p t ive.

F igu r e 1 sh ow s t h a t a ca d em ic st r essor s a r e p r ed ict ed t o h ave a n e ga t ive im p a ct on r ele-va n t ou t com es su ch a s h ea lt h a n d sch ola st ic gr a d e p oin t aver a ge (GPA). A lin k is a lso p r ed ict ed b et w een a ca d em ic s t r es sor s a n d occu p a t ion a l s t r essor s, su ch t h a t t h e exp er i-en ce of gr ea t er levels of a ca d em ic s t r ess w ill lea d t o gr ea t er exp er ien ces of s t r ess a t wor k . T h is ca u sa l fl ow is p r ed ict ed b eca u se t h e su b ject s in clu d ed in t h e p r esen t s t u dy a r e essen t ia lly st u d en t s w h o wor k la r gely a s a m ea n s t o p ay for t h eir sch ool a n d ot h er liv in g exp en s es. T h e va st m a jor it y v iew t h eir job s a s t em p or a r y.

Outcomes

Most r esea r ch er s st u dy in g t h e st r es s p r ocess t y p ica lly ca t e gor ize t h e con seq u en ces a ssoci-a t ed w it h t h e exp er ien ce of st r es sfu l even t s u n d er t h e h ea d in gs of p h y siologica l, p sych o-logica l a n d b eh av iou r a l ou t com es. T h e p r e-sen t st u dy a t t em p t ed t o exa m in e a ll t h r ee st r ess -r ela t ed ou t com es.

Ill health

T h e m ea su r e of ill h ea lt h in t h is st u dy is ess en t ia lly a s y m p t om ch eck list w h ich exa m -in es p h y sica l a n d m en t a l h ea lt h . P h y siologi-ca l sy m p t om s m ea s u r ed in clu d e h ea d a ch es, in d igest ion , sh or t n ess of b r ea t h , in cr ea ses in blood p r essu r e a n d feelin gs of exh a u st ion . P sych ologica l sy m p t om s in clu d e a n in a b ilit y t o t h in k clea r ly, feelin g r es t less a n d feelin gs of ir r it a b ilit y. Beh av iou r a l sy m p t om s m ea -su r ed in clu d e ch a n ges in ea t in g, d r in k in g, slee p in g a n d sm ok in g p a t t er n s.

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F igu r e 1 s h ow s a lin k b et w een b ot h wor k st r es s, a ca d em ic st r ess a n d GPA. It is p r d ict ed t h a t t h e h igh er t h e level of s t r es s exp e-r ien ced , t h e low ee-r w ill b e t h e s t u d en t ’s GPA.

Job satisfaction

F ive a s p ect s of job s a t is fa ct ion a r e in clu d ed in t h e s t u dy. T h ese in clu d e s a t is fa ct ion w it h : 1 t h e ext en t t o w h ich on e is va lu ed a n d

op p or t u n it ies for gr ow t h ;

2 a s p ect s of t h e job it s elf (e.g. s ecu r it y ); 3 or ga n iza t ion d es ign a n d s t r u ct u r e; 4 or ga n iza t ion a l p r ocess es (e.g. s u p er v

i-sion ); a n d

5 r ela t ion s h ip s w it h ot h er s (e.g. p eer s, s u p e-r ioe-r s, s u b oe-r d in a t es ).

Method

Subjects

Da t a w er e collect ed fr om 247 colle ge st u d en t s em p loyed in d iver se com p a n ies in t h e Or a n ge Cou n t y a n d Los An geles a r ea s. All s u b ject s w er e en r olled in eit h er u n d er gr a d u a t e or gr a d u a t e cou r ses a t a m a jor u n iver s it y in t h e sou t h er n Ca lifor n ia a r ea . T h e r es p on s e r a t e for t h e sa m p le w a s a p p r oxim a t ely 95 p er cen t . Beca u s e t h e a u t h or s w er e in t er es t ed in d evel-op in g a gen er a l m od el t h a t wou ld lin k com p o-n eo-n t s of occu p a t ioo-n a l a o-n d a ca d em ic s t r es s t o ou t com es, t h ey a t t em p t ed t o s a m p le a w id e va r iet y of s t u d en t s a n d or ga n iza t ion s. T h e or ga n iza t ion s va r ied a lon g sever a l im p or t a n t d im en s ion s. In t er m s of ou t p u t t y p e, 37 p er cen t m a n u fa ct u r ed p r od u ct s, 59 p er cen t p r o-v id ed ser o-v ices a n d 4 p er cen t d id b ot h . T h e com p a n ies a lso r a n ged in s ize: 34 p er cen t of t h e sa m p le wor k ed for s m a ll com p a n ies (less t h a n 50 em p loyees); 25 p er cen t for m ed iu m -sized com p a n ies (50-250 em p loyees); a n d 41 p er cen t for la r ge com p a n ies (over 250 em p loyees). In t er m s of ow n er s h ip, 62 p er cen t w er e p r iva t ely -ow n ed fi r m s a n d 38 p er cen t p u blicly ow n ed . T h e m a in ob ject ive w a s p r ofi t for 85 p er cen t of t h e com p a n ies in clu d ed h er e, w h ile 15 p er cen t w er e n on -p r ofi t or ga n iza t ion s.

T h e s t u d en t s w er e 53 p er cen t m a le a n d 47 p er cen t fem a le. T h e m ed ia n a ge of t h e sa m p le w a s 21-25 yea r s a t t h e t im e of d a t a collect ion (66 p er cen t fell in t o t h is ca t e gor y ). T h e m a jor it y (65 p er cen t ) wor k ed p a r t -t im e, w it h a w id e r a n ge of h ou r s s p en t a t wor k (52 p er cen t wor k ed 16-30 h ou r s p er w eek ; 32 p er cen t wor k ed 31-45 h ou r s ; 10 p er cen t wor k ed over 45 h ou r s ; a n d 6 p er cen t wor k ed 0-15 h ou r s p er w eek ).

Questionnaires

Mu lt ip le ob ser ved in d ica t or s w er e u s ed t o m ea s u r e a ll of t h e va r ia bles in clu d ed in t h e

m od el a s p r es cr ib ed in t h e lit er a t u r e (e.g. H a r r is a n d Sch a u b r oeck , 1990). All su b ject s com p let ed a d a p t ed ver sion s of t h e occu p a -t ion a l s-t r ess in d ica -t or (OSI) a n d -t h e s-t u d en -t st r ess in ven t or y (SSI) (see d escr ip t ion s b elow ). T h e q u es t ion n a ir es t ook a p p r oxi-m a t ely 40 oxi-m in u t es t o cooxi-m p let e.

OSI

T h e OSI h a s b een s h ow n t o h ave excellen t p sych om et r ic p r op er t ies a n d is r ela t ed t o a r a n ge of occu p a t ion s (Coop er a n d M a r sh a ll, 1976; Coop er et a l., 1988; Kir k ca ldy a n d H od a p p, 1989; Sch u ler, 1980). T h e OSI is m a d e u p of s ix q u es t ion n a ir es m ea su r in g d iffer en t d im en sion s of st r ess: t y p e A p er son a lit y (eigh t it em s ); locu s of con t r ol (12 it em s); cop -in g st r a t e gies (28 it em s); s ou r ces of p r essu r e (61 it em s ); job sa t is fa ct ion (22 it em s ); a n d cu r r en t st a t e of h ea lt h (30 it em s). Descr ip -t ion s of -t h e ob ser ved va r ia bles gr ou p ed a ccor d in g t o t h e con st r u ct s t h ey a r e p r op osed t o m ea su r e a r e p r ov id ed in t h e Ap p en d ix. T h e ob ser ved va r ia bles a r e p a r a p h r a sed fr om t h e or igin a l q u est ion n a ir e u sed in t h e st u dy (Coop er et a l., 1988).

SSI

T h e SSI con s ist s of 20 q u es t ion s exa m in in g fou r p ot en t ia l sou r ces of st r es s a r isin g fr om b ein g a colle ge st u d en t (Ga d zella , 1994). T h ese in clu d e: fr u st r a t ion s (seven it em s), con fl ict s (fou r it em s), p r essu r es (six it em s ) a n d ch a n ges (t h r ee it em s). Aga in , d escr ip t ion s of t h e ob ser ved va r ia bles gr ou p ed a ccor d in g t o t h e la t en t va r ia bles t h ey a r e p osit ed t o m ea -su r e a r e p r ov id ed in t h e Ap p en d ix. T h e ob ser ved va r ia bles a r e p a r a p h r a sed fr om t h e or igin a l q u est ion n a ir e u sed in t h e st u dy (Ga d zella , 1994).

Analysis and results

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in d ir ect ) t h a t in d e p en d en t va r ia bles h ave on d e p en d en t va r ia bles. Alt h ou gh t h er e a r e cu r r en t ly a n u m b er of excellen t com p u t er p a ck a ges ava ila ble for t h e a n a ly sis of SE M, t wo s t a n d a p a r t fr om t h e r es t in t er m s of p op u la r it y a n d w id esp r ea d u s e: E QS (Ben t ler, 1994) a n d LISRE L (J ör es k og a n d Sör b om , 1993).

T h e p r op os ed m od el in t h is st u dy w a s t es t ed u s in g LISRE L VIII (J ör es k og a n d Sör b om , 1993). In t h e s p ecifi ca t ion of t h e m od el, Lom a x’s (1982) r ecom m en d a t ion s w er e follow ed : p a r a m et er s r ela t in g r efer en ce ob ser ved va r ia bles t o u n d er ly in g con s t r u ct s w er e con s t r a in ed t o eq u a l on e (1.0), a n d t h e cor r esp on d in g er r or m ea su r em en t p a r a m e-t er s for e-t h ose va r ia bles wer e fi xed a e-t zer o (0.0).

In Ta ble I a n d F igu r e 2, w e p r es en t t h e LISRE L p a r a m et er est im a t es of t h e p r op os ed m od el. T h ese p a r a m et er est im a t es a r e in d ices t h a t r e p r esen t t h e sim u lt a n eou s con t r ibu t ion of ea ch ob s er ved a n d la t en t va r ia ble t o t h e over a ll m od el. Wh ile t h es e es t im a t es p r ov id e im p or t a n t in for m a t ion a b ou t t h e st r u ct u r a l com p on en t s of occu p a t ion a l a n d a ca d em ic st r es s a n d t h eir r ela t ion sh ip t o t h e ou t com e

m ea su r es, t h ey d o n ot p r ov id e a n y in d ica t ion of t h e a ssess m en t of t h e fi t of t h e h y p ot h e-sized m od el t o t h e a ct u a l d a t a . Sin ce a n a p r ior i d efi n ed m od el w a s p osit ed t o b e t est ed , p r im a r y in t er est is in t h e m od el fi t . On ce t h e m od el fi t is d et er m in ed , t h e sign ifi ca n ce of t h e va r iou s p a r a m et er est im a t es ca n b e a scer t a in ed . Wit h ou t a sign ifi ca n t m od el fi t , h ow ever, t h e m od el wou ld h ave t o b e r econ ce p t u -a lized .

Ta ble II p r esen t s t h e cr it er ia d escr ib in g t h e over a ll fi t of t h e m od el. T h e coefficien t of d et er m in a t ion (COD) for t h e m ea su r em en t m od el is 0.92, s u ggest in g a r ela t ively st r on g r ela t ion sh ip b et w een t h e ob s er ved va r ia bles a n d t h e la t en t va r ia bles in clu d ed in t h e m od el. T h is coefficien t m ay b e con sid er ed a s a m ea su r e of t h e r elia b ilit y for t h e w h ole m ea su r em en t m od el, in d ica t in g h ow w ell t h e ob ser ved va r ia bles join t ly s er ve a s in st r u -m en t s for -m ea su r in g t h e la t en t va r ia bles. Assess m en t of fi t m ay a lso b e d et er m in ed by t h e good n es soffi t in d ex (GF I) a n d t h e com -p a r a t ive fi t in d ex (CF I). It is gen er a lly r ecog-n ized t h a t va lu es close t o or a b ove 0.90 iecog-n d i-ca t e a good m od el fi t . For t h is m od el t h e GF I is 0.92 a n d t h e CF I is 0.96, w h ich in d ica t e a r ea son a bly good m od el fi t . T h ese in d ices a r e m ea su r es of t h e r ela t ive a m ou n t of va r ia n ce a n d cova r ia n ce in t h e d a t a a ccou n t ed for by t h e m od el u n d er exa m in a t ion . In con t r a st , t h e r oot m ea n sq u a r e (RM S) r esid u a l is a m ea su r e of t h e aver a ge u n exp la in ed va r i-a n ces i-a n d covi-a r ii-a n ces in t h e m od el. T h is in d ex sh ou ld b e close t o zer o if t h e m od el fi t s t h e d a t a w ell. For t h is m od el, t h e RMS is 0.08, sim ila r ly in d ica t in g t h a t ver y few of t h e va r i-a n ces i-a n d covi-a r ii-a n ces i-a r e left u n exp li-a in ed .

T h e r a t io of t h e ch i-s q u a r e t o t h e d e gr ees of fr eed om (χ2_{/ d f) ca n a lso b e u sed t o exa m in e}

t h e fi t of t h e m od el. It is gen er a lly r ecogn ized t h a t a r a t io of t h e ch i-s q u a r e t h a t is less t h a n 2 in d ica t es a r ea son a ble fi t of t h e m od el. In t h is st u dy t h e ob s er ved r a t io is 1.36. F in a lly, p a r a m et er est im a t es w it h t-r a t ios t h a t a r e gr ea t er t h a n 2 a r e con sid er ed t o p r ov id e ev i-d en ce t h a t t h e p a r a m et er is sign ifi ca n t ly d iffer en t fr om zer o a n d im p or t a n t t o t h e p r o-p osed m od el. T h e est im a t es of t h e d ir ect a n d in d ir ect effect s b et w een va r ia bles in t h e m od el w er e t est ed t h r ou gh t r a t ios (t h e r a t io of t h e est im a t e t o it s st a n d a r d er r or ), a n d a ll w er e fou n d t o b e sign ifi ca n t (p < 0.01). Given t h e va r iet y of t est s t h a t w er e u sed t o a ssess t h e fi t of t h e m od el, it is con s id er ed t h a t t h e p r op osed m od el fa ir ly a ccu r a t ely a ccou n t s for t h e va r ia b ilit y ob ser ved in t h e d a t a .

Discussion

In t h is st u dy w e p r op osed a m od el of h ow p er son a lit y, locu s of con t r ol a n d t h e m et h od s Table I

Parame te r e s timate s fo r pro po s e d s tre s s mo de l

Variable Construct Estimate

Y1 Oc c upational stressors 0 .9 6

Y2 0 .9 6

Y3 1 .0 0

Y4 0 .9 2

Y5 0 .9 1

Y6 0 .8 3

Y7 Ac ademic stressors 0 .9 3

Y8 0 .8 7

Y9 1 .0 0

Y10 0 .8 7

Y11 Health 1 .0 0

Y12 0 .8 1

Y13 Grade point average 1 .0 0

Y14 Job satisfac tion 0 .8 9

Y15 0 .9 2

Y16 0 .9 8

Y17 1 .0 0

Y18 0 .9 2

X1 Type A behaviour 1 .0 0

X2 0 .5 0

X3 Loc us of c ontrol 0 .4 8

X4 1 .0 0

X5 0 .1 5

X6 Coping strategies 0 .4 8

X7 1 .0 0

X8 0 .4 2

X9 0 .4 4

X10 0 .4 6

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w h ich p eop le a d op t t o cop e w it h s t r es s a ffect p er ce p t ion s of a ca d em ic a n d occu p a t ion a l st r es s or s a n d , in t u r n , h ow t h ey a ffect m en t a l a n d p h y s ica l h ea lt h , gr a d e p oin t aver a ge, a n d job s a t is fa ct ion . In t h is s ect ion w e exa m in e t h e d e gr ee t o w h ich ou r r es u lt s a r e con sis t en t w it h ot h er r es ea r ch fi n d in gs, a n d offer som e t h ou gh t s on t h e im p lica t ion s of t h es e fi n d in gs for im p r ov in g r es ea r ch a n d p r a ct ice in t h e fi eld s of ed u ca t ion a n d m a n a gem en t .

Ba sed on t h e m od el p r es en t ed in F igu r e 1, w e a im ed t o t es t s even h y p ot h es es t h r ou gh t h e p r es en t a n a ly sis. Ou r fi r st h y p ot h es is p r e-d ict ee-d t h a t t y p e A b eh av iou r – exp ect a t ion s of con t r ol over t h e wor k en v ir on m en t a n d m et h od s of cop in g – wou ld d ir ect ly a ffect p er ce p t ion s of occu p a t ion a l st r es s or s. T h is h y p ot h es is w a s p a r t ly s u p p or t ed by ou r fi n d -in gs. As p r ed ict ed , -in d iv id u a ls r e p or t -in g m or e t y p e A b eh av iou r exp er ien ced gr ea t er levels of occu p a t ion a l st r es s a n d t h os e w it h

less p er ceived con t r ol over t h eir wor k en v r on m en t (ext er n a l st a t e LOC) a lso exp er i-en ced m or e occu p a t ion a l st r ess. H ow ever, w e d id n ot fi n d t h a t gr ea t er levels of cop in g led t o low er exp er ien ces of occu p a t ion a l s t r ess. Secon d , w e p r ed ict ed t h a t t y p e A b eh av iou r a n d t h e exis t en ce of cop in g m ech a n ism s wou ld d ir ect ly a ffect p er ce p t ion s of a ca d em ic st r ess or s. Aga in , t h is w a s p a r t ia lly su p p or t ed t h r ou gh ou r fi n d in gs. In d iv id u a ls h igh er in t y p e A b eh av iou r r e p or t ed h igh er levels of a ca d em ic s t r ess. How ever, h igh er levels of cop in g d id n ot lea d t o low er exp er ien ces of a ca d em ic st r es s for t h e p r es en t sa m p le. T h ir d , w e p r ed ict ed t h a t h igh er levels of occu -p a t ion a l st r ess wou ld lea d t o gr ea t er levels of m en t a l a n d p h y sica l ill h ea lt h , low er GPAs a n d low er levels of job sa t isfa ct ion . Two of t h ese r ela t ion sh ip s w er e su p p or t ed by ou r fi n d in gs.

Wh ile h igh er levels of occu p a t ion a l st r ess w er e fou n d t o lea d t o m or e sy m p t om s of ill h ea lt h (s u ch a s in a b ilit y t o slee p, h ea d a ch es, in d igest ion a n d feelin gs of a n xiet y ) a n d low er job sa t isfa ct ion , gr ea t er exp er ien ces of occu -p a t ion a l st r ess d id n ot lea d t o low er GPAs in t h is sa m p le.

Ou r fou r t h h y p ot h esis p r ed ict ed t h a t a ca d e-m ic s t r es sor s wou ld in fl u en ce t h e exp er ien ce Figure 2

Parame te r e s timate s fo r pro po s e d mo de l

Table II

Me as ure s o f mo de l fit

Coefficient of determination (COD) 0 .9 2

Goodness of fit index (GFI) 0 .9 2

Comparative fit index (CFI) 0 .9 6

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of occu p a t ion a l st r es sor s a n d n e ga t ively a ffect h ea lt h a n d GPA. T h ese r ela t ion sh ip s w er e s u p p or t ed by ou r r es u lt s. In fa ct , t wo of t h e s t r on gest fi n d in gs in t h is r es ea r ch w er e t h e in fl u en ce of exp er ien ces of a ca d em ic st r es s on exp er ien ces of st r es s a t wor k (0.22) a n d t h e n e ga t ive in fl u en ce of st u d en t st r es s on h ea lt h (0.32).

F ift h , w e h y p ot h esized t h a t m en t a l a n d p h y s ica l ill h ea lt h wou ld b e h igh er for in d i-v id u a ls exp er ien cin g m or e a ca d em ic a n d occu p a t ion a l st r es s, for t y p e As, t h ose w it h a n ext er n a l LOC a n d t h ose w h o p r a ct is ed few er cop in g m ech a n is m s. T h e d ir ect ion of t h es e r ela t ion s h ip s w a s s u p p or t ed for a ll fi ve of t h e p r ed ict or va r ia bles; h ow ever, t y p e A b eh av -iou r w a s a ver y w ea k p r ed ict or of ill h ea lt h in t h e p r es en t r es ea r ch (0.06). Aca d em ic st r es s w a s t h e h igh es t p r ed ict or (0.32) follow ed by wor k s t r es s (0.24) a n d ext er n a l LOC (0.18).

Sixt h , w e p r ed ict ed t h a t GPA wou ld b e low er for in d iv id u a ls exp er ien cin g h igh er levels of a ca d em ic a n d occu p a t ion a l st r es s. Aca d em ic s t r es s d id sh ow a n e ga t ive r ela t ion -s h ip w it h GPA (–0.18), w h ile occu p a t ion a l s t r es s w a s n ot fou n d t o a ffect GPA a dver s ely.

Ou r seven t h a n d fi n a l h y p ot h es is w a s t h a t job s a t is fa ct ion wou ld b e low er for in d iv id u -a ls exp er ien cin g m or e occu p -a t ion -a l st r es s, for t y p e As, t h ose w it h a n ext er n a l LOC a n d t h ose w h o p r a ct is ed few er cop in g m ech a -n is m s. All of ou r p r ed ict io-n s w er e su p p or t ed bu t , a s w it h ill h ea lt h , t y p e A b eh av iou r em er ged a s a w ea k p r ed ict or of job s a t is fa c-t ion for c-t h e p r es en c-t sa m p le. T h e sc-t r on ges c-t p r ed ict or of job sa t is fa ct ion w a s LOC (–0.29), follow ed by occu p a t ion a l st r es s (–0.24).

St r es s-r ela t ed ou t com es h ave b een v iew ed a s eit h er a fu n ct ion of m a la d a p t ive p er son a l lifes t y les or a s a con seq u en ce of en v ir on m en -t a l fa c-t or s (DeF r a n k a n d Coop er, 1987; N ea le et a l., 1982). T h e p r esen t st u dy s h ow s t h a t s t r es s is a fu n ct ion of b ot h t h e in d iv id u a l a n d h is / h er en v ir on m en t . T h u s, a t t em p t s t o cop e w it h t h e ou t com es of s t r es s n eed t o focu s on t h e en v ir on m en t a s w ell a s t h e in d iv id u a l. For t h e p r es en t sa m p le, t h e st r es s or s en cou n -t er ed in -t h e a ca d em ic a n d occu p a -t ion a l en v i-r on m en t s a i-r e t h e t wo s t i-r on ges t p i-r ed ict oi-r s of ill h ea lt h . Ou r r es u lt s s h ow t h a t t h e exp er i-en ce of a ca d em ic s t r ess is dy sfu n ct ion a l for st u d en t s ; it lea d s t o exp er ien ces of d is t r es s in ot h er a s p ect s of t h eir lives (s u ch a s t h eir wor k ), lea d s t o low er levels of p h y sica l a n d m en t a l h ea lt h , a n d low er GPAs. T h is gen er a l p a t t er n of fi n d in gs is con sis t en t w it h p r ev i-ou s r es ea r ch w h ich h a s d em on s t r a t ed t h a t s t u d en t s u n d er h igh levels of st r es s lea r n less t h a n t h ose u n d er m od er a t e levels (H ock ey, 1979; Silver, 1968), t h a t sch ool-r ela t ed st r es s r es u lt s in a n in a b ilit y t o d o sch ool wor k a n d t h e fea r of a ca d em ic fa ilu r e (E llis, 1969), a n d

t h a t , a s a con s eq u en ce, m a n y st u d en t s (a p p r oxim a t ely 50 p er cen t of en t er in g fr esh -m en ) d o n ot fi n ish colle ge fou r yea r s la t er (H ir sch a n d Ken is t on , 1970).

A n u m b er of en v ir on m en t -focu sed m et h od s t o h elp st u d en t s cop e w it h t h eir a ca d em ic st r es s w er e ou t lin ed ea r lier in t h is a r t icle. As in d ica t ed , su ch t ech n iq u es m igh t in clu d e r ed u cin g t h e a m b igu it y a n d con fu sion in volved w it h b ein g a n ew st u d en t by im p r ov -in g n ew st u d en t or ien t a t ion s a n d -in for m -in g st u d en t s in a dva n ce of t h e d ifficu lt ies w h ich t h ey m ay fa ce. For exist in g st u d en t s, r ed u ced en v ir on m en t a l s t r ess m igh t b e a ch ieved t h r ou gh gr ea t er fl exib ilit y in cor e cou r se r eq u ir em en t s, exp a n d in g t h e r ole of fa cu lt y a dv iser s, giv in g ea r lier a n d m or e fr eq u en t exa m s a n d d e-em p h a s izin g gr a d es (Wh it m a n et a l., 1984). T h e p r esen t r esu lt s s h ow t h a t a ll of t h e a ca d em ic st r es sor s m ea su r ed h er e a r e dy sfu n ct ion a l for st u d en t s (i.e. fr u st r a t ion s, con fl ict s, p r es su r es a n d ch a n ges). N ever t h e-less, t h e t wo fa ct or s w h ich loa d h igh est on t h e a ca d em ic s t r ess fa ct or a r e fr u s t r a t ion s a n d p r es su r es. Red u cin g som e of t h e p r essu r es a n d fr u s t r a t ion s exp er ien ced by s t u d en t s wou ld a ss ist in low er in g t h eir exp er ien ces of a ca d em ic s t r ess a n d , t h er eby, im p r ove t h e q u a lit y of t h eir a ca d em ic lives.

Ou r r es u lt s a ls o sh ow t h a t la ck of con t r ol over t h e wor k en v ir on m en t is dy sfu n ct ion a l – it lea d s t o gr ea t er sy m p t om s of ill h ea lt h (0.18), h igh er p er ce p t ion s of occu p a t ion a l st r es sor s (0.19) a n d low er levels of job sa t is-fa ct ion (–0.29). T h e a b ove-m en t ion ed r esu lt a ls o s u p p or t s p r ior r esea r ch fi n d in gs in t o t h e st r es s p r oces s (e.g. An d er son et a l., 1977; F u silier et a l., 1987; Gem m ill a n d H eisler, 1972; Sa d r i a n d M a r cou lid es, 1994a ; b ; Sa d r i et a l., 1996; Sp ect or, 1987). We r ecom m en d t h a t or ga n iza t ion s a t t em p t t o give p eop le m or e con t r ol over t h eir wor k en v ir on m en t s by p r ov id in g ext r a in for m a t ion on r eleva n t issu es (su ch a s a ssessm en t p r oced u r es, com p a n y p olicies a n d r e gu la t ion s a n d or ga n iza -t ion a l ch a n ge). Con -t r ol over -t h e wor k en v i-r on m en t ca n a lso b e en h a n ced by p ei-r m it t in g em p loyees t o p a r t icip a t e in d ecision m a k in g (e.g. d evelop in g wor k sch ed u les colla b or a -t ively ), p r ov id in g gr ea -t er job a u -t on om y a n d em p ow er in g em p loyees w h er e p ossible. P r ior st u d ies h ave d em on st r a t ed t h a t in cr ea sin g t h e con t r ol w h ich wor k er s h ave over t h eir en v ir on m en t r esu lt s in p os it ive in d iv id u a l a n d or ga n iza t ion a l ou t com es (J a ck son , 1983; Ma r cou lid es a n d H eck , 1993; P ier ce a n d N ew -st r om , 1983; Wa ll a n d Cle gg, 1981).

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ca m p u s m en t a l h ea lt h s er v ices, p eer cou n -sellin g a n d s elf-h elp gr ou p s wou ld a ll h elp t o a ccom p lis h t h is. Cou n sellin g t ech n iq u es h ave a lso p r oved su cces sfu l in wor k set t in gs (e.g. Cop p er a n d Sa d r i, 1991). An in t er es t in g fi n d in g fr om t h e p r esen t r es u lt s is t h a t in d iv id u -a ls h igh er in t y p e A b eh -av iou r s h ow

in cr ea s ed p er ce p t ion s of b ot h a ca d em ic (0.23) a n d occu p a t ion a l st r es s (0.18). As m en t ion ed p r ev iou s ly, t y p e A in d iv id u a ls fr eq u en t ly u n d er es t im a t e t h e t im e r eq u ir ed t o a ccom -p lis h t a s k s a n d so ex-p er ien ce t im e -p r es s u r es ; t h ey wor k q u ick ly a n d s h ow im p a t ien ce a n d d ecr ea sed wor k p er for m a n ce if for ced t o wor k slow ly. Ty p e As ign or e, su p p r es s, or d en y p h y sica l or p s ych ologica l s y m p t om s w h ile wor k in g u n d er p r ess u r e; t h ey oft en exp r es s h os t ilit y a n d ir r it a t ion in r es p on s e t o a t h r ea t a n d n eed t o b e in con t r ol of t h e im m ed ia t e en v ir on m en t t o s u ch a n ext en t t h a t a la ck of con t r ol m ay elicit a h os t ile, com p et it ive r esp on s e (F r ied m a n a n d Ros en m a n , 1974; F r ogga t t a n d Cot t on , 1987; Ga n s t er et a l., 1989; Willia m s, 1989). Wor k sh op s m ay b e p r ov id ed t o st u d en t s in or d er t o r a is e aw a r en es s of t h eir p os sible t y p e A b eh av iou r a l t en d en cies a n d t o en cou r a ge t h em t o ch a n ge a s p ect s of t h eir b eh av iou r w h ich m ay b e dy sfu n ct ion a l for t h em .

T h e p r es en t r esu lt s a ls o h elp t o id en t ify t h e r ole of cop in g b eh av iou r in t h e lives of s t u -d en t s. Wh ile cop in g h a s lit t le effect on t h e p er ce p t ion of a ca d em ic a n d occu p a t ion a l s t r es sor s a n d on levels of job s a t is fa ct ion , it d oes a p p ea r t o p r even t ill h ea lt h . Mem b er s of ou r s a m p le w h o in d ica t ed t h a t t h ey m a d e gr ea t er a t t em p t s t o cop e w it h t h eir st r es s r e p or t ed few er s y m p t om s of m en t a l a n d p h y sica l ill h ea lt h . T h e m et h od s of cop in g m ea -s u r ed h er e (-socia l -su p p or t , t a -s k -st r a t e gie-s, logic, h om e-wor k r ela t ion sh ip, t im e m a n a ge-m en t a n d in volvege-m en t ) a ll a p p ea r ige-m p or t a n t t o t h e p r esen t sa m p le, in p a r t icu la r, t h e d evel-op m en t of t a s k st r a t e gies a n d in cr ea sin g t h e level of in volvem en t (i.e. for cin g on es elf t o com e t o t er m s w it h r ea lit y, r ecogn izin g on e’s lim it a t ion s a n d focu sin g on sp ecifi c p r ob -lem s ). Aga in , b a sed on t h e p r es en t r es u lt s, ca m p u s fa cilit ies w h ich t ea ch a n y of t h ese d iffer en t sk ills t o t h e ca m p u s p op u la t ion d o fu lfi l a n im p or t a n t fu n ct ion a n d s h ou ld b e b ot h s u p p or t ed a n d p r om ot ed .

Desp it e t h e im p or t a n t fi n d in gs w h ich em er ged fr om t h is s t u dy, t h er e a r e s om e p r ob -lem s w it h t h e p r es en t r es ea r ch . F ir s t , it is d ifficu lt t o gen er a lize t h e p r es en t fi n d in gs t o s a m p les ou t s id e t h e USA, a n d fu t u r e r es ea r ch n eed s t o t es t ou r m od el w it h s a m p les d r aw n fr om ot h er cou n t r ies. Secon d , w e h ave p r e-s en t ed a m od el of occu p a t ion a l a n d a ca d em ic s t r es s a n d s a m p led a gr ou p of wor k in g s t u -d en t s. Con seq u en t ly, gen er a lizin g t h e

ob s er ved r es u lt s t o gr ou p s of s t u d en t s w h o d o

n ot wor k a n d go t o sch ool a t t h e sa m e t im e m ay a lso b e p r oblem a t ic. F in a lly, t h e m a jor it y of ou r m ea s u r es a r e self-r e p or t in d ices a n d t h is op en s u p t h e p os sib ilit y of b ia s in ou r fi n d in gs. As su ch , a n y fu t u r e r esea r ch on m od els of t h is n a t u r e sh ou ld in clu d e m or e b eh av iou r a l in d ices su ch a s m ed ica l r ecor d s a n d wor k p r od u ct iv it y. N ever t h eless, t h e r esu lt s p r es en t ed in t h is st u dy r e p r esen t a n in it ia l st e p t ow a r d s d escr ib in g a n d eva lu a t in g im p or t a n t a sp ect s of a ca d em ic a n d occu -p a t ion a l st r es s. E x-p a n d in g on t h is b e gin n in g w ill b e a p r ofi t a ble goa l for fu t u r e r esea r ch in ed u ca t ion a n d m a n a gem en t .

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Appendix: observed variables

included in study

Ty p e A b eh av iou r (eigh t it em s – t wo s u b s ca les )

X1: s t y le of b eh av iou r, e.g. im p a t ien ce w h en lis t en in g t o a n ot h er

X2: a m b it ion , e.g. com p et it iven es s Locu s of con t r ol (12 it em s – t h r ee su b s ca les) X3: con t r ol over or ga n iza t ion a l for ces, e.g.

im p or t a n ce of u p p er m a n a gem en t X4: con t r ol over m a n a gem en t p r ocess es,

e.g. in fl u en ce of h a r d wor k on p er for -m a n ce a p p r a isa ls

X5: in d iv id u a l in fl u en ce, e.g. b elief in lu ck , ch a n ce, fa t e

Cop in g s t r a t e gies (28 it em s – six s u b s ca les ) X6: s ocia l s u p p or t , e.g. s eek in g a dv ice fr om

s u p er ior s

X7: t a s k s t r a t e gies, e.g. r eor ga n izin g wor k X8: logic, e.g. a t t em p t in g t o a p p r oa ch p r ob

-lem s ob ject ively

X9: h om e a n d wor k r ela t ion sh ip, e.g. a ct iv i-t ies ou i-t sid e wor k

X10: t im e m a n a gem en t , e.g. for cin g on es elf t o s low d ow n

X11: in volvem en t , e.g. r ecogn izin g on e’s lim it a t ion s

Occu p a t ion a l st r ess or s (61 it em s – s ix s u b -s ca le-s)

Y1: fa ct or s in t r in sic t o t h e job, e.g. h av in g t oo m u ch t o d o

Y2: t h e m a n a ger ia l r ole, e.g. la ck of p ow er a n d in fl u en ce

Y3: r ela t ion sh ip s w it h ot h er p eop le, e.g. h av in g t o su p er v ise ot h er s

Y4: ca r eer a n d a ch ievem en t , e.g. over p r o-m ot ion

Y5: or ga n iza t ion a l st r u ct u r e a n d clim a t e, e.g. in a d eq u a t e gu id a n ce fr om su p er i-or s

Y6: h om e-wor k in t er fa ce, e.g. h av in g t o t a k e wor k h om e

Aca d em ic st r essor s (20 it em s – fou r s u b sca les)

Y7: fr u st r a t ion s, e.g. d elay s in r ea ch in g goa ls

Y8: con fl ict s, e.g. ch oosin g b et w een t wo or m or e d esir a ble a lt er n a t ives

Y9: p r essu r es, e.g. a t t em p t in g t o d o t oo m a n y t h in gs a t on e t im e

Y10: ch a n ges, e.g. a ch a n ge w h ich d isr u p t s s om e p r es et goa ls

J ob sa t isfa ct ion (22 it em s – fi ve su b s ca les) Y11: sa t isfa ct ion w it h a ch ievem en t , va lu e

a n d gr ow t h , e.g. h ow m u ch on e’s effor t s a r e va lu ed

Y12: sa t isfa ct ion w it h t h e job it s elf, e.g. job s ecu r it y

Y13: sa t isfa ct ion w it h or ga n iza t ion a l d esign a n d st r u ct u r e, e.g. com m u n ica t ion fl ow Y14: sa t isfa ct ion w it h or ga n iza t ion a l

p r ocesses, e.g. st y le of su p er v ision Y15: sa t isfa ct ion w it h p er son a l r ela t ion

-s h ip -s, e.g. p eer -s

Cu r r en t st a t e of h ea lt h (30 it em s – t wo su b -s ca le-s )

Y16: m en t a l h ea lt h , e.g. ch a n ges in selfcon fi -d en ce a t wor k