Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:I:International Journal of Educational Management:Vol12.Issue4.1998:

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Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 4 [1998] 1 6 3 –1 7 5

Critical success factors for international education

marketing

Tim M azzarol

Curtin Busine ss Sc ho o l, Curtin Unive rsity o f Te c hno lo gy, Pe rth, Australia

This paper draws on the fi ndings of a survey of 315 education institutions from Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the UK and the USA. Respondents were asked to rate their institutions’ overall performance on a series of 17 items that an examination of the literature and previous in-depth interviews identifi ed as being critical to the success of education institutions seeking to market themselves internationally. A factor analysis of these items identi-fi ed four underlying dimen-sions. Promotion and Recruit-ment, Image and Resources, People and Culture and Coali-tion and Forward IntegraCoali-tion. The relative success of these institutions was then mea-sured using a scale consisting of four indicators relating to: growth in enrolments, demand, short to medium-term outlook and fi nancial benefi ts. A logistic regression model was then constructed to identify which of these success factors were possible determinants of institutional success. Two factors, Image and Resources, and Coalition and Forward Integration were found to be signifi cant predic-tors of market success.

The economic importance of

international education

T h e deca des of t h e 1970s a n d 1980s w it n essed a r a pid expa n sion of t h e ser vices sect or w it h in m ost in du st r ia lised cou n t r ies (Blois, 1974; P lu n k er t , 1990). For exa m ple, in t h e per iod 1969-70 t h e ser vices sect or of t h e Au s-t r a lia n econ om y con s-t r ibu s-t ed 54 per cen s-t of gr oss in du st r y pr odu ct . T h is h a d gr ow n t o 63 per cen t by 1984-86 (Cla r k , 1988, p. 61). In 1992 t h e ser vices sect or con t r ibu t ed over 66 per cen t of GDP a n d a ccou n t ed for a bou t 78 per cen t of a ll em ploym en t (ACIIC, 1993). T h is is a sit u a t ion com m on t o t h e US, J a pa n , Ca n a da , t h e UK a n d Ger m a n y, wh er e bet ween 60 a n d 70 per cen t of a ll em ploym en t is a bsor bed by t h e ser vices sect or (Du n n in g a n d Ku n du , 1995).

On e of t h e m or e sign ifi ca n t ser vice in du s-t r ies s-t h a s-t em er ged in s-t h e 1980s a n d 1990s is in t er n a t ion a l edu ca t ion . T h e con t r ibu t ion of in t er n a t ion a l edu ca t ion t o t h e Au st r a lia n econ om y ca n be ga u ged by a n a ssessm en t u n der t a k en by t h e De pa r t m en t of E m ploy-m en t , E du ca t ion a n d T r a in in g (DE E T, 1993). T h is est im a t ed t h e in t er n a t ion a l edu ca t ion of fu ll-fee payin g over sea s st u den t s (F F P OS) h a d gen er a t ed $1.4 billion in t u it ion fees a n d liv-in g expen ses, wh ich pla ced it close t o wh ea t ($1.5 billion ) a s a n expor t ea r n er (St r ick la n d, 1995, p. 46). By 1995 t h e officia l va lu e of expor t in com e fr om over sea s st u den t s t o Au st r a lia w a s $1.9 billion . In t h e sa m e yea r in t er n a -t ion a l edu ca -t ion a ccou n -t ed for 9 per cen -t of Au st r a lia ’s t ot a l ser vice expor t s com pa r ed w it h less t h a n 3 per cen t in 1985 (Ma zza r ol et a l., 1996).

Accor din g t o t h e West er n Au st r a lia n De pa r t m en t of Com m er ce a n d T r a de, in 1992 in t er n a t ion a l edu ca t ion in t h e st a t e in volved 275 in st it u t ion s, pr ovided em ploym en t for 3,786 people a n d gen er a t ed a r ou n d $100 m illion in r even u es (DCT, 1993, p. 22; Rowe, 1995, p. 412). F u r t h er, t h e in t er n a t ion a l edu ca -t ion in du s-t r y in Wes-t er n Au s-t r a lia h a d expe-r ien ced em ploym en t gexpe-r ow t h oveexpe-r a fi ve-yea expe-r per iod of 27 per cen t , a n d w a s com pa r a ble t o m in in g, a gr icu lt u r e a n d for est r y a s a n in du s-t r y su ccessfu l in gen er a s-t in g expor s-t in com e (Rowe, 1995, p. 415).

T h is is a pa t t er n t h a t h a s been exper ien ced in ot h er cou n t r ies. For exa m ple, a ccor din g t o t h e Gover n m en t of Ca n a da in 1991 in t er n a -t ion a l s-t u den -t s con -t r ibu -t ed a n es-t im a -t ed C$1.5 billion t o t h e Ca n a dia n econ om y a n d gen er a t ed a ppr oxim a t ely 19,000 jobs for Ca n a dia n s (MSS, 1993). T h e USA, wh ich is h ost t o t h e m a jor it y of t h e wor ld’s in t er n a t ion a l st u den t s, h a s est im a t ed t h a t it s u n iver -sit ies a n d colle ges gen er a t ed a t r a de su r plu s of $6 billion in 1993 com pr isin g a bou t 10 per cen t of t h e t ot a l US ser vices t r a de su r plu s (E va n s, 1995). In a ddit ion t o t h e r even u es gen er a t ed dir ect ly fr om t u it ion fees, a fu r t h er $3.6 billion is in ject ed in t o t h e USA econ om y fr om in t er n a t ion a l st u den t spen din g on a ccom m oda t ion , food a n d ot h er it em s (Scot t , 1995).

The nature of education as a

marketable service

Despit e t h e im por t a n ce of ser vices t o n a t ion a l econ om ies t h ey h ave t en ded t o be ign or ed or over look ed, du e la r gely t o t h eir in t a n gible n a t u r e (LE K, 1994, p. 18). P r ior t o t h e 1960s a n d 1970s ser vices m a r k et in g w a s n ot dist in gu ish ed a s a se pa r a t e fi eld of in ves-t iga ves-t ion (Ber r y a n d P a r a su r a m a n , 1993; F isk et a l., 1993). On e r ea son given for t h is is t h e difficu lt y a ssocia t ed w it h t h e cla ssifi ca t ion of ser vices. As n ot ed by Lovelock (1991, p. 25): “Ba sica lly t h e r a n ge of ser vices is t oo br oa d t o a llow m ea n in gfu l, in -de pt h a n a lysis of t h e en t ir e fi eld”.

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Tim Mazzaro l

Critic al suc c e ss fac to rs fo r inte rnatio nal e duc atio n marke ting

Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 4 [1 9 9 8 ] 1 6 3 –1 7 5

Absen t fr om t h is r esea r ch in t o ser vices h a s been a n ext en sive exa m in a t ion of edu ca t ion a s a specifi c m a r k et in g pr oblem . Lik e m a n y ot h er “pr ofession a l ser vices” edu ca t ion h a s t en ded t o esch ew m a r k et in g (Mor ga n , 1991). Despit e t h is n e glect , edu ca t ion r em a in s a ser vice ca pa ble of t r ea t m en t a s a n y ot h er in t er m s of m a r k et in g t h eor y. In doin g t h is, a n im por t a n t st a r t in g-poin t is t h e cla ssifi ca t ion of edu ca t ion a s a m a r k et a ble ser vice.

Lovelock (1983) h a s offer ed a u sefu l con ce p-t u a l fou n da p-t ion for r esea r ch in p-t o ser vices m a r k et in g. T h is in volves fi ve cr it er ia , ea ch of wh ich is exa m in ed on fou r dim en sion s. Usin g t h is fr a m ewor k it is possible t o descr ibe edu -ca t ion ser vices a s h avin g t h e follow in g ch a r a ct er ist ics:

1 T h e n a tu re of th e ser v ice a ct.T h e edu ca t ion ser vice a ct is dir ect ed a t people (t h eir m in ds r a t h er t h a n t h eir bodies). It is pr i-m a r ily “people ba sed” r a t h er t h a n “equ ip-m en t ba sed” (T h oip-m a s, 1978), a n d in volves la r gely in t a n gible a ct ion s (Sh ost a ck , 1977). 2 T h e rela tion sh ip w ith th e cu stom er. E du ca

t ion in volves a len gt h y a n d for m a l r ela -t ion sh ip w i-t h -t h e clien -t a n d a con -t in u ou s deliver y of t h e ser vice. St u den t s h ave wh a t Lovelock (1983) r efer s t o a s a “m em ber -sh ip” r ela t ion -sh ip w it h t h e ser vice pr ovider. T h is offer s t h e ser vice pr ovider a n oppor t u n it y t o develop st r on g clien t loya lt y a n d en h a n ced clien t ser vice fea t u r es.

3 T h e lev el of cu stom iz a tion a n d ju d gem en t in ser v ice d eliv er y. Som e ser vices r equ ir e gr ea t er cu st om iza t ion a n d ju dgem en t on t h e pa r t of ser vice pr ovider s t h a n ot h er s. T h e ext en t t o wh ich edu ca t ion ser vices a r e cu st om ized is va r ia ble. Sm a ll t u t or ia ls or in dividu a l su per vision a r e obviou sly m or e h igh ly cu st om ized t h a n m a ss lect u r es. In m ost ca ses t h e ext en t t o wh ich t h e ser vice pr ovider exer cises ju dgem en t in m eet in g t h e n eeds of in dividu a l st u den t s is h igh . T h is is pa r t icu la r ly t h e ca se w it h t ea ch in g st a ff. A pr oblem a r isin g fr om t h is is t h e possibilit y t h a t qu a lit y ca n be a ffect ed du e t o va r ia bilit y of ser vice deliver y (N ich olls, 1987).

4 T h e n a tu re of d em a n d rela tiv e to su p p ly.A ser vice ca n in volve a w ide spr ea d dem a n d (e.g. elect r icit y) or a n a r r ow on e (e.g. in su r a n ce). At t h e sa m e t im e t h e a bilit y of ser vices t o be in cr ea sed qu ick ly t o m eet fl u ct u a t ion s in dem a n d ca n va r y. Wh ile elect r icit y ser vices ca n be in cr ea sed fa ir ly qu ick ly t o m eet pea k dem a n ds, h ot el a ccom m oda t ion is m or e difficu lt t o r e gu -la t e. In edu ca t ion t h e dem a n d is su bject t o r ela t ively n a r r ow fl u ct u a t ion s over t im e, yet su pply is som et im es difficu lt t o

m a n a ge, w it h lim it a t ion s pla ced on ava il-a bilit y of st il-a ff il-a n d plil-a ces in cou r ses. 5 T h e m eth od of ser v ice d eliv er y. Deliver y of

ser vices m ay a lso be cla ssifi ed in t o t h ose r equ ir in g eit h er sin gle or m u lt iple sit e ou t let s, a n d t h e n a t u r e of t h e cu st om er in t er a ct ion w it h t h e ser vice. Cu st om er s m ay eit h er m ove t o t h e ser vice pr ovider, or t h e ser vice pr ovider ca n m ove t o m eet t h em . In t er n a t ion a l edu ca t ion ser vices t r a dit ion a lly in volve t h e st u den t com in g t o t h e in st it u t ion t o com plet e t h eir cou r ses. However, t h is is ch a n gin g, w it h t h e est a b-lish m en t of offsh or e t ea ch in g pr ogr a m s a n d dist a n ce edu ca t ion (Sou t a r a n d Ma zza r ol, 1995). Moder n t ech n ologies h ave a lso en a bled r em ot e ser vice deliver y (Ha m er, 1993).

In a com pr eh en sive exa m in a t ion of t h e ser -vices m a r k et in g lit er a t u r e, Zeit h a m l et a l. (1985) iden t ifi ed fou r pr im a r y ch a r a ct er ist ics of ser vices:

1 in t a n gibilit y;

2 in se pa r a bilit y of pr odu ct ion a n d con su m p-t ion ;

3 h et er ogen eit y; a n d 4 per ish a bilit y.

All of t h ese ca n be fou n d in edu ca t ion . E a ch pr odu ces pr oblem s t h a t m u st be over com e by deliber a t e m a r k et in g st r a t e gies.

In t a n gibilit y is a m a jor dist in gu ish in g fea t u r e of ser vices, bu t a pplies pa r t icu la r ly t o edu ca t ion wh er e t h e specifi c n a t u r e of t h e ser vice offer in g is difficu lt t o defi n e. On e of t h e effect s of in t a n gibilit y is t h a t ser vices ca n n ot be st or ed (Sa sser, 1976; Ber r y, 1980). For edu ca t ion in st it u t ion s t h is ca n pose pr ob-lem s t h r ou gh eit h er over cr ow din g or a la ck of ca pa cit y. In t a n gibilit y a lso cr ea t es difficu lt ies for t h e pr ot ect ion of ser vices t h r ou gh pa t en t s (J u dd, 1968). T h is is a m a jor pr oblem fa cin g m a n y ser vices w it h in in t er n a t ion a l m a r k et s, pa r t icu la r in Asia (LE K, 1994, p. 98). In t a n gi-bilit y a lso m a k es it difficu lt t o ea sily display or com m u n ica t e ser vices t o t h e cu st om er (Ra t h m ell, 1966). T h is h a s been a pr oblem for t h e pr om ot ion of Au st r a lia n in t er n a t ion a l edu ca t ion , wh ich h a s r eceived cr it icism in t h e pa st for su pplyin g in su fficien t det a il a n d t a k in g a glossy “t ou r ist y” a ppr oa ch t o pu blic-it y m a t er ia ls (AGB, 1992). F u r t h er, t h e set t in g of pr ices in m a n y ser vice in du st r ies is m a de m or e difficu lt by in t a n gibilit y (Dea r den , 1978; T h om a s, 1978). Fee set t in g w it h in in t er n a -t ion a l edu ca -t ion h a s been on e of -t h e m or e con t en t iou s issu es (Ha r r is a n d J a r r et t , 1990).

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Tim Mazzaro l

ser vice (Boom s a n d N yqu ist , 1981). T h is is pa r t icu la r ly t h e ca se w it h edu ca t ion , wh er e st u den t pa r t icipa t ion in t h eir lea r n in g pr ocess is a cr it ica l fa ct or in det er m in in g su ccess (Sh u ell a n d Lee, 1976, pp. 4-9). An ot h er a spect of t h is sa m e pr oblem is t h e lik elih ood t h a t m or e t h a n on e con su m er w ill be in volved t oget h er in t h e pr odu ct ion of t h e sa m e ser vice (Geor ge, 1977; Gr on r oos, 1978). E du ca t ion h a s lon g been u n der t a k en w it h in a gr ou p a n d h a s been viewed a s a n im por t a n t cu lt u r a l t r a n sm ission pr ocess (Sin glet on , 1974). Most edu ca t ion in st it u t ion s a r e “socia l-isin g or ga n isa t ion s”, design ed t o pr ocess la r ge gr ou ps of people (Br im a n d Wh eeler, 1966, p. 57). T h is con cen t r a t ion of st u den t s in t o m a ss lect u r es or la r ge cla sses w it h com -m on “cor e cu r r icu la ” is a n en deavou r by in st it u t ion s t o over com e a n ot h er pr oblem fa cin g ser vices – t h e difficu lt y of cen t r a lisin g pr odu ct ion (Upa h , 1980). Un for t u n a t ely, h igh st u den t -t ea ch er r a t ios do lit t le for t h e devel-opm en t of qu a lit y lea r n in g ou t com es du e t o t h e in dividu a l differ en ces bet ween peoples’ lea r n in g beh aviou r s (Ridin g, 1977, pp. 111-29).

T h e h et er ogen eit y of ser vices poses sign ifi -ca n t pr oblem s in t h e a r ea of qu a lit y con t r ol a n d st a n da r disa t ion (Ber r y, 1980; Boom s, a n d Bit n er, 1981). Qu a lit y m a n a gem en t w it h in edu ca t ion is a m a jor focu s of a t t en t ion for cou n t r ies su ch a s Au st r a lia , F r a n ce, t h e UK a n d USA (Ba ldw in , 1991; Ma r cea u , 1993; Ha r m a n , 1994; Lin dsay, 1994; E dm on d, 1995). F in a lly, t h e per ish a bilit y of ser vices m ea n s t h a t t h ey ca n n ot be pla ced in t o in ven t or y a n d t h er eby cr ea t in g t h e pr oblem of u n der or over su pply (Sa sser, 1976).

Critical success strategies for

marketing international education

T h e specia l ch a r a ct er ist ics of edu ca t ion descr ibed a bove cr ea t e a ddit ion a l pr oblem s for in st it u t ion s a t t em pt in g t o r ecr u it offsh or e. E du ca t ion in st it u t ion s seek in g t o a ch ieve su ccess in in t er n a t ion a l m a r k et s m u st u n der t a k e a r a n ge of a ct ivit ies design ed t o a t t r a ct pr ospect ive st u den t s fr om a r ou n d t h e wor ld. For m a n y st u den t s a n d t h eir fa m i-lies, t h e decision t o st u dy over sea s is on e of t h e m ost sign ifi ca n t a n d expen sive in it ia t ives t h ey w ill h ave ever u n der t a k en . F u r t h er pr oblem s m ay a r ise a s a r esu lt of differ en ces bet ween va r iou s t a r get m a r k et s, for exa m ple In don esia is qu it e differ en t t o J a pa n .

Per h a ps a s a r esu lt of t h is t h e m a r k et in g of a n edu ca t ion in st it u t ion w it h in in t er n a t ion a l m a r k et s r equ ir es bot h sen sit ivit y a n d soph is-t ica is-t ion . Rela is-t ively liis-t is-t le h a s been w r iis-t is-t en on t h e m a r k et in g of edu ca t ion w it h in in t er n a -t ion a l m a r k e-t s (Al-t ba ch et a l.,1985; Alt ba ch

a n d Wa n g, 1989; Sm a r t a n d An g, 1992b). It is t h er efor e difficu lt t o a pply a n y r ea dy-m a de st r a t e gies or solu t ion s t o t h e pr oblem s fa cin g in st it u t ion ’s in t h eir m a r k et in g a ct ivit ies.

An exa m in a t ion of t h e lit er a t u r e r ela t in g t o ser vices m a r k et in g a n d com pet it ive a dva n -t a ge, a s well a s discu ssion s w i-t h a pa n el of exper t s loca t ed w it h in t h e in t er n a t ion a l offices of sever a l Au st r a lia n u n iver sit ies, iden t ifi ed 17 fa ct or s cr it ica l t o t h e su ccess of edu ca t ion in st it u t ion s oper a t in g in in t er n a -t ion a l m a r k e-t s. T h ese “cr i-t ica l su ccess fa c-t or s” a r e exa m in ed in c-t h e follow in g su b-sect ion s.

Quality of reputation, and level of market recognition/ profile

Th ese two fa ctor s h ave been h igh ligh ted in sever a l stu dies a s bein g im por ta n t to th e developm en t of com petitive a dva n ta ge (Aa k er, 1989; 1991; Ha ll, 1992; 1993). Th ey a r e n ot iden -tica l to ea ch oth er a lth ou gh th ey a r e closely r ela ted. In m a r k etin g edu ca tion th e su ccess of Ivy Lea gu e in stitu tion s, for exa m ple, is lin k ed to th eir im a ge a n d r epu ta tion r e ga r dless of th eir tea ch in g qu a lity (Hu ber, 1992). Aa k er (1989) fou n d th a t m a n a ger s of ser vice en ter -pr ises r a n k ed a “r epu ta tion for qu a lity” a n d “n a m e r ecogn ition / h igh pr ofi le” a s sign ifi -ca n t sou r ces of com petitive a dva n ta ge.

Possession of international strategic alliances or coalitions

Th e im por ta n ce of possessin g in ter n a tion a l str a te gic a llia n ces or coa lition s h a s fea tu r ed in th e liter a tu r e a s a sou r ce of com petitive a dva n ta ge. Por ter a n d F u ller (1986) n ote th e im por ta n ce of coa lition s to in ter n a tion a l m a r k etin g. Th e pr im a r y ben efi ts of coa lition s bein g th e a bility to ga in : “econ om ies of sca le”; “a ccess” (to distr ibu tion ch a n n els, ca pita l, loca l k n ow ledge etc.); “r edu ction of r isk ”; a n d th e a bility to sh a pe com petition . Coa lition a ctivity ca n be a sou r ce of com petitive a dva n -ta ge (Du n n in g a n d Pea r ce, 1985; Oh m a e, 1985). Th e eviden ce of th is is su ggested by th e r ecen t gr ow th in coa lition a ctivity a m on g edu ca tion ser vices expor ter s (Scott, 1994). With in th e in ter n a tion a l bu sin ess com m u n ity th e tr en d h a s been tow a r d th e for m a tion of str a te gic a llia n ces, a lth ou gh ca r e n eeds to be ta ken to en su r e th a t th e n a tu r e of th e a llia n ce is clea r ly u n der stood w ith per for m a n ce ben ch -m a r k s esta blish ed (Pek a r a n d Allio, 1994).

Possession of offshore teaching programs, and recruiting offices

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1989). Ser vices su ch a s edu ca tion involve a h igh degr ee of “con su m er / pr odu cer in ter a c-tion ” cr ea tin g a str on g desir e for dir ect con tr ol a n d pr esen ce by th e pr odu cer du r in g th e ea r ly ph a ses of expor t developm en t (Va n er m er we a n d Ch a dw ick , 1989). E r r a m illi (1991) su ppor ts th is view. Ser vice expor ter s pr efer to r eta in a h igh level of con tr ol over th eir expor t ch a n n el u n til th eir exper ien ce w ith in th e m a r k et in cr ea ses. Th e degr ee of for w a r d in tegr a tion m ay be a fu r th er sou r ce of com petitive a dva n -ta ge for ser vice en ter pr ises in in ter n a tion a l m a r k ets.

Advice fr om th e exper t pa n el su ggested th a t offsh or e tea ch in g pr ogr a m s a n d offsh or e r ecr u itm en t offices m igh t a lso offer a sou r ce of com petitive a dva n ta ge to in stitu tion s en ga ged in in ter n a tion a l edu ca tion . Th is w a s su ppor ted by r esea r ch su ggestin g th a t ser vice en ter pr ises wer e m or e lik ely to in tegr a te for w a r d in to th e expor t ch a n n el du e to th e in sepa r a bility of pr odu ction a n d con su m ption (E r r a m illi a n d Ra o, 1990). An em pir ica l stu dy u sin g th e P IMS da ta ba se u n der ta k en by Bh a r a dw a j a n d Men on (1993) fou n d th a t for -w a r d in te gr a tion in cr ea sed th e m a r k et sh a r e of ser vice en ter pr ises a n d h a d a sign ifica n t positive effect on th eir fi n a n cia l per for m a n ce.

Quality and expertise of staff

T h e a bilit y of in st it u t ion s t o r ecr u it a n d r et a in qu a lit y st a ff w a s exa m in ed a s a cr it ica l su ccess fa ct or. Bh a r a dw a j et a l.(1993) h igh ligh t t h e im por t a n ce of or ga n isa t ion a l lea r n -in g a n d exper t ise a s a sou r ce of com pet it ive a dva n t a ge. In t h e edu ca t ion ser vices in du st r y, for exa m ple, st u den t s select cou r ses on t h e r e pu t a t ion of t ea ch in g st a ff (Hu gh es, 1988). Win t er (1987) su ggest s t h a t or ga n isa t ion a l lea r n in g is a sou r ce of com pet it ive a dva n t a ge if t wo cr it er ia a r e m et : t h e lea r n in g is “t a cit ” a n d n ot ea sily copied by com pet it or s, a n d t h e k n ow ledge u n der lyin g t h e exper t ise is com -plex (t h u s m a k in g im it a t ion difficu lt ).

Organisational culture

T h e r ole of cu lt u r e in en h a n cin g or ga n isa -t ion a l per for m a n ce h a s been w idely

su ppor t ed in t h e lit er a t u r e (Pet er s a n d Wa t er -m a n , 1982; Ba r n ey, 1986), in pa r t icu la r t h e n eed t o develop a cu st om er or ien t ed ser vice cu lt u r e (Gr on r oos, 1990). T h is w a s exa m in ed a s a pot en t ia l cr it ica l su ccess fa ct or. Ma n a g-in g cu lt u r e for su st a g-in a ble com pet it ive a dva n t a ge r equ ir es ca r efu l a t t en t ion t o be pa id t o t h e la n gu a ge a n d beh aviou r u sed w it h in t h e en t er pr ise, a s well a s t h e va lu es a n d beliefs (F iol, 1991). T h e sym bols u sed t o defi n e t h e or ga n isa t ion ’s st r u ct u r e a n d beh aviou r of it s m em ber s ca n a lso play a decisive r ole in defi n in g t h e n a t u r e of t h e cu lt u r e (Ba r ley, 1983).

Innovation

T h e de gr ee t o wh ich a n en t er pr ise en cou r a ges in n ova t ion h a s been viewed a s im por -t a n -t -t o developin g com pe-t i-t ive a dva n -t a ge (McIn t yr e, 1982; Qu in n , 1985, p. 79; Ta k eu ch i a n d N on a k a , 1986; Va n Den Ven , 1986). T h e im por t a n ce of or ga n isa t ion a l cu lt u r e t o su s-t a in a ble com pes-t is-t ive a dva n s-t a ge h a s been ou t lin ed by Ba r n ey (1986) wh o n ot es t h a t wh ile cu lt u r e n eeds t o be fi r m ly ba sed w it h in t h e or ga n isa t ion , it sh ou ld a lso be fl exible t o en cou r a ge in n ova t ion . Gr on r oos (1990) r efer s t o t h e n eed for ser vice en t er pr ises t o develop cu st om er or ien t ed ser vice cu lt u r es in wh ich t h e or ga n isa t ion ch a r t is in ver t ed a n d cu s-t om er a n d fr on s-t -lin e ss-t a ff becom e s-t h e pr i-m a r y focu s. T h e a bilit y of cu lt u r e t o pr ovide a sou r ce of com pet it ive a dva n t a ge is a lso lin k ed t o it s a bilit y t o gen er a t e st r a t e gica lly va lu a ble in n ova t ion via t h e pr ocess of or ga n isa -t ion a l lea r n in g (Willia m s, 1992). A en -t er pr ise n eeds t o develop st r on g cor e va lu es t h a t em ph a size in n ova t ion a n d fl exibilit y in or der develop su st a in ed su per ior fi n a n cia l per for -m a n ce (Ba r n ey, 1986).

Effective use of information technology and technical superiority

Por t er a n d Milla r (1985) h ave em ph a sised t h e im por t a n ce of in for m a t ion t ech n ology t o t h e a ch ievem en t of com pet it ive a dva n t a ge. T h e effect ive u se of in for m a t ion t ech n ology w a s con sider ed a s a pot en t ia l sou r ce of com pet i-t ive a dva n i-t a ge. Also exa m in ed w a s i-t h e level of t ech n ica l su per ior it y w it h in t h e in st it u t ion . Sin ce t h e em er gen ce of m oder n in for m a -t ion -t ech n ology -t h e va lu e of com pu -t er s -t o -t h e developm en t of com pet it ive a dva n t a ge h a s been h igh ligh t ed (Ger st ein a n d Reism a n , 1982). In for m a t ion t ech n ology h a s been viewed a s offer in g en t er pr ises t h e a bilit y t o a dopt “gen er ic” posit ion in g st r a t e gies. Com -pu t er a ided design (CAD) or com -pu t er a ided m a n u fa ct u r in g (CAM) ca n a ssist in a ch ievin g cost lea der sh ip, wh ile differ en t ia t ion ca n be a ssist ed by select ed in for m a t ion t ech n ologies (P a r son s, 1983).

Financial resources

Th e im por ta n ce of fin a n cia l per for m a n ce a s a sou r ce of com petitiven ess h a s been h igh ligh ted in th e liter a tu r e (Bu zzell a n d Ga le, 1987).

Ability to offer a broad range of courses/ programs

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cou r ses a n d pr ogr a m s w a s a pot en t ia l sou r ce of com pet it ive a dva n t a ge.

Scale effects (strength of alumni and market share)

Sca le econ om ies h ave been viewed a s a sou r ce of com pet it ive a dva n t a ge (Bh a r a dw a j et a l.,1993). Wit h in t h e qu est ion n a ir e t h e possession of a st r on g a lu m n i ba se, size of st u den t popu la t ion , size of ca m pu s a n d pos-session of a la r ge m a r k et sh a r e m ea su r ed t h is.

Advertising and promotion

Wh a t ever t h e m er it s of a dver t isin g it h a s n ot been w idely u sed w it h in edu ca t ion m a r k et -in g. A su r vey of -in t er n a t ion a l st u den t s -in Au st r a lia fou n d t h a t on ly som e 3 t o 8 per cen t of r espon den t s (de pen din g u pon t ype of in st i-t u i-t ion a i-t i-t en ded e.g. u n iver sii-t y, secon da r y, E LICOS) cla im ed m a ss m edia a dver t isin g t o be t h eir m a in sou r ce of in for m a t ion pr ior t o select in g t h eir in st it u t ion (Ha r r is a n d Rh a ll, 1993, p. 46). Per h a ps it s m ost sign ifi ca n t wea k -n ess is t h e per ce pt io-n t h a t a ppea r s t o exist a m on g m a n y pr ospect ive in t er n a t ion a l st u den t s t h a t in st it u t ion s wh ich a dver t ise ca n -n ot be of h igh qu a lit y (AGB, 1992).

Resea r ch in t o t h e a dver t isin g of ser vices em ph a sizes t h a t it r equ ir es a differ en t a ppr oa ch t o m or e con ven t ion a l pr odu ct s (Ba t eson , 1979; Zeit h a m l et a l.,1985; Le gg a n d Ba k er, 1991). It h a s been su ggest ed t h a t edu ca -t ion in s-t i-t u -t ion s seek in g -t o m a k e u se of a dver t isin g n eed t o em ph a size t h eir posit ive qu a lit ies via u se of t est im on ia ls (Da n k o, 1986). Adver t isem en t s t h a t sh ow t h e pr ospec-t ive con su m er h ow ospec-t h e ser vice w ill be deliver ed t o t h em a r e lik ely t o en h a n ce t h e diffdeliver -en t ia t ion of t h e ser vice offer in g a n d m ay a lso a ssist t h e con su m er ’s u n der st a n din g a n d eva lu a t ion of t h e ser vice (Day, 1992).

Use of private recruitment agents T h e u se of r ecr u it m en t a gen t s t o pr om ot e in t er n a t ion a l edu ca t ion h a s been on e of t h e m or e con t r over sia l issu es w it h in Au st r a lia . Som e com m en t a t or s h ave cr it icized a gen t s for givin g fa lse in for m a t ion a n d en ga gin g in u n et h ica l pr a ct ices (Davis, 1989). Ot h er s h ave in dica t ed su ppor t for a gen t s a s a va lu a ble for m of pr om ot ion (E dw a r ds a n d Br ow n e, 1991; Sm a r t a n d An g, 1992b; Ha r r is a n d Rh a ll, 1993). Su r veys of in t er n a t ion a l st u den t s in Au st r a lia su ppor t t h e view t h a t a gen t s a r e a n im por t a n t sou r ce of in for m a t ion . On e st u dy fou n d 29 per cen t of st u den t s su r veyed h a d con su lt ed a n a gen t , a n d 20 per cen t h a d r elied h eavily u pon t h eir a dvice (Ha r r is a n d Rh a ll, 1993, p. 62). An ot h er st u dy fou n d t h a t n ea r ly h a lf t h e st u den t s su r veyed h a d u sed a gen t s (DCT, 1993, p. 49).

Use of government promotion agencies T h e effect iven ess of gover n m en t in for m a t ion cen t r es is difficu lt t o ga u ge. A su r vey of in t er -n a t io-n a l st u de-n t s i-n Au st r a lia fou -n d t h a t 55 per cen t h a d n eit h er u sed n or h ea r d of t h e Au st r a lia n E du ca t ion Cen t r es (AE Cs) (loca t ed in t en Asia -P a cifi c ca pit a ls) (Ha r r is a n d Rh a ll, 1993, p. 52). An ot h er st u dy fou n d AE Cs r ecr u it ed on ly 7 per cen t of st u den t s sa m pled com pa r ed t o 33 per cen t fr om a gen t s (Sm a r t a n d An g, 1993, p. 28). T h ese fi n din gs wer e su ppor t ed by a n ot h er sim ila r su r vey u n der t a k en by t h e West er n Au st r a lia Gover n -m en t wh o fou n d t h eir ow n WA E du ca t ion Offices (WAE Os) m or e effect ive in a t t r a ct in g st u den t s t o t h a t st a t e (DCT, 1993, p. 49). N ever -t h eless, a con sider a ble in ves-t m en -t is bein g m a de by cou n t r ies su ch a s Au st r a lia , Ca n a da , t h e UK a n d t h e USA in est a blish in g a n d m a in -t a in in g edu ca -t ion in for m a -t ion a n d pr om ot ion cen ot r es in selecot ed ot a r geot m a r k eot cou n -t r ies. Mos-t a r e pr ofession a lly r u n , well r esou r ced a n d dist r ibu t e in for m a t ion t o a su bst a n t ia l n u m ber of pr ospect ive st u den t s ea ch yea r (DE E T, 1993).

A Survey of institutions

Du r in g 1994 a su r vey w a s m a iled to 1,255 edu ca-tion in stitu ca-tion s in Au str a lia , Ca n a da , New Zea la n d, th e UK a n d USA. A fin a l u sable sa m -ple of 315 wa s pr odu ced. Th e m a jor ity of th e in stitu tion s (82 per cen t) wer e Au str a lia n , a n d th e la r gest gr ou p w a s pr ivate secon da r y sch ools. Oth er in stitu tion s com pr ised u n iver si-ties; TAF E colleges, polytech n ics; pr ivately ow n ed bu sin ess colleges; En glish la n gu a ge In ten sive Cou r ses for Over sea s Stu den ts (ELI-COS) cen tr es; a ir tr a in in g sch ools; gover n m en t sch ools or in stitu tion s; th eologica l colleges a n d oth er in stitu tion s n ot cla ssified elsewh er e. Th e sa m ple a lso com pr ised 46 per cen t of a ll Au s-tr a lia n u n iver sities, a n d 81 per cen t of TAF E college system s, 24 per cen t of Au str a lia n pr i-vate bu sin ess colleges a n d 33 per cen t of a ll ELICOS cen tr es listed in th e Com m on wea lth r egister of In stitu tion s a n d Cou r ses for Over -sea s Stu den ts (CRICOS) in 1994. Th is r egister lists a ll Au str a lia n edu cation a l in stitu tion s en ga ged in th e r ecr u itm en t of fu ll-fee payin g over sea s stu den ts (F F P OS). Of th e n on -Au s-tr a lia n in stitu tion s su r veyed, 47 per cen t h a d en r olm en ts of over 10,000 stu den ts. Th e m a jor -ity of th ese in stitu tion s wer e u n iver sities.

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len gt h of t im e in t h eir posit ion s w a s six yea r s. Seven t y-fi ve per cen t of r espon den t s sa id t h ey wer e fr equ en t ly in volved in pla n -n i-n g decisio-n s r ela t i-n g t o i-n t er -n a t io-n a l m a r k et in g for t h eir or ga n isa t ion s. T h is su g-gest s t h a t t h e sa m ple r e pr esen t a n exper i-en ced a n d r ela t ively exper t gr ou p.

Institutional rating of the critical

success factors

In st it u t ion s wer e a sk ed t o r a t e t h eir ow n in st it u t ion ’s per for m a n ce in t er m s of it s in t er n a t ion a l m a r k et in g on ea ch of t h e 17 “cr it ica l su ccess fa ct or s”. T h e r a t in g for ea ch it em w a s pla ced on a seven -poin t sca le wh er e 1 = ext r em ely poor per for m a n ce a n d 7 = ext r em ely h igh per for m a n ce. Ta ble I sh ow s t h e r esu lt s of t h e in st it u t ion s’ r espon ses t o t h ese qu est ion s.

It ca n be seen in Ta ble I t h a t t h e m a jor it y of r espon den t s con sider ed t h eir in st it u t ion ’s per for m a n ce w a s best in t h e a r ea s of t h e en cou r a gem en t of in n ova t ion a n d t h e qu a lit y a n d exper ien ce of st a ff. T h ese t wo it em s wer e r a t ed sign ifi ca n t ly h igh er t h a n t h e ot h er 15 by t h e in st it u t ion s a n d h a d m ea n r a t in g scor es of 5.67 a n d 5.64 r espect ively.

Factor analysis of the critical

success factors

A fa ct or a n a lysis w a s u n der t a k en of t h e 17 “cr it ica l su ccess” it em s. In k ee pin g w it h t h e

pr in cipa l com pon en t s m et h od, eigen va lu es gr ea t er t h a n on e wer e select ed t o det er m in e t h e a ppr opr ia t e n u m ber of fa ct or s. A va r im a x r ot a t ion w a s a pplied t o pr ovide ea se of da t a in t er pr et a t ion . T h e m ea su r e of sa m plin g a dequ a cy for t h e 17 it em s w a s 0.83 in dica t in g t h a t t h e it em s wer e su it a ble for fa ct or in g (Ka iser, 1974; St ew a r t , 1981). Ta ble II sh ow s t h e r esu lt s of t h is a n a lysis.

T h e fa ct or a n a lysis of t h e 17 it em s fou n d fou r fa ct or s w it h eigen va lu es gr ea t er t h a n on e, wh ich a ccou n t ed for 61 per cen t of va r i-a n ce. All 17-fi-a ct or loi-a din gs yielded clei-a r r esu lt s w it h st a t ist ics r a n gin g fr om 0.54 t o 0.84. F ive it em s r ela t in g t o in st it u -t ion a l “P r om o-t ion a n d r ecr u i-t m en -t ” loa ded on t o t h e fi r st fa ct or, wh ich w a s a ccor din gly t it led. A fu r t h er fi ve it em s, r ela t in g t o in st it u -t ion a l r e pu -t a -t ion , m a r k e-t pr ofi le a n d s-t r en g-t h of fi n a n ces a n d a lu m n i loa ded on t o t h e sec-on d fa ct or wh ich w a s la belled “Im a ge a n d r esou r ces”. F ive it em s r ela t in g t o in t er n a l cu lt u r e, st a ffin g a n d u se of t ech n ology gr ou ped in t o a t h ir d fa ct or, wh ich w a s la belled “People a n d cu lt u r e”. T h e la st t wo it em s, r ela t in g t o possession of in t er n a t ion a l st r a t e gic a llia n ces a n d offsh or e t ea ch in g pr ogr a m s, loa ded on t h e fou r t h fa ct or, “Coa lit ion a n d for w a r d in t e gr a t ion ”.

Measures of market success

Mea su r in g su ccess w it h in t h e in t er n a t ion a l edu ca t ion sect or is com plica t ed by a va r iet y of in fl u en ces. Recr u it m en t su ccess in t er m s of t ot a l en r olm en t s is a n u n su it a ble m ea su r e du e t o t h e differ en ces t h a t exist bet ween va r iou s t ypes of in st it u t ion s. For exa m ple, a u n iver sit y w it h t ot a l st u den t en r olm en t s in excess of 15,000 m igh t con sider t h em selves u n su ccessfu l if t h ey fa iled t o r ecr u it less t h a n 100 in t er n a t ion a l st u den t s. However, a pr iva t e secon da r y sch ool w it h in t er n a t ion a l st u den t en r olm en t s of on ly 75 m ay view it self a s su c-cessfu l, pa r t icu la r ly if t h is is t h eir a n n u a l qu ot a set by gover n m en t policy a n d t h ey con sist en t ly fi ll it w it h ou t difficu lt y.

In or d er t o a ccom m od a t e t h es e p r oblem s a s er ies of fi ve q u es t ion s w er e a s k ed w h ich w er e d es ign ed t o m ea s u r e t h e r ela t ive s u cces s of t h e in s t it u t ion in r ecr u it in g in t er n a -t ion a l s -t u d en -t s. Res p on d en -t s w er e a s k ed -t o r a t e t h eir a gr eem en t w it h fi ve s t a t em en t s d efi n in g t h e fi ve s u cces s m ea s u r es. T h e r es p on s es w er e r ecor d ed on s even p oin t s ca les w h er e 1 = s t r on gly d is a gr ee a n d 7 = s t r on gly a gr ee. Ta ble III s h ow s t h e n a t u r e of t h es e q u es t ion s. It ca n b e s een fr om t h e t a ble t h a t t h e over a ll s a m p le d id n ot r a t e t h eir s u cces s p a r t icu la r ly h igh w it h a ll m ea n s cor es b elow 5. An exa m in a t ion of t h e r a t in g Table I

Critic al suc c e ss fac to rs – pe rfo rmanc e rating by institutio ns

Performance rating

Success factor total sample means

1 Enc ourages innovation 5 .6 7

2 Is highly suc c essful at rec ruiting and retaining quality, experienc ed

staff 5 .6 4

3 Has a high-quality image 5 .3 2

4 Has a strong c ustomer-oriented c ulture 5 .2 3 5 Makes effec tive use of information tec hnology 5 .2 0

6 Has strong financ ial resourc es 5 .1 9

7 Is tec hnic ally superior to most in its field 5 .1 5 8 Offers a broad range of c ourses and programs 4 .9 5

9 Is well known 3 .8 7

10 Has a very strong and ac tive Alumni 3 .5 2 11 Has many international strategic allianc es and c oalitions 3 .0 6 12 Has a very large overseas student population 2 .9 3 13 Relies heavily on private rec ruitment agents 2 .8 3 14 Relies heavily on government overseas promotion c entres 2 .6 8 15 Has a large overseas advertising and promotion budget 2 .5 9 16 Has many offshore rec ruitment offic es 2 .2 2 17 Has many offshore teac hing programs 1 .7 2

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m ea n s for d iffer en t in s t it u t ion a l t y p es t o t h e fi ve it em s w a s u n d er t a k en u s in g a n a n a ly s is of va r ia n ce (AN OVA) t es t . T h is fou n d n o d iffer en ces b et w een a n y of t h e t er t ia r y in s t i-t u i-t ion s w ii-t h i-t h e exce p i-t ion of i-t h e E LICOS colle ges w h o w er e m or e lik ely t o a gr ee w it h t h e s t a t em en t t h a t w it h ou t over s ea s s t u d en t fees t h ey wou ld exp er ien ce fi n a n cia l d ifficu l-t ies. T h is is n ol-t s u r p r is in g given l-t h a l-t s u ch in s t it u t ion s a r e w h olly d e p en d en t u p on in t er n a t ion a l s t u d en t s for t h eir s u r v iva l.

T h es e fi n d i n gs s u gges t t h a t s u cces s i s v i ew ed i n a s i m i la r m a n n er by i n s t i t u t i on s r e ga r d les s of t h ei r cou n t r y of or i gi n . Sec-on d a r y s ch ools w er e fou n d t o b e d i ffer en t t o t h ei r t er t i a r y cou n t er p a r t s w h i ch m a y b e exp la i n ed by t h e s ch ools n ot h av i n g exp er i en ced t h e s a m e level of gr ow t h i n i n t er n a -t i on a l s -t u d en -t en r olm en -t s a s h ave -t h e

t er t i a r y i n s t i t u t i on s. F u r t h er, t h e s econ d a r y s ch ools a p p ea r m u ch les s d e p en d en t u p on i n t er n a t i on a l s t u d en t fees t h a n t h e t er t i a r y i n s t i t u t i on s for t h ei r fi n a n ci a l s ecu r i t y. Few of t h es e fi n d i n gs a r e s u r p r i s i n g a n d r eflect t h e con cen t r a t i on of i n t er n a t i on a l s t u d en t n u m b er s w i t h i n t h e t er t i a r y s ect or of t h e i n d u s t r y.

A factor analysis of the success

measures

T h e m ea s u r e of s a m p li n g a d eq u a cy for t h e five i t em s m ea s u r i n g m a r k et s u cces s w a s 0.75, s u gges t i n g s u i t a b i li t y for fa ct or a n a ly -s i -s (Ka i -s er, 1974). T h e a n a ly -s i -s of t h e five i t em s m ea s u r i n g m a r k et s u cces s fou n d t wo fa ct or s w i t h ei gen va lu es gr ea t er t h a n 1 w h i ch a ccou n t ed for 70 p er cen t of va r i a n ce. T h e r ot a t ed fa ct or loa d i n gs y i eld ed clea r r es u lt s, w i t h fou r of t h e five i t em s gr ou p i n g i n t o t h e fi r s t fa ct or, w h i ch w a s la b elled “M a r k et s u cces s ”. T h e r em a i n i n g i t em – “w i t h ou t over s ea s s t u d en t fees t h e i n s t i t u -t i on wou ld exp er i en ce fi n a n ci a l d i ffi cu l-t i es ” – loa d ed on t o a s econ d fa ct or w h i ch w a s r et a i n ed a s a n i n d e p en d en t va r i a ble. Ta ble IV s h ow s t h e r es u lt s of t h i s fa ct or a n a ly s i s. A t es t of t h e r eli a b i li t y of t h e fa ct or w a s u n d er t a k en (Cr on b a ch , 1951). T h e r eli a b i li t y coeffi ci en t for t h e fa ct or w a s 0.76 s u gges t i n g t h a t t h e fa ct or con s t r u ct w a s r eli a b ly i n d i -ca t ed by t h e fou r va r i a bles.

N o sign ifi ca n t differ en ce w a s fou n d bet ween t h e Au st r a lia n a n d over sea s t er t ia r y in st it u t ion s in t h eir m ea n r a t in g scor es for t h e fa ct or m a r k et su ccess su ggest in g t h a t cou n t r y differ en ces cou ld be ign or ed in fu r -t h er a n a lysis. A sign ifi ca n -t differ en ce w a s fou n d bet ween t h e sch ools a n d t h e u n iver si-t ies in si-t h eir r a si-t in g of si-t h e fa csi-t or, a lsi-t h ou gh si-t h is is n ot su r pr isin g given t h e m a jor fl ow of fee-payin g in t er n a t ion a l st u den t s is in t o t h e h igh er edu ca t ion sect or.

Estimation of the logistic

regression model

Logistic r e gr ession or logit a n a lysis is su ita ble wh er e ita bin ita r y or dich otom ou s depen -den t va r ia ble exists. Th is pr ocedu r e estim a tes th e coefficien ts of a pr oba blistic m odel, in volvin g a set of in depen den t va r ia bles th a t best pr edict th e va lu e of th e depen den t va r i-a ble. A positive coefficien t in cr ei-a ses th e pr ob-a bility, wh ile ob-a n egob-a tive vob-a lu e decr eob-a ses th e pr edicted pr oba bility of th e ou tcom e bein g in eith er of th e two depen den t va r ia ble ca te-gor ies (Ha ir et a l.,1992, pp. 130-1). In pr edict-in g th e pr oba bility of m u ltiple edict-in depen den t Table II

Fac to rs analysis o f institutio nal pe rfo rmanc e o n c ritic al suc c e ss fac to rs

Factor M ean

Factor label Item loadings scores

Promotion and Use of private rec ruitment agents 0 .8 4 2 .8 3

recruitment

(alpha = 0.82) Size of overseas advertising and promotion

budget 0 .7 7 2 .5 9

Possession of offshore rec ruitment offic es 0 .7 2 2 .2 2 Use of government information offic es overseas 0 .7 1 2 .6 8 Size of international student enrolments 0 .5 4 2 .9 3

Image and resources Level of market profile or rec ognition 0 .7 6 3 .8 7

(alpha = 0.74) Strength of financ ial resourc es 0 .6 4 5 .1 9

Reputation for quality 0 .6 3 5 .3 2 Size and influenc e of alumni 0 .6 0 3 .5 2 Range of c ourses and programs 0 .5 5 4 .9 5

People and culture Level of innovation within the institutions’ c ulture 0.80 5.67 (alpha = 0.77) Level of c ustomer orientation within c ulture 0 .7 7 5 .2 3 Effec tive use of information tec hnology 0 .6 8 5 .2 0 Quality and expertise of staff 0 .6 6 5 .6 4 Level of tec hnic al superiority 0 .5 7 5 .1 5

Coalition and forward Possession of international strategic allianc es 0 .7 8 3 .0 6 integration

(alpha = 0.61) Possession of offshore teac hing programs 0 .7 8 1 .7 2

Table III

Re spo nde nt rating o f institutio nal suc c e ss rating o f que stio ns

Question M ean rating

The outlook over the next 3-6 years is for continued growth in overseas

student numbers 4 .3 3

Growth in overseas student body has regularly been high 3 .6 8

The financial benefits to the institution have regularly exceeded forecasts

or expectations 3 .2 2

Demand for places from overseas students regularly exceeds supply 2 .8 5 Without overseas student fees the institution would experience financial

difficulties 2 .5 8

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Tim Mazzaro l

va r ia bles on a sin gle dich otom ou s depen den t va r ia ble th e m odel u sed is:

wh er e: z = β₀+ β₁x₁+ β₂x₂+ … + β_nx_n x_n = a set of in de pen den t va r ia bles

β0 = a n in t er ce pt t er m

b_n = a set of pa r a m et er s for t h e in de pen den t va r ia bles

e = t h e qu a n t it y 2.71828+ , t h e ba se of n a t u r a l loga r it h m s

y = t h e dich ot om ou s de pen den t va r ia ble, m a r k et su ccess P(y= 1) = t h e pr oba bilit y of a fi r m bein g

cla ssifi ed a s h igh or low su ccess. T h e fa ct or m a r k et su ccess w a s con ver t ed in t o a dich ot om ou s va r ia ble com pr isin g t h ose in st it u t ion s w it h low su ccess a n d t h ose w it h h igh su ccess. T h e m ea n r a t in g scor e for t h e en t ir e sa m ple w a s 3.5 w it h a n or m a l dist r ibu t ion . A cu t poin t of 4 w a s select ed t o pr ovide t wo dist in ct gr ou ps: t h ose in st it u -t ion s w i-t h h igh m a r k e-t su ccess (m ea n = 5.21); a n d t h ose in st it u t ion s w it h low m a r k et su ccess (m ea n = 2.71).

Of t h e 315 in st it u t ion s 188 (65 per cen t ) wer e cla ssifi ed a s low m a r k et su ccess, wh ile 103 (35 per cen t ) wer e cla ssifi ed a s h igh m a r k et su ccess. An exa m in a t ion of t h e r ela t ion sh ip bet ween cou n t r y of or igin a n d in st it u t ion a l t ype a n d m em ber sh ip of eit h er of t h ese t wo ca t e gor ies fou n d n o sign ifi ca n t a ssocia t ion .

A logit a n a lysis w a s u n der t a k en u sin g t h is dich ot om ou s su ccess m ea su r e a s t h e de pen -den t va r ia ble a n d t h e fou r cr it ica l su ccess fa ct or s: pr om ot ion a n d r ecr u it m en t , im a ge a n d r esou r ces; people a n d cu lt u r e; a n d coa lit ion a n d for w a r d in lit e gr a lit ion a s lit h e in de pen -den t va r ia bles. A t ot a l of 286 of t h e 315 ca ses wer e u sed t o est im a t e t h e m odel. Twen t y-n in e ca ses wer e n ot in clu ded beca u se t h ey wer e m issin g da t a for on e or m or e of t h e va r ia bles. T h e fi n a l m odel, wh ich con t a in ed t wo sign ifi -ca n t t er m s, is sh ow n in Ta ble V. Bot h va r i-a bles wer e sign ifi ci-a n t i-a t t h e 0.05 level.

T h e fi r st sign ifi ca n t va r ia ble in t h e m odel w a s t h e fa ct or va r ia ble “Im a ge a n d

r esou r ces” wh ich m ea su r ed t h e level of m a r -k et pr ofi le or r ecogn it ion , t h e st r en gt h of fi n a n cia l r esou r ces, r e pu t a t ion for qu a lit y, size a n d in fl u en ce of a lu m n i a n d r a n ge of cou r ses a n d pr ogr a m s. T h e posit ive coeffi-cien t for t h is t er m in dica t ed t h a t in st it u t ion s wh ich wer e iden t ifi ed a s h igh m a r k et su ccess wer e m or e lik ely t o be per for m in g bet t er in t h e a r ea s a ssocia t ed w it h t h is fa ct or t h a n t h ose in st it u t ion s cla ssifi ed a s low m a r k et su ccess.

T h e secon d sign ifi ca n t t er m select ed for in clu sion in t h e m odel w a s t h e fa ct or va r ia ble “Coa lit ion a n d for w a r d in t e gr a t ion ” wh ich m ea su r ed t h e possession of in t er n a t ion a l st r a t e gic a llia n ces a n d possession of offsh or e t ea ch in g pr ogr a m s. T h e posit ive sign for t h is t er m ’s coefficien t in dica t ed t h a t t h ose in st it u -t ion s, wh ich possessed -t h ese a -t -t r ibu -t es, wer e m or e lik ely t o be cla ssifi ed a s h igh m a r k et su ccess.

Goodness of fit of the model

On e m et h od of a ssessin g t h e goodn ess of fi t of logist ic m odels is t o exa m in e t h e –2LL m ea -su r e. T h is m ea -su r e is ca lcu la t ed by t h e SP SS Logist ic Re gr ession pr ocedu r e ea ch t im e a m odel is developed. If a m odel fi t s per fect ly, t h en t h e va lu e for –2LL w ill be 0. T h e –2LL is a lso ca lcu la t ed for t h e m odel t h a t con t a in s t h e con st a n t on ly. T h is en a bles a n est im a t ion of t h e level of im pr ovem en t ga in ed by a ddin g t h e m odel t er m s (N or u sis, 1993, p. 10). T h ese t wo va lu es for –2LL a r e sh ow n in Ta ble VI. –2LL for t h e m odel w it h t h e con st a n t w a s fou n d t o be 372.64, wh ile t h a t for t h e fu ll m odel w a s 322.18.

Seein g h ow well t h e m odel cla ssifi es t h e da t a is a n ot h er w ay of det er m in in g h ow well a logist ic m odel per for m s. T h is in volves a com pa r ison of t h e obser ved n u m ber of ca ses for ea ch st a t e of t h e de pen den t va r ia ble w it h t h e pr edict ed n u m ber of ea ch st a t e a s der ived fr om t h e m odel (Wr igley, 1985, p. 50). Ta ble VI illu st r a t es t h e cla ssifi ca t ion per for m a n ce of t h e m odel.

Th e pr ior pr oba bilities in dica te th e pr oba bil-ity of a ca se bein g cor r ectly cla ssified in to on e of th e two gr ou ps befor e th e m odel is a pplied to th e da ta (Afifi a n d Cla r k , 1984, pp. 263-4). Th e r ela tive sizes of th e two popu la tion s in th e cu r r en t m odel deter m in ed th e va lu e of 64.34 per cen t for th e pr ior pr oba bilities. Th e poste-r ioposte-r pposte-r oba bilities expposte-r ess th e pposte-r oba bility foposte-r ea ch ca se of belon gin g to a pa r ticu la r gr ou p a s deter m in ed by th e ch osen m odel (Afi fi a n d Cla r k , 1984, p. 262). Th e r esu lts of a pplyin g th e m odel to th e da ta a r e sh ow n in th e bottom h a lf of Ta ble VI. Th is sh ow s th a t th e m odel cor -r ectly cla ssified 72.73 pe-r cen t of th e 286 ca ses. P y

e z

( )

–

= = +

1 1

1

Table IV

Re sults o f fac to r analysis o f marke t suc c e ss me asure s

Factor M ean

Factor label Item loadings scores

M arket Success Growth in overseas student enrolments 0 .8 5 3 .6 8 (alpha = 0.76) Financ ial benefits from international students 0 .7 9 3 .2 2 Demand for plac es regularly exc eeds supply 0 .7 4 2 .8 5 The outlook for the next 3 to 6 years is for

growth 0 .6 4 4 .3 3

Independent variable Without overseas student fees the institution

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Tim Mazzaro l

Discussions with institutions over

the critical success factors

In or der t o ga in a bet t er u n der st a n din g of t h e n a t u r e of t h ese su ccess fa ct or s a ser ies of in -de pt h in t er view s wer e con du ct ed w it h r e pr esen t a t ives fr om a select ed sa m ple of 14 Au st r a lia n in st it u t ion s in Au st r a lia . Select ion of t h e 14 in st it u t ion s w a s on t h e ba sis of size, in st it u t ion t ype a n d r ela t ive exper ien ce w it h in t h e in t er n a t ion a l m a r k et . T h e in st it u t ion s in t er viewed in clu ded u n iver sit ies; pr iva t e bu sin ess or voca t ion a l colle ges, E LICOS colle ges, TAF E colle ges, pr iva t e secon da r y sch ools a n d a pilot t r a in in g sch ool.

Du r in g t h e in t er view s t h e cr it ica l su ccess fa ct or s iden t ifi ed in t h e su r vey wer e expla in ed a n d t h e in st it u t ion a l r e pr esen t a -t ives wer e a sk ed -t o com m en -t on wh e-t h er -t h ey con sider ed t h ese t o be a pplica ble t o t h eir ow n in st it u t ion s. In ea ch ca se t h er e w a s a h igh de gr ee of a gr eem en t w it h t h e su r vey fi n din gs a n d r ecogn it ion of t h e im por t a n ce of t h e su ccess fa ct or s. To illu st r a t e t h e ou t com e fr om t h ese in t er view s fou r in st it u t ion s h ave been select ed a s exa m ples of h ow t h ese cr it i-ca l su ccess fa ct or s a r e a pplied w it h in t h e in du st r y. At t h e r equ est of t h e in st it u t ion s t h eir n a m es h ave n ot been pr ovided.

University no. 1

Un iver sit y n o. 1 is on e of Au st r a lia ’s m ost su ccessfu l in t er n a t ion a l edu ca t or s. In 1995 it h a d 5,000 over sea s st u den t s en r olled. T h e u n iver sit y h a d been a m a jor pr ovider of su bsidized pla ces t o in t er n a t ion a l st u den t s du r in g t h e 1970s a n d ea r ly 1980s. T h is h elped t o en h a n ce it s m a r k et pr ofi le a n d r ecogn it ion . Sin ce 1987 t h e u n iver sit y h a d u n der t a k en a coor din a t ed pr ogr a m via it s in t er n a t ion a l office t o en h a n ce a n d develop it s im a ge w it h in it s over sea s m a r k et s.

In t er m s of coa lit ion a n d for w a r d in t e gr a -t ion s-t r a -t e gies, Un iver si-t y n o. 1 possessed a w ide r a n ge of in t er n a t ion a l a gr eem en t s a n d a llia n ces. It a lso oper a t ed a n u m ber of h igh ly su ccessfu l offsh or e pr ogr a m s a n d wor k ed con scien t iou sly t o m a n a ge t h e qu a lit y of t h ese via ca r efu l select ion of join t ven t u r e pa r t n er s a n d loca l t ea ch in g st a ff.

University no. 2

Un iver sit y n o. 2 is a m on g t h e t op t en Au st r a lia n u n iver sist ies in st h e fi eld of in st er n a t ion a l edu ca t ion . T h e r espon den t s a t Un iver -sit y n o. 2 expla in ed t h a t t h e in st it u t ion h a d wor k ed con sciou sly over m a n y yea r s t o develop a st r on g im a ge. Un iver sit y n o. 2 w a s on e of t h e fi r st Au st r a lia n in st it u t ion s t o con sider t h e u se of a cor por a t e logo or “br a n d n a m e”. It w a s a lso a w in n er of a n Au st r a lia n Un iver sit y of t h e Yea r Aw a r d t h a t h a d fu r t h er a ssist ed it s m a r k et im a ge. Un iver sit y n o. 2 h a d m a de a decision t o m a k e a ll it s pr ogr a m s r eleva n t n ot on ly t o Au st r a lia n st u den t s, bu t t o st u den t s fr om t h r ou gh ou t t h e Asia -P a cifi c r e gion .

T h e u n iver sit y w a s aw a r e of t h e im por -t a n ce of developin g in -t er n a -t ion a l s-t r a -t e gic a llia n ces. It h a d est a blish ed offsh or e t ea ch in g pr ogr a m s in Sou t h -ea st Asia a n d w a s a ct ive in developin g in t er n a t ion a l a gr eem en t s w it h ot h er in st it u t ion s t h r ou gh ou t t h e wor ld.

ELICOS college

T h is pr iva t ely ow n ed E LICOS colle ge w a s est a blish ed in t h e 1980s by a gr ou p of E n glish a s For eign La n gu a ge (E F L) t ea ch er s t o t a k e a dva n t a ge of t h e em er gin g m a r k et for E F L t ea ch in g in Au st r a lia . It r em a in s a cooper a -t ive sch ool wh er e a ll s-t a ff h ave in pu -t in -t o -t h e over a ll m a n a gem en t of t h e colle ge. T h e col-le ge h a s t wo ca m pu ses loca t ed in k ey in n er cit y loca t ion s.

T h e colle ge h a s en joyed su bst a n t ia l su ccess a n d gr ow t h over r ecen t yea r s. It w a s on e of t h e fi r st Au st r a lia n E LICOS colle ges t o becom e a m em ber of t h e In t er n a t ion a l Asso-cia t ion of La n gu a ge Colle ges (IALC) a n d w a s a fou n din g m em ber of t h e E LITE colle ges of Au st r a lia . T h is is a gr ou p of in de pen den t E LICOS colle ges a im ed a t r e pr esen t in g t h e Table V

Lo gistic mo de l fo r marke t suc c e ss

M odel term Coefficient Significance level

Image and resources 0 .7 3 0 .0 0 0 0

Coalition and forward integration 0 .2 9 0 .0 0 2 6

Constant –4 .6 6

–2 log likelihood for model with c onstant only = 3 7 2 .6 4 –2 log likelihood for full model = 3 2 2 .1 8

Table VI

Classific atio n table fo r lo gic ist mo de l

Prior probabilities

Predicted

Actual Low success High success Total

Low success 1 8 4 0 1 0 0 .0 per c ent

High success 1 0 2 0 0 .0 per c ent

Classific ation ac c urac y of prior probabilities 6 4 .3 4 per c ent

Posterior probabilities

Predicted

Actual Low success High success Total

Low success 1 6 1 2 3 8 7 .5 0 per c ent

High success 5 5 4 7 4 6 .0 8 per c ent

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Tim Mazzaro l

best sch ools in t h e cou n t r y. T h e colle ge h a s a lso est a blish ed colla bor a t ive lin k s w it h Au st r a lia n u n iver sit ies t o pr ovide E LICOS pr ogr a m s. T h ese a llia n ces wer e viewed a s a n im por t a n t con t r ibu t ion t o t h e over a ll su ccess of t h e colle ge.

T h e colle ge h a d en h a n ced it s im a ge by pr ovidin g t r a in in g t o E F L t ea ch er s a n d r e gu -la r ly r a n cou r ses offsh or e in cou n t r ies su ch a s In don esia a n d N ew Zea la n d. T h is

en h a n ced t h e over a ll level of im a ge a n d m a r k et pr ofi le, pa r t icu la r ly a m on g pr iva t e edu ca -t ion a gen -t s wh o la -t er r efer r ed s-t u den -t s -t o -t h e colle ge. T h e E F L t ea ch er s wh om t h e colle ge t r a in ed wer e a lso a va lu a ble sou r ce of wor d of m ou t h r efer r a ls.

Private secondary school

T h is pr iva t e Ch r ist ia n boy’s sch ool w a s est a b-lish ed in 1923. Sin ce 1987 t h e sch ool h a s a ct ively sou gh t in t er n a t ion a l st u den t s a n d h a s con sist en t ly a t t r a ct ed on e of t h e la r gest n u m ber s of su ch st u den t s of a n y pr iva t e boy’s sch ool in Au st r a lia . T h e sch ool h a s a qu ot a of 76 in t er n a t ion a l st u den t s a n d r e gu la r ly t u r n s aw ay m a n y m or e a pplica n t s t h a n it h a s pla ces.

T h e sch ool view s pa r t of it s su ccess t o be a fu n ct ion of it s im a ge a n d over a ll m a r k et pr o-fi le. It h a s a n est a blish ed r e pu t a t ion for a ca d-em ic su ccess. Seven t y-fi ve per cen t of t h e sch ool’s gr a du a t es go on t o u n iver sit y. In it s m a r k et in g t h e sch ool h a s em ph a sized t h is h igh a ca dem ic st a n da r d a n d m a k es u se of it s ow n select ion t est for in t er n a t ion a l st u den t s pr e pa r ed by it s st a ff. It s in t er n a t ion a l st u -den t s r e gu la r ly a ch ieve well in t h e st a t e u n i-ver sit y en t r a n ce exa m in a t ion s. T h e sch ool m a k es u se of t h eir su ccess in it s m a r k et in g com m u n ica t ion s.

Conclusions

Developin g com pet it ive a dva n t a ge for in t er -n a t io-n a l edu ca t io-n su pplier s via m a r k et i-n g st r a t e gies is a com plex issu e. E du ca t ion is a pr odu ct t h a t is bot h h igh ly in t a n gible a n d h a s ch a r a ct er ist ics, wh ich cr ea t e specia l pr ob-lem s for m a r k et in g. T h is r esea r ch h a s iden t i-fi ed fou r cr it ica l su ccess fa ct or s t h a t a ppea r im por t a n t t o in st it u t ion s m a r k et in g in t er n a -t ion a lly. T h e logi-t a n a lysis u n der -t a k en su g-gest s t h a t su ccess for a n edu ca t ion in st it u t ion in in t er n a t ion a l m a r k et s is posit ively a ssoci-a t ed w it h t h e follow in g t wo fssoci-a ct or s:

1Im a ge a n d resou rces.T h is fa ct or va r ia ble m ea su r ed t h e level of m a r k et pr ofi le or r ecogn it ion , st r en gt h of fi n a n cia l r esou r ces, r e pu t a t ion for qu a lit y, size a n d in fl u en ce of a lu m n i a n d r a n ge of cou r ses a n d pr ogr a m s.

2Coa lition a n d for w a rd in teg ra tion. T h is fa ct or va r ia ble m ea su r ed possession of in t er n a t ion a l st r a t e gic a llia n ces a n d off-sh or e t ea ch in g pr ogr a m s.

T h e a n a lysis a lso su ggest s t h a t t h ese fi n din gs a r e a pplica ble t o in st it u t ion s in m ost of t h e wor ld’s lea din g in t er n a t ion a l edu ca t ion su p-plier cou n t r ies. T h e eviden ce fr om t h e qu a li-t a li-t ive r esea r ch u n der li-t a k en su bsequ en li-t li-t o li-t h e su r vey r ein for ces t h e em pir ica l fi n din gs a n d pr ovides a n in sigh t in t o t h e n a t u r e of h ow in st it u t ion s ca n a ch ieve su ccessfu l st r a t e gies w it h in t h eir in t er n a t ion a l m a r k et s. T h e a dop-t ion of ca r efu lly m a n a ged br a n din g a n d posi-t ion in g sposi-t r a posi-t e gies design ed posi-t o en h a n ce posi-t h e in st it u t ion ’s im a ge a n d over a ll m a r k et is con sist en t w it h pa st r esea r ch fi n din gs in t o t h e com pet it ive a dva n t a ge of ser vice in du s-t r ies (Aa k er, 1991; Ha ll, 1992, 1993).

Developm en t of a br ea dth a n d depth in th e cou r ses a n d pr ogr a m s offer ed by th e in stitu -tion , or developin g th ese cou r ses to pr ovide a de gr ee of pr odu ct differ en tia tion for th e in sti-tu tion is a lso con sisten t w ith th e liter a sti-tu r e. P r eviou s r esea r ch in to th e developm en t of com petitive a dva n ta ge for ser vice fi r m s h a s h igh ligh ted th e im por ta n ce of developin g “Resou r ces/ sk ills stock ” (Dier ick x a n d Cool, 1989; Bh a r a dw a j et a l., 1993). By th is pr ocess th e or ga n isa tion a ch ieves a com petitive lea d over its com petition by th e sh eer sca le or com plexity of its va r iou s a ssets a n d a ctivities.

F in a lly, t h e possession of st r a t e gic a llia n ces, pa r t icu la r ly w it h in t er n a t ion a l pa r t n er s a n d t h e for w a r d in t e gr a t ion in t o t h e m a r k et in g ch a n n el is su ppor t ed by ot h er r esea r ch (Du n n in g a n d Pea r ce, 1985; Oh m a e, 1985; E r r a m illi, 1991; Bh a r a dw a j a n d Men on , 1993). St r a t e gic a llia n ces en a ble edu ca t ion in st it u t ion s t o en h a n ce t h eir m a r k et in g cov-er a ge a n d t h eir m a r k et pr ofi le in ovcov-er sea s m a r k et s by lever a gin g off t h e r esou r ces of loca l pa r t n er s.

F u r t h er r esea r ch is n eeded t o fu lly explor e t h e n a t u r e of t h ese cr it ica l su ccess fa ct or s. Of ben efi t wou ld be a lon git u din a l exa m in a t ion of t h e su ccess of in st it u t ion s in sever a l cou n -t r ies. N ever -t h eless -t h is s-t u dy a -t -t em p-t s -t o fi ll a m u ch -n eeded ga p in t h e lit er a t u r e r ela t in g t o t h e m a r k et in g of in t er n a t ion a l edu ca t ion .

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