[ 3 7]
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt and He alth
7 / 3 [1996] 3 7 –4 0 © MCB Unive rs ity Pre s s [ISSN 0956-6163]
Bioregionalism regeneration modelling: a holistic
approach to health through environmental
management
Andrew Hutchinson
Re s e arc h Fe llo w, Plymo uth Bus ine s s Sc ho o l, Unive rs ity o f Plymo uth, Plymo uth, UK, andFrances G. Hutchinson
Vis iting Re s e arc h Fe llo w, Unive rs ity o f Bradfo rd, Bradfo rd, UKProposes that environmental degradation and pollution pose threats to health in a multitude of forms; and that hazardous effects will con-tinue to emanate from indus-trial processes so long as commercial viability dictates the necessity to deposit hazardous wastes in the air, soil and water. Shows how recent research into small-and medium-sized enter-prises’ approaches to envi-ronmental concerns illus-trates the limitations of national and European Union voluntary codes of practice. Following from this research, outlines the case for biore-gional regeneration modelling in which the concept of place assumes a central role in industrial decision making.
Introduction
T h e im p a ct of in d iv id u a l in d u s t r ia l p r ocess es on t h e h ea lt h of p a r t icu la r p op u la t ion s ect or s h a s b een w ell d ocu m en t ed [1]. P iecem ea l r ea c-t ive s olu c-t ion s, h ow ever, ca n a c-t b esc-t p r ov id e t em p or a r y r es p it e in t h e gen er a l im p a ct of in d u s t r ia l p r ocess es on t h e a b ilit y of t h e en v ir on m en t t o su st a in m en t a l a n d p h y sica l h ea lt h a n d w elfa r e. We h old t h a t t h e fi r st s t e p s t ow a r d s a h ea lt h y en v ir on m en t m u s t in volve t h e cr ea t ion of m a n a gem en t s t r u c-t u r es b a s ed on loca l d ecis ion m a k in g in c-t h e p r oces s es of m a n u fa ct u r e a n d d ist r ibu t ion . In t h is a r t icle w e d r aw on exa m p les fr om food m a n u fa ct u r e a n d t r a n sp or t a t ion , w it h p a r t ic-u la r r efer en ce t o t h e SAF E Allia n ce Food M iles R ep or t[2].
The problem
Wh ile glob a l w a r m in g, los s of b iod iver s it y, soil er os ion a n d h oles in t h e ozon e layer a r e lik ely t o r es u lt in in ca lcu la ble a dver s e im p a ct on h u m a n h ea lt h in t h e lon g t er m , w e con cen -t r a -t e h er e on -t h os e a sp ec-t s of m a n u fa c-t u r in g a n d d is t r ibu t ion w h ich im p in ge d ir ect ly on h u m a n m en t a l a n d p h y sica l h ea lt h . Ch em ica l con t a m in a t ion , v isu a l a n d n ois e p ollu t ion , a n d em ot ion a l d e p r iva t ion a r e s u b st a n t ia lly in cr ea s ed by t h e p r ocess es of food p r od u ct ion , p r eser va ct ion , p a ck a gin g a n d ct r a n s p or ct a -t ion . Ch em ica l r esid u es fr om p es -t icid es a n d h er b icid es u s ed on a r a ble cr op s a n d d r u g r esid u es fr om in t en sive a n im a l r ea r in g p r oces s es com b in e w it h fu n gicid es a n d p r es er va t ives t o p r od u ce a let h a l cock t a il in food s[2]. Dis ch a r ges of r es id u es a n d w a s t e m a t er ia ls d ir ect ly in t o t h e a ir, w a t er a n d s oils im p a ct in d ir ect ly on h u m a n h ea lt h [3]. T h e p a ck a gin g, t r a n sp or t a t ion a n d p r ocess in g of food a n d it s d ist r ibu t ion p la ce fu r t h er st r a in s on t h e en v ir on m en t . T h e volu m e of t r a ffic on r oa d s is sw elled n ot on ly by fr eigh t t r a n s p or t b et w een p r od u ct ion sit es, a n d fr om p r od u cer s t o w h oles a ler s a n d r et a iler s, bu t a lso by con -su m er s a t -su p er m a r k et s a n d h y p er m a r k et s.
Over a ll, t h e volu m e of r oa d t r a ffic im p a ct s n ot on ly on p h y sica l h ea lt h bu t a lso on t h e socia l life of com m u n it ies. F r a gm en t a t ion of loca lit ies d iv id ed by bu s y r oa d s h a s in cr ea sed
t h e isola t ion of ch ild r en w it h in t h e h om e[4]. Isola t ion w it h in t h e h om e lea d s t o d e p en d en ce u p on n on in t er a ct ive TV en t er t a in -m en t a n d a n in cr ea sin g in a b ilit y t o for -m u n su p er v ised fr ien d sh ip s w it h ot h er ch il-d r en [5]. Wh et h er in t ow er block s or su bu r b ia , t h er e is in cr ea s in g con cer n for m en t a l h ea lt h , a s em ot ion a l t en sion w it h in t h e h om e a n d la ck of fr ee a ccess t o t h e cou n t r y sid e p la ce u n p r eced en t ed r est r ict ion s on ch ild r en ’s a ccess t o t h e socia l a n d n a t u r a l wor ld [6].
The causes
Wh er e t h e bu lk of food is loca lly p r od u ced for loca l con su m p t ion , m on ocu lt u r e, ch em ica l p r ocess in g, t r a n sp or t a t ion a n d p a ck a gin g a r e k e p t t o a m in im u m . T h e evolu t ion of t h e glob a l m a r k et p la ce h a s n eces sit a t ed t h e a d op t ion of p r a ct ices b est su it ed t o s t a n d a r d iza -t ion of su p p lies a n d logis -t ics. H en ce d is-t a n -t d ecision m a k in g d ict a t es loca l p a t t er n s of p r od u ct ion a n d d ist r ibu t ion , w it h good s leav -in g t h e loca lit y of p r im a r y p r od u ct ion t o b e p r ocess ed a n d p a ck a ged h u n d r ed s or even t h ou s a n d s of m iles aw ay. In a glob a l m a r k et p la ce even fr esh p r od u ce, t r ea t ed w it h p r eser -va t ives a n d p est icid es, m ay t r avel t h ou sa n d s of m iles t o t h e fi n a l r et a il m a r k et . Good s m ay p a ss id en t ica l p r od u ct s t r avellin g in op p osit e d ir ect ion s, a n d m ay r et u r n t o w it h in a m ile or t wo of t h eir or igin s a ft er r ed is t r ibu t ion fr om cen t r a l d e p ot s. T h e en v ir on m en t a l d e gr a d a t ion a ssocia t ed w it h t h e p r ocessin g, p a ck a gin g a n d t r a n sp or t a t ion , in clu d in g t h e cost s of fu el a n d p r od u ct ion of p la n t , m a ch in -er y, r oa d n et wor k s a n d veh icles a d d n ot h in g t o food q u a lit y, yet r em a in in d ist in gu ish a ble fr om b en efi t s in t h e p r eva ilin g cos t -b en efi t a ccou n t in g sy st em [7].
The myth and reality
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r es u lt s in s ign ifi ca n t r ed u ct ion s in n u t r i-t ion a l va lu e[8]. In d eed , r ed u ci-t ion s in d iei-t a r y con t en t of a n t ioxid a n t v it a m in s a n d m in er a ls w h ich m ay p r ot ect a ga in st ca n cer, cor on a r y h ea r t d is ea se a n d ot h er d e gen er a t ive d is ea ses h ave b een d et ect ed [8,9]. Su ch s t u d ies in d ica t e t h a t fr es h food s gr ow n loca lly a r e b en efi cia l in p r om ot in g h ea lt h . Wh ile t h e r a n ge of exot ic food s on offer in s u p er m a r k et s m ay h ave va s t ly in cr ea sed , t h e im p r ovem en t in con su m er ch oice is la r gely illu s or y. Loca lly p r od u ced , h igh -va lu e h or t icu lt u r a l cr op s cea s e t o b e ava ila ble in sea son , w h ile a r t ifi -cia lly low t r a n sp or t cos t s b r in g “fr es h ” p r o-d u ce fr om t h e ot h er sio-d e of t h e wor lo-d [10].
Accou n t ed a d d ed va lu e t o food ca n n ot b e eq u a t ed w it h a n y im p r ovem en t in n u t r it ion a l con t en t . In t h e ea r ly 1970s t h e UK Food Ma n u -fa ct u r er s ’ Fed er a t ion s u m m ed u p t h e t r en d . UK exp en d it u r e on food in 1970 w a s £6,363 m illion . It “n eed on ly h ave b een £1,800 m il-lion . T h e p op u la t ion of t h is cou n t r y cou ld h ave b een a s w ell-n ou r is h ed , ju s t a s h ea lt h y, a n d sp en t fou r a n d a h a lf th ou sa n d m illion p ou n d s less th a n it a ctu a lly d id ”[11] (em p h a -s i-s in or igin a l). T h e h ea lt h co-s t -s of t h e a d d ed p r oces s in g a n d p a ck a gin g con t r ibu t ed by t h e £4.5b n h ave on ly r ecen t ly com e t o b e ca lcu -la t ed . “In gen er a l, t h e wor s t food s for h ea lt h a r e t h os e w h ich a r e t h e m os t p r ocess ed .” Ad d it ives, for exa m p le s u lp h it e p r es er va t ives, w h ich m ay b e u sed in ja m , lem on cu r d , fr u it d es ser t s, d r ied fr u it , t u r k ey bu r ger s, s a u s a ges, b eefbu r ger s, s a la d cr ea m , s a u ces, s oft d r in k s, s avou r y r ice a n d p a ck et m ixes, a r e k n ow n or s u s p ect ed h ea lt h h a za r d s. “F r es h ” food s m ay b e s ever a l w eek s in t r a n sit a n d st or a ge, w it h h igh los s of n u t r ien t s. Ir r a -d ia t ion a n -d p es t ici-d e u s e ca n a -d -d t o t h e “cock t a il effect ”. In su m , a dver s e effect s fr om food p r oces s in g m ay h ave a cu m u la t ive effect . In t en s ive m on ocu lt u r e a n d exces s ive t r a n s -p or t a t ion -p os e -p r oven t h r ea t s t o h ea lt h [2].
The solutions
Red u ct ion of p r ocess in g, p a ck a gin g a n d t r a n s p or t a t ion of food st u ffs w ill r eq u ir e a s t r en gt h en in g of loca l con t r ol over loca l r es ou r ces a n d in t e gr a t ed loca l food p r od u c-t ion a n d con s u m p c-t ion , n oc-t on ly in c-t h e “d evel-op ed ” N or t h bu t a lso in t h e p oor er n a t ion s of t h e Sou t h . T h is is in lin e w it h Loca l Agen d a 21, t h e p r ogr a m m e of a ct ion a gr eed by n a t ion s a t t h e Un it ed N a t ion s Con fer en ce on E n v ir on m en t a n d Develop m en t E a r t h Su m -m it in Rio 1992[2]. For t h is t o b e effect ive, a ll con su m er s, w h er ever t h ey s h op, w ill r eq u ir e in for m a t ion t o en a ble t h em t o s elect p r od u ct s w h ich a r e h ea lt h y for t h em s elves, for ot h er s a n d for t h e en v ir on m en t [2].
H ow ever, sin ce t h e ea r ly 1980s t h er e h a s b een a t r en d t ow a r d s loca l econ om ic d isin t e-gr a t ion [12] a ccom p a n ied by a n in cr ea se in t h e p ow er of n a t ion a l a n d t r a n sn a t ion a l cor -p or a t ion s (TN Cs). TN Cs d et er m in e -p a t t er n s of p r od u ct ion , em p loy m en t a n d d ist r ibu t ion in loca lit ies a cr oss t h e wor ld , h in d er in g t h e d evelop m en t of sou n d en v ir on m en t a l m a n -a gem en t sy st em s in b ot h t h e N or t h -a n d t h e Sou t h . Decision s b a sed on sh or t -t er m p r of-it a b ilof-it y ca n b e t a k en on a glob a l sca le, w of-it h p r od u ct ion b a s ed on sh or t -t er m con t r a ct s follow in g t h e ava ila b ilit y of ch ea p la b ou r a n d n a t u r a l r esou r ces. E n v ir on m en t a l su st a in -a b ilit y, h ow ever, r eq u ir es d ecision m -a k in g t o b e b a sed loca lly, w h er e it is m ost a ccou n t a ble for it s lon g-t er m con seq u en ces. For t h is t o h a p p en , p a t t er n s of loca l co-op er a t ion a n d loca l fi n a n cin g a r e r eq u ir ed , so t h a t t h e in d i-v id u a l fi r m , w h ich in t h e la st a n a ly sis is t h e sou r ce of a ll en v ir on m en t a lly d a m a gin g a ct iv it y, is p r ov id ed w it h k n ow led gea ble su p p or t for d evelop in g en v ir on m en t a lly fr ien d ly p olicies. E v id en ce su gges t s t h a t w it h ou t loca l su p p or t , n ew in it ia t ives, e.g. t h e sa le of loca lly gr ow n or ga n ic ve get a bles, h ave lit t le ch a n ce of su r v iv in g in d e p en d en t ly of, a n d in com p et it ion w it h , va st su p er m a r k et ch a in s [2].
Wit h in t h e glob a l m a r k et p la ce t h e in d iv id -u a l sm a ll- a n d m ed i-u m -sized en t er p r ise (SME ) h a s n eit h er t h e k n ow led ge n or t h e m ot iva t ion t o effect ch a n ge. In d eed , t h e m a ss of SME s, m a n y of w h ich su p p ly t h e la r ge cor p or a t ion s, ca n a r gu e t h a t t h eir in d iv id u a l con t r ibu t ion t o en v ir on m en t a l d e gr a d a t ion is n e gligible[13]. Re gu la t ion a n d le gisla t ion h ave b een fou n d t o b e slow a n d in effect ive m ea n s t o en for ce en v ir on m en t a lly s ou n d p r a ct ice[13] in d e p en d en t ly of loca l su p p or t st r u ct u r es.
Towards a sustainable bioregional
regeneration model
[ 3 9]
Andre w Hutc hins o n and Franc e s G. Hutc hins o n Bio re gio nalism re ge ne ratio n mo de lling: a ho listic appro ac h to he alth thro ugh e nviro nme ntal manage me nt Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt and He alth
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T h e est a blis h m en t of en v ir on m en t a lly s ou n d p r a ct ices in p r od u ct ion a n d d is t r ibu t ion r ed u ces t h e n eces sit y for gen er a t ion of t oxic w a s t e by p r od u ct s a n d m in im izes t r a n s p or t a -t ion .
A m od el for a loca lly b a sed en v ir on m en -t a lly a n d econ om ica lly s u s -t a in a ble econ om y fl ow s fr om con ce p t s a n d exa m p les of b es t p r a ct ice em er gin g in loca l com m u n it ies a cr os s t h e wor ld [15]. T h e m od el ca n b e a p p lied t o a n y loca l econ om y, p r ov id in g a st r a t e gic p la n of m u t u a l su p p or t for ot h er w is e fr a gile in d iv id u a l a n d sm a llsca le in it ia -t ives.
In F igu r e 1 t h e t h r ee con ce p t u a l ou t er r in gs su r r ou n d p r a ct ica l loca l s t r a t e gies. Bior e-gion a lis m s t r es s es “t h e im p or t a n ce of t h e loca l econ om y, of loca l em p loy m en t a n d t h e d evelop m en t of loca l t r a d in g n et wor k s w h ich a r e les s r elia n t on t r a d it ion a l for m s of m a ss t r a n s p or t a t ion ”[16]. T h e n ew p r ot ect ion is m p r ov id es t h e le gisla t ive fr a m ewor k t o cou n t er t h e r ise in s ocia lly a n d en v ir on m en t a lly d is -a s t r ou s exp loit -a t ion of loc-a l r es ou r ces -a r is in g ou t of t h e gr ow t h of TN Cs a n d Gen er a l Agr ee-m en t on Ta r iffs a n d T r a d e (GATT)-en d or s ed u n fet t er ed fr ee t r a d e[17]. F in a lly, t h e m od el d r aw s on con ce p t s of p er m a cu lt u r a l d esign w h ich s eek s t o in t e gr a t e lifes t y les w it h eco-n om ic a ct iv it ies by m ieco-n im izieco-n g w a st e a eco-n d m a xim izin g p ot en t ia l w it h ou t ca u sin g en v ir on m en t a l d a m a ge. A cen t ir a l p a ir t of t h e p eir -m a cu lt u r a l p h ilos op h y is t h e co-m b in a t ion of pr a ctica l sk ills w ith edu ca tion a l aw a r en ess[18].
T h e cen t r a l r in g en com p a sses t h e p r a ct ica lit ies of loca l gover n m en t in lit ia t ives, in clu d -in g s ch em es a r is-in g ou t of im p lem en t a t ion of Loca l Agen d a 21. Ch a p t er 28 of Agen d a 21 clea r ly r eq u ir es a p r oa ct ive r esp on se fr om t h e loca l gover n m en t sect or. It is a b ou t loca l p eop le m eet in g loca l n eed s. T h e m od el su gges t s t h e n eed for t h e d evelop m en t a n d exp a n sion of loca l fi n a n ce sch em es t o r u n in con -ju n ct ion w it h Loca l E m p loy m en t a n d T r a d e Sy st em sch em es, co-op er a t ive en t er p r ise a gen cies a n d in for m a t ion n et wor k in g st r u ct u r a l sy sct em s. T h es e wou ld in clu d e ct h e esct a b lish m en t of Cr ed it Un ion s a n d et h ica l in vest -m en t p r oject s. Un t il fi n a n ce a ccou n t a b ilit y a n d d ecision -m a k in g p r oced u r es a r e r et u r n ed t o t h e r e gion a l level it is h a r d t o en v isa ge h ow Loca l Agen d a 21 ca n a ch ieve lon g-t er m r esu lt s.
Conclusion
Bu sin es s a lon e w ill n ot b e a ble t o a ch ieve su st a in a b ilit y. Wh a t is r eq u ir ed is a sy st em ic a p p r oa ch t h a t in volves a h igh level of com m u -n it y p a r t icip a t io-n i-n t h e d ecisio-n -m a k i-n g p r ocess. T h is p a r t icip a t or y d im en sion is cr it ica l t o d issem in a t e in for m a t ion a b ou t su st a in a b ilit y t o com m u n it ies a n d t o sh ift cu lt u r a l va lu es. Clea r ly n o ch a n ge of su b -st a n ce w ill occu r w it h ou t a sh ift of cu lt u r a l va lu es. It is su gges t ed , t h er efor e, t h a t t h e m a n a gem en t of ch a n ge t ow a r d s su s t a in a b il-it y sh ou ld b e t h r ou gh p a r t icip a t ion in a gr a ssr oot s econ om y t h a t is r u n by a n d for t h e r e gion it is op er a t in g in . T h is m ea n s in vest -in g r es p on sibly a n d d ir ect ly w it h -in t h e loca l-it y for a s u st a in a ble a n d a ccou n t a ble fu t u r e.
We a r gu e t h a t t h er e is a fu n d a m en t a l r eq u ir em en t for a h olist ic a p p r oa ch t o h ea lt h m a n a gem en t in t h e UK. A h ea lt h y en v ir on -m en t w ill b e a ch ieved on ly t h r ou gh t h e d evel-op m en t of m a n a gem en t st r u ct u r es t h a t a r e p r im a r ily loca lly -b a sed . Wh er e food is p r o-d u ceo-d a n o-d o-d ist r ibu t eo-d loca lly, m on ocu lt u r e, t r a n sp or t a t ion , ch em ica l p r ocessin g a n d p a ck a gin g a r e m in im a lized . Wh er e d ecision m a k in g is com m u n it y b a s ed , va lu e sh ift s occu r t h r ou gh ed u ca t ive p a r t icip a t ion . T h ese va lu e sh ift s a r e cen t r a l if societ y is t o m ove aw ay fr om t h e m in d set of in s a t ia ble d esir es t h a t p r esu m es s a t isfa ct ion a n d q u a lit y of life is sy n on y m ou s w it h ever in cr ea s in g con -su m p t ion . On ly w h en d ecision m a k in g is r et u r n ed t o t h e loca lit y w ill s u st a in a b ilit y a n d Loca l Agen d a 21 b ecom e v ia ble. T h e com m u n it y h a s t o b e a ccou n t a ble for t h e lon g-t er m con s eq u en ces a n d u n d er st a n d t h e n eed for r a d ica lly a lt er ed p er ce p t ion s of w h a t con t r ibu t es a good q u a lit y of life. As Ar ist ot le r em a r k ed , p er h a p s it is n ot on ly t h ose w h o
Co -o pe rative e nte rpris e Lo c al
go ve rnme nt
Info rmatio n ne two rking Lo c al
financ e
Key
Bio re gio nalis m Ne w pro te c tio nis m Pe rmac ultural de s ign Lo c alize d auto no my
Figure 1
[ 4 0]
Andre w Hutc hins o n and Franc e s G. Hutc hins o n Bio re gio nalism re ge ne ratio n mo de lling: a ho listic appro ac h to he alth thro ugh e nviro nme ntal manage me nt Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt and He alth
7 / 3 [1 9 9 6 ] 3 7 –4 0
h ave a lot w h o a r e r ich bu t a lso t h ose w h o d o n ot n eed a lot .
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