EFL TEACHERS’ CONCEPTION OF CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT THESIS Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Magister Humaniora (M.Hum.) in English Language Studies

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EFL TEACHERS’ CONCEPTION OF

CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT

THESIS

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

for the Degree of Magister Humaniora (M.Hum.)

in English Language Studies

By

Dwi Retno Wahyuningsih

056332032

THE GRADUATE PROGRAM IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

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STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY

This is to certify that all ideas, phrases, sentences, unless

otherwise stated, are the ideas, phrases, and sentences of the thesis

writer. The writer understands the full consequences including degree

cancellation if she took somebody else’s ideas, phrases, or sentences

without proper references.

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LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN

PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS

Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma :

Nama :

DWI RETNO WAHYUNINGSIH

Nomor Mahasiswa :

056332032

Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul : EFL TEACHERS’ CONCEPTION OF CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT

beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya di Internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin dari saya maupaun memberikan royalty kepada saya selamA tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis.

Demikian pernyatan ini yang saya buat dengan sebenarnya.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

That I can finally finish writing this thesis is merely because of Jesus’

endless love for me. Therefore, thank you so much Jesus for all Your companion

and incessant blessings. Without You, all will be nothing.

My deep gratitude firstly goes to LPMP that had allowed me to have

further study in the Graduate Program on English Language Studies Sanata

Dharma University Yogyakarta which consents me to ‘grow’ better. In its

favorable learning atmosphere with supportive lecturers, I know more; I see more

clearly and think much more prudently. I learn lot of things there!

Let me also express my gratitude to Dr. FX. Mukarto, M.S. - my “devil

advocate”. During my thesis writing, he always patiently supported me to be more

confident and critical. He also provided me thoughtful guidance, a great eye and

encouragement. I owe much to him.

My appreciation also extends to all the lecturers in the Graduate Program

on English Language Studies Sanata Dharma University, especially Dr. J.

Bismoko, Dr. B.B. Dwijatmoko, M.A, Dr. Novita Dewi, M.S., M.A., and P.

Kuswandono, M.Pd, from whom I can learn how to see the world with much more

widely opened eyes and mind.

My big thanks also go to my great supporters – my family; my parents

with their ‘kasih tak berkesudahan dan tanpa syarat’, my beloved Florianus. S.

Heriyanta for his understanding, and my sunshine, Christophorus Judha Herdanta,

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.2.1 The Distinction Between Traditional and Alternative Assessments

Table 3.1.1 Blueprint for Observation

Table 4.1.1 Tino’s Assessment Practice

Table 4.1.2 Findings: Emergent Themes and Sub-themes of the Participants’ Narratives and Experience Related to Their Conceptions of

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Relationship Among Measurement, Tests and Evaluation

Figure 2.2 The Position of Assessment in Learning Teaching Process

Figure 2.3 The Cycle of Assessment in Teaching Learning

Figure 2.4 Tests, Assessment, and Teaching

Figure 2.5 Theoretical Frameworks for Teachers’ Conception and Their Actions

Figure 3.1 Data Sources to Reveal EFL Teachers’ Conception of Classroom Assessment

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LIST OF ABBREVIATION

BSNP Badan Standarisasi Nasional Pendidikan

EFL English as a Foreign Language

IKIP Institut Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan

KTSP Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pelajaran

LHB Laporan Hasil Belajar

MGMD Musyawarah Guru Mata Diklat

NUUM Nilai Ulangan Umum Murni

SMK Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan

SMU Sekolah Menengah Umum

UAN Ujian Akhir Nasional

UNAS Ujian Nasional

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ABSTRACT

Dwi Retno Wahyuningsih, 2008. EFL Teachers’ Conception of Classroom Assessment. Yogyakarta: English Language Studies, Graduate Program, Sanata Dharma University.

Assessment is believed to aid or inhibit endeavor in improving teaching and learning. It plays an important role in teaching learning processes as a tool to measure the students’ learning achievement and the success of teaching. Teachers, in this case, are the leading actors in conducting assessment. Teachers’ conceptions and understanding of assessment, accordingly, will be a potentially powerful influence in learning teaching processes, as how they view, think of, and believe to be good and true about assessment will be reflected in assessment practices. The study itself attempts to answer two research questions: (1) What are EFL teachers’ conceptions of classroom assessment? and (2) How they manifest their conceptions into assessment instrument?

Some relevant and related theories are employed to scrutinize the constructs of the study, i.e. analysis on conceptions, assessment and EFL teachers’ conceptions of assessment. In order to have deep analysis on the issue, however, the study will limit its scope on how EFL teachers conceive classroom assessment. The study adopted qualitative method. It was conducted in two different vocational high schools in Gunungkidul. Four EFL teachers were selected as the research participants. To answer the questions and to collect data, a series of in-depth interviews and observations were used as the data collection instruments. Relevant documents and artifacts were used to increase the validity of the data. The data obtained from the participants’ narrative and observations were analyzed through coding process to find significant categories.

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xii classroom assessment and how they manifest their conceptions into assessment instrument.

Eventually, the efforts to improve the quality of education should be continued. It should not be emphasized merely on the improvement of curriculum, assessment process and new education policies and regulations. Actually, there are numbers of fundamental problems emerging as the side effects of those efforts aimed at improving education quality which greatly influence teachers’ working ethos. As a conclusion, teachers’ quality and professionalism upgrading is not less important among many other efforts to promote the excellence of education, since qualified and professional teachers will decisively create the eminence of education.

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ABSTRAK

Dwi Retno Wahyuningsih, 2008. EFL Teachers’ Conception of Classroom Assessment. Yogyakarta: Kajian Bahasa Inggris, Program Pasca Sarjana, Universitas Sanata Dharma.

Assessment atau penilaian dipercaya sebagai alat untuk meningkatkan kualitas belajar mengajar. Penilaian memegang peranan penting dalam proses belajar mengajar, sebagai alat ukur pencapaian siswa dan keberhasilan pengajaran. Dalam hal ini, guru merupakan pelaku utama dalam melaksanakan penilaian dan konsepsi guru terhadap penilaian akan sangat berpengaruh terhadap proses pengajaran. Bagaimana guru memaknai penilaian dan apa yang mereka anggap baik dan benar tentang penilaian akan mereka refleksikan dala m proses penilaian. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menjawab dua pertanyaan: (1) Apa konsepsi guru bahasa Inggris terhadap penilaian kelas? dan (2) Bagaimana mereka memanifestasikan konsepsi mereka kedalam instrument penilaian?

Beberapa teori yang relevan dan terkait digunakan untuk memperdalam pengertian tentang konsep penelitian, yakni: analisa terhadap konsepsi, penilaian, dan konsepsi guru terhadap penilaian. Akan tetapi, untuk memperoleh analisa yang lebih, penelitian membatasi lingkup pembahasan pada bagaimana guru bahasa Inggris memahami penilaian kelas. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode penelitian kualitatif. Penelitian dilaksanakan di dua sekolah menengah kejuruan yang berbeda di Gunungkidul. Empat orang guru bahasa Inggris dipilih sebagai partisipan. Untuk menjawab pertanyaan penelitian dan untuk mengumpulkan data, dilaksanakan serangkaian interview dan observasi. Berbagai dokumen dan artifak yang relevan juga digunakan untuk meningkatkan validitas data. Data yang diperoleh emudian dianalisa melalui proses koding untuk mendapatkan kategori-kategori yang bermakna.

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xiv bagaimana mereka memanifestasikan konsepsi mereka kedalam instrument penilaian.

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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

This chapter consists of six main parts, namely (1) background, (2) problem

identification, (3) problem limitation, (4) research questions, (5) research goal and

objectives, and (6) research benefits.

A. Background

Assessment is so far believed to play a crucial role in an effective teaching and

learning process. Through its implementation in a great diversity of ways and methods, it

is supposed to provide feedback for not only teachers to review the effectiveness of the

teaching, for students and parents to know the students’ progress, but also for school

authorities to monitor and evaluate the accomplishment of teaching learning processes.

Teachers’ with their roles as educators, guides, facilitators or even presenters and

performers will be the actors in assessing students, the final and the most crucial part in

the learning teaching processes. While teaching, teachers constantly attempt to assess

learning from asking direct questions to receiving non-verbal communication from

learners. Likewise, learners are likely to be constantly assessing themselves, their peers,

the environment and their teachers. All help to inform the learners and teachers of their

successes and failures in achieving goals.

In practice, teachers will express out their account into behaviour through

reflection. The methods and ways taken by teachers in assessing students are varied and

greatly depend on how they conceive the substance of assessment itself. Teachers’ ways

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will be affected by a variety of influences including practice within their schools. They

will also reflect their beliefs about how children learn and how best they can be helped to

do so as Edward and Mercer (1987) commented.

This study then focuses on teachers’ differing views and perception, which

furthermore build up their conception, touching on values and beliefs about assessment.

Vandeyar and Roy Killen (2007) claim that different conception leads to different

assessment practices. For example, educators who view assessment as a useful means of

gathering data upon which to base decisions about learning and their own teaching will

attempt to make assessment an integral part of teaching.

Brown (2003) explains that teachers’ conception of assessment will be a

potentially powerful influence in learning teaching processes. It is not the assessment

instruments which are the most important, but the aims and ethos of their use and the

application of assessment that play a great role for the success of education. It begins

from the teachers as the actor in assessment. How they view, think of and what they

believe to be good and true about assessment will be reflected in assessment practices.

Further, the notion that the purpose and intention of the use and application of

assessment will really support the success of education is supported by Duncan & Chris

Bell (1986: 23) who argue that learners need not have their achievements recorded but

the learners and the teachers need to see progress throughout the course of learning. Any

documentation arising must be that which can be defended to, understood and accepted

by all those involved: learners, teachers, other organizations and institutions, possible

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his or her learning. It is not the actual methods or tools of assessing which we believe

should be changed in many cases, rather the aims and ethos of their use and application.

It is very interesting then to conduct a study which will offer opportunities to

know how teachers conceive assessment and find out how their conception is manifested

in assessment instruments.

C. Problem Identification

When the forms of assessment practices including the assessment instruments

applied are believed to have strong relation to how teachers conceive classroom

assessment, it increases discussions on everyday teaching practice and how teachers do

assessing activities. Assessment is considered to be very essential in learning teaching

processes. In recent years, considerable attention has been paid to the quality of

assessment. Therefore, many efforts are executed to improve the quality of assessment.

Research and questions are done as endeavor for the betterment of assessment and

solution to problems regarding assessment.

Teachers will be the actors in selecting and determining assessment instruments

matching their assessment objectives. In deciding techniques, methods and ways of

assessing students, they will be naturally influenced by their conception of assessment

itself. Their action is the reflection of their beliefs, knowledge and thought. They will do

what they believe, know and think to be right to do.

Discussion on the relation of how teachers perceive and furthermore conceive

assessment arises. Since assessment is central in education, the study will hopefully

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accountable for their learning and to be a process by which teachers and/or schools are

made accountable.

D. Problem Limitation

Assessment is believed to play an important role in learning teaching process for

not only teachers to review the effectiveness of teaching, for students and parents to

know the students’ progress, but also for school authorities to monitor and evaluate the

teaching and learning processes, for the success of education. Whatever the purposes of

assessment are, teachers are the primary actors who act the practices of assessment.

Research evidence shows strong connections between teachers’ doing assessment,

providing goals for learning and giving feedback linked to criteria, with student

motivation and improvement. Research evidence also shows that the forms of assessment

practices conducted by teachers are the reflection of their understanding of the

assessment itself. The way teachers conceive assessment will influence the way they

conduct assessment in their daily teaching. It will correspondingly be reflected also in the

assessment instruments they make.

The importance of assessment in education raises great numbers of issues, as

some of them stated in the above problem identification. Discussions on these issues may

go on and keep changing in the education world and enable some relative possibilities. It

is necessary, therefore, to limit its scope of this study in order to have deep analysis on

the issue.

The study focuses on how teachers conceive classroom assessment, and how they

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deeper scrutiny on the concern. A deep examination between teachers’ account and their

behavior will be obtained from profound interviews with four EFL teachers from two

vocational schools in Gunungkidul and observation on how they actualize their

conception of classroom assessment in assessment practice, including how they set up

assessment instruments.

Four proficient EFL teachers from the two schools are chosen as the research

participants. Female and male experienced EFL teachers with different teaching

experiences are selected with considerations that teachers with different sex may shape

different ways of thinking and therefore they will also retain distinct thoughts, beliefs and

eventually build up different conception. They are supposed to supply rich data.

Interviews and discussion are expected to be able to present an elucidation of how the

EFL teachers conceive classroom assessment. While a series of data collection; field

notes, artifacts, and observation, will in addition sharpen the portrayal of how they

conceptualize their conception into assessment instruments.

Teachers build up their conception of classroom assessment through continuous

teaching processes which involve assessment practices. Experiences, ideas, thoughts,

feeling, knowledge and intuition will build up perception and a developed perception is

ultimately form conception. Perception is developed through a number of reflections.

The more teaching experiences the teachers have, the more they will be

considered to have developed their perceptions. In other words, they hold conception,

something they believe to be true. What they do is what they believe to be true. Teachers’

conception, therefore, may be reflected on their actions. Teachers are supposed to be able

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assessment, they will articulate their conception into assessment practices which

comprise assessment instruments in them.

D. Research Questions:

1. What is EFL teachers’ conception of classroom assessment?

2. How do they manifest their conception of classroom assessment into

assessment instruments?

E. Research Goals and Objectives

The research aims at achieving the following goals:

1. to reveal English teachers’ conception of classroom assessment

2. to find out the manifestation of English teachers’ conception of classroom assessment in assessment instruments.

There are several objectives to accomplish in the study by investigating what EFL

teachers’ conception of assessment and how they manifest their conception into

assessment instruments. They are:

1. to investigate and record how EFL teachers’ conception of classroom assessment is

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2. to observe EFL teachers’ behavior which reflect their conception of classroom

assessment in their teaching practices which involve assessment practices.

3. to examine the relation between EFL teachers’ account on classroom assessment and

their behavior in constructing assessment instruments.

F. Research Benefits

The study on EFL teachers’ conceptions of classroom assessment which are

manifested in the assessment instruments they construct is an effort to enrich the insight

and knowledge in education field, particularly in the development of English language

studies and English teaching. The following benefits hopefully will support the research

goal:

1. The result of the study may give substantial information for language teaching field

about what EFL teachers’ conception of classroom assessment.

2. The revelation of EFL teachers’ conception of classroom assessment and

assessment instruments they design may expectantly be valuable for the

betterment of assessment practices themselves.

3. Better assessment practices will devotedly enhance the students’ self esteem,

motivation and learning quality which will improve students’ learning and moreover

raise the quality of the learning outcomes.

4. The explanation of EFL teachers’ conception of classroom assessment and the

manifestation of their conception in assessment instruments may encourage EFL

teachers to be more creative in selecting methods and techniques in assessing

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5. The clear understanding of classroom assessment with its various methods of

assessment practices hopefully will help EFL teachers to adjust or revise their

classroom instructions and finally they will function better in classroom assessment.

6. The revelation of EFL teachers’ conception of classroom assessment will

furthermore give positive contribution especially to stake holders and education

policy makers. Qualitative information and new perspectives about problems on

assessment can be taken into account when they are composing, reviewing,

modifying and refining curriculum.

7. The result of the study may give a significant contribution to the science of classroom

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CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter efforts to frame the constructs of the research in line with

some relevant theories in two main parts, namely (1) theoretical review, and (2)

theoretical framework.

A. Theoretical Review

Related literatures are employed (1) to divulge the meaning of assessment,

its purpose and its impact in education, (2) to explain the meaning of classroom

assessment with its principles and methods, (3) to reveal assessment as

instructional system, (4) to give an elucidation of the definition of conception and

how it is related to knowledge, (5) to describe teacher’s conception of classroom

assessment.

1. The Meaning of Assessment

Whether people think of themselves as lecturers, teachers, facilitator, or

educators of learning, the most important thing they do for their students is to

assess their work. They do assessing students to know the effectiveness of their

teaching and to find out how far the students make progress on what they have

learned as Adams (2006) declares that assessment involves the collection of

information about what children do and do not know and children’s ability to

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Accordingly, in their everyday teaching, questions for students to answer

or respond in class, comments delivered by students, homework, written tasks,

and students’ effort to try using the language can be on what teachers base their

evaluation and measurement toward the students’ achievement. Alongside,

another method of assessing students through a more intended procedure can be as

well administered. It is authenticated by DiGesu (2004) who declares that

assessment means literally “to sit beside and observe”. In the context of

classrooms, assessment is the systematic and ongoing process of collecting,

describing and analyzing information about student progress and achievement in

relation to curriculum expectations and the achievement chart.

Similar definition about assessment to be a tool to collect information

about students’ achievement is also given by Hart (1994):

Assessment is the process of gathering information about students, what they know and can do. There are many ways to gather this information; for example, by observing students as they learn, examining what they produce, or testing their knowledge and skills. (Hart, 1994: 1)

Warren & Nesbit (1999) comparably declare that assessment is any act of

interpreting information about student performance, collected through any

multitude of means. That assessment plays a very crucial role in education is

supported by numbers of researchers who do research on assessment like what

Gipps & Broadfoot Nuthal (1994: 1) define:

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Assessment can also be a toolkit of techniques. It can take many forms

and it can be argued that the greater the diversity in the methods of assessment,

the fairer assessment is to students. It is supported by Angelo (1998) who argues

that assessment is a simple method – and a toolbox full of techniques – which

faculty use to collect such feedback, early and often, on how well students are

learning.

Tabatha (2006) says that assessment is the process whereby evidence is

obtained through the outcome of specific questioning such as test and surveys,

and used to determine result based on the findings of such methods. These may

also define the status or value of an event, thing or person’s abilities based on

performance or importance.

So far, however, the significance of test, evaluation and assessment are

often mixed up. People sometimes also overlap in practicing them. With many

definitions and explanations about assessment above, it is clear that assessment is

different from evaluation, that according to Hart (1994) evaluation can be defined

as the process of interpreting and making judgment about assessment information.

It can be concluded that the data gathered from assessment practice

reflects what is going on in a classroom and an evaluation is the development of

giving value for the result of assessment practices. Weiss (1972) defines

evaluation as the systematic gathering of information for the purpose of making

decisions. A test, on the other hand, according to Carroll (1968) is a psychological

or educational procedure designed to elicit certain behavior from which one can

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Accordingly, Bachman (1995) says that a test can be valuable source of

information about effectiveness of learning and teaching. Teachers usually use

tests as a means of measuring students’ achievement and progress, diagnosing

their strength and weaknesses and helping teachers in evaluating the effectiveness

of teaching approaches. It is also useful for teachers to get feedback on the

learning teaching. The relationship between a test, as an assessment instrument,

and evaluation is illustrated in the following figure:

ASSESSMENT

EVALUATION

MEASUREMENT TESTS

Figure 2.1 Relationship among measurement, tests and evaluation

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2 The Purpose of Assessment

Assessment always leads to learning, as suggested by Boud (1995; 1).

Every act of assessment will give a message to students about what and how they

should learn. However, a good assessment will not merely provide students with

an awareness to find appropriate method and employing it in learning.

Furthermore, assessment has to be able to make students learn to adopt strategies

to study by various assessment tasks. Students will make best use of them to

increase their learning quality. It may, on the other hand, lead students to more

continuous assessment.

From the result of students’ learning and the various assessment tasks

implemented, students will be able to facilitate themselves with readiness to make

use of assessment in their enduring learning. Adams (2006) says that assessment

may improve teachers’ instructions besides knowing the students’ progress in

learning well.

The goal of assessment is to determine children’s academic strengths as well as their weaknesses so that teachers can improve instruction to provide more opportunity for children’s cognitive growth and educational experiences. (Adams, 2006: 1)

DiGesu (2004) strengthens the idea that assessment purpose is to enhance

student learning. He further argues that the primary purpose of assessment is for

the student to receive multiple attempts to practice and to demonstrate

understanding of content. At the same time, they can also develop skills by

receiving specific and timely feedback by the teacher in order to improve

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student progress for the purpose of modifying and refining the teaching/learning

cycle to better meet student needs.

Boud (2000) alternatively declares that assessment practices in education

institutions tend not to equip students well for the processes of effective learning

in a learning society. The purposes of assessment should be extended to include

the preparation of students for sustainable assessment. This enables students to

commence activities that necessarily accompany their learning and undertake

their own assessment actions in the future. Assessment subsequently will support

and encourage students to learn more independently. Additionally, Philippou and

Christou (1997) declare that assessment is used for the purpose of improvement.

It will diagnose students’ difficulties, evaluate the effectiveness of instructions

Assessment is part of learning teaching processes as a decisive basic for

not only teachers to review the effectiveness of the teaching, for students and

parents to know the students’ progress, but also for school authorities to monitor

and evaluate the teaching learning processes. Assessment of student academic

achievement is also an essential component of every organization’s effort to

evaluate overall effectiveness. It is fundamental for all organizations to place

student learning at the centre of their educational endeavors.

From the result of the assessment furthermore, an apposite future work can

be planned. Tabatha (2006) gives an account that assessment allows teachers and

students to agree on the benchmark of their work and be concerned about how

they might be improved. It also helps teachers to plan effective lessons that take

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monitoring of the quality of education being delivered and student progress to be

monitored effectively to ensure targets are being met.

Pellegrino et. all (2001: 11) says:

Educational assessment seeks to determine how well students are learning and is an integral part of the quest for improved education. It provides feedback to students, educators, parents, policy makers, and public about the effectiveness of educational services.

All definitions of assessment proposed by experts seem to offer the same

perspectives, that assessment is an integral part of the learning and teaching

processes with purposes to check students’ progress, achievement, and learning,

to promote learning by feeding back information to teacher and learners, to

provide an account of progress in learning to those who have a legitimate claim to

knowledge.

Popham (1999) visualizes assessment position in the learning teaching

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ASSESSMENT

- Gathering information

- Gathering and determining data - Recording data in a documentation

system

EVALUATION

- Reflecting data to make decisions in teaching learning process - Supporting self evaluation - “Celebrating” growth - Planning the following steps/goals

REPORT

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Figure 2.2 The position of assessment in learning teaching process

Source: Popham (1999) in Muslich, (2004: 95)

Additionally, in Curriculum Framework journal (1998), it is stated that there

are at least three major purposes for assessment; (a) to improve teaching and

learning, (b) to certify students’ learning, and (3) to be an accountability of

schools and teachers. Assessment purposes include providing information to:

students, about their progress and achievement in learning; to teachers, to assist

them plan their teaching programs in order to improve student learning; to parents

and guardians about their children’s progress and achievements; to schools and

systems, about teaching strategies, resource allocations and curriculum; and other

educational institutions, employers and the community, about the achievements of

students in general or of particular students.

Pearson & Valencia (1987) add an explanation that assessment admittedly

has many different purposes and audiences. For example, assessments are used to

qualify students for special services; to report to school boards, states, and

parents; to evaluate program effectiveness; to monitor student learning and adjust

teaching strategies; to evaluate students' growth over time, to engage students in

self-evaluation, and to understand students' strengths and needs. Each of these

different purposes and audiences may require different kinds of assessment and

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One type of assessment cannot meet the needs of all audiences.

Administrators, for example, want to know about school programs or large groups

of students. They might need that information only once or a couple of times a

year and might not be concerned with individual students' strengths and needs.

Teachers, parents, and students need more specific information and need it more

often. By understanding different purposes and choosing different assessments to

fit these purposes, we are more likely to discover information that will enhance

teaching and learning (Hiebert & Calfee, 1989; Linn, Baker & Dunbar, 1991;

Pearson & Valencia, 1987).

Assessment is supposed not only to reveal learners’ cognitive competence

but also their affective and psychomotor ones. National Education Department

suggested penilaian kelas or classroom assessment to be used to overcome

problems in assessing learners. All efforts carried out will hopefully bring about

better consequences in education.

3. The Impact of Assessment in Learning Teaching Processes

Assessment is an integral part of a learning process to support the

achievement of learning goals – and even education goals – more

comprehensively using high standard. Assessment is as well considered important

in education since it gives information about the accomplishment of a learning

teaching process As an ongoing process which records students’ achievement of

curricular objectives, it will not only provide information about what students do

know and do not know, however, it will furthermore portray the success of

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Assessment result is also declared to be imperative in education when it

has an implication for instruction, according to Wolf, Bixby, Glenn, & Gardner,

(1991). They also argue that the primary aim of assessment is to foster learning of

worthwhile academic content for all students. School communities also make use

of assessment results in a formative way to determine how well they are meeting

instructional goals and how to alter curriculum and instruction so that goals can be

met better as stated by Pusat Kurikulum Balitbang Depdiknas or the Centre of

Curriculum, National Education Department (2004: 6):

Curriculum improvement executed as a resort to promote education quality. The effort is considered successful when there is a change in learning teaching method, from a teacher centered to a learner-centered one and in the assessment orientation. Assessment is no longer focused on discriminating students but more on differentiating students. All the changes will exactly determine education outcomes.

4. Classroom Assessment

Purposefully, classroom assessment aims at helping individual college

teachers obtain useful feedback on what, how much, and how well their students

are learning. Faculty then uses this information to refocus their teaching to help

students make their learning more efficient and more effective.

....machines don’t assess, papers don’t assess, tests don’t assess. Humans assess. And what better person is there to assess the progress and development of his or her students than the classroom teacher. (Malone, 1992).

The importance of classroom-based assessment has been recognized,

giving it a central position in all assessment discussions (Hiebert & Calfee, 1989).

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therefore, it is most likely to influence instructional decisions and to engage

children in evaluation of their own work. It is more specific to individual children

and to instruction, and it occurs more frequently than formal norm-referenced

testing.

When assessment and instruction are melded, both teachers and students

become learners. Teachers become more focused on what and how to teach, and

students become more self-directed, motivated, and focused on learning (Graue,

1993; Wolf, 1989). Classroom assessment puts teachers and children in charge of

assessment. Consequently, it is teachers’ responsibility to understand the elements

of good classroom-based assessment and how to put them into action.

In classroom assessment, students and teachers are involved in a

continuous monitoring of students’ learning. It provides feedback and information

for teachers to evaluate their teaching and to help students to learn in a better way

of learning. To work effectively, classroom assessment should be in a form of a

continuous process. Angelo further advises that classroom assessment is to

empower both teachers and their students to improve the quality of learning in the

classroom. It is particularly useful for checking how well students are learning at

those initial and intermediate points, and for providing information for

improvement when learning is less than satisfactory.

Classroom assessment will also record current progress related to learners’

previous achievement. Teachers in view of that will possibly make a reflection

which lead to a better teaching planning and preparation as advocated by Tabatha

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Assessment

Teaching and Reflection

Learning

Planning and Preparation

Figure 2.3 The cycle of assessment in teaching learning

Sources: Rayment (2006: 52)

5. The Principles of Classroom Assessment

Angelo (1998) states classroom assessment as an approach designed to help

teachers find out what students are learning in the classroom and how well they

are learning. Classroom assessment has several characteristics teachers should

take into account when implement it in their learning teaching processes.

To incorporate classroom assessment in learning teaching processes,

teachers have to consider classroom assessment principles. There are several

notions of classroom assessment teachers may take into account in order to

establish expedient learning teaching processes. In the current perspective of

education, learner-centered activities are those advised to carry out in the

classroom. Classroom assessment seems to incorporate the needs as it focuses the

primary attention of teachers and students on observing and improving learning

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As maintained by Penilaian Kelas issued by Puskur Balitbang National

Education Department (2004), classroom assessment must deliberate validity,

reliability, and competence-based, integrative, objective as well as educative

assessing activities.

In line with what stated by Puskur Balitbang National Education

Department, Hanna (1993) in Burden. R, Paul and David M. Byrd (1999; 335)

says that validity deals with the extent to which a measuring device measures

what it purports to measure. She further states that while there are several types of

validity, teachers are usually most concerned with content validity. Content

validity will refer to the degree to which an instrument samples the subject matter

in the area to be measured or the degree to which it coincides with the

instructional objectives that are to be measured.

The other important type of validity teachers should consider in designing

assessment instrument is construct validity. Validity, especially the construct

validity concerns the extent to which performance on tests is consistent with

predictions that are made on the theories of abilities, or construct, as defined by

Bachman (1995). He additionally states that construct validity is one should be

called for to answer the question ‘What does this test really measure?’ Construct

is, for Carrol, (1987) in Bachman (1995: 255), ‘particular set of mental tasks that

an individual is required to perform on a given test.’

The other principle of classroom assessment teachers have to consider is

reliability. It more concerns with the consistency of result. The more consistent

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test and shortly after re-administer an equivalent form of the same test, students

should score roughly the same as they did in the first test. (Burden R and David

M. Byrd (1999: 336).

In implementing competence-based curriculum, classroom assessment has

to focus at achieving competency or series of competencies, not at mastering

knowledge. (Puskur, 2004: 9). Schenck (1978) quoted in Richards (2001: 141)

explained competence-based education as:

Competence-based education has much in common with such approaches to learning as performance-based instruction, mastery learning and individualized instruction…Thus CBE is based on a set of outcomes that are derived from an analysis of task typically required of students in life role situations.

In competence-based education, the suitable assessment to use is

continuous and ongoing assessment as suggested by Richard (2001). Students are

tested to demonstrate certain skill. If they do not achieve the desired level of

mastery, they continue to work on the objective and are retested. The assessment,

moreover should demonstrate students’ mastery of performance objectives. Rather

than the traditional paper-and-pencil test, assessment is based on the ability to

demonstrate perspective behavior.

The continuous and ongoing assessment will be better accommodated by

formative assessment. Formative assessing is about using the process and results

of assessing to influence and, it is to be hoped, to facilitate the learning process,

Gary. D. Merrill, (1996: 91) claims. To facilitate learning, it is believed that

assessing must have a strong formative role and for formative assessing to have

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undertaken. A mark or short comment on an assignment is unlikely to have much

of a formative effect, whereas using an assignment to open discussion about

learning, needs, or future learning, has a vast potential. Novak JD. (1984)

proposes that formative assessment will provide diagnostic feedback to students

and instructors at short term intervals (e.g., during a class or on a weekly basis).

Assessment instruments used in the classroom assessment varied from

paper and pencil and performance test, assessment on project, product and

portfolio. McTighe (1996) adds that an effective classroom assessment should use

wide range of instruments to assess the multi-dimensional expressions of each

student’s learning. Furthermore, Muslich (2004) and Puskur (2004) argue that in

practice, classroom assessment have to take three domains; cognitive or students’

knowledge, affective or students’ attitude and psychomotor or students skill into

account.

In designing assessment instruments, teachers should not forget that the

instruments applied objectively. Assessment should be fair, well-planned, and

continuous. It will also use clear instructions and assessment criteria. Sweet

(1993) declares that assessment criteria must be clearly established and made

explicit to students before an assignment or test so that students can focus their

efforts. In addition, whenever possible, students need to be involved in developing

assessment criteria.

Puskur (2004) adds that educative as another important principle in

classroom assessment that assessment to be carried out to differentiate students

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principles to be taken in competence-based education in its implementation. One

of them is that students are individualized and the instruction is student-centered.

Weiss (1972) claims that assessing focuses on the individual and aims at

describing the individual, helps him or her in his or her learning, and helps the

teacher to arrive at a better understanding of his or her needs.

6. Methods of Classroom Assessment

There are numbers of methods teachers may employ in classroom

assessment. They can be formal and informal or alternative assessment. Formal

assessing is more of a planned and obtrusive activity. Time is set aside, learners

generally realize that they are being assessed, and the result are said to have a

particular purpose which is usually known by both learners and teachers. To

measure students’ competence and to know the students’ progress, methods of

assessment - an intended or formal test and either in incidental or informal/

alternative test additionally, can be taken. Tests are a division of assessment. It is

not the one and only method a teacher can employ among number of procedures

of assessment.

Students’ abilities which teachers are going to assess can be seen from

their performance shown when teachers ask questions, give tests to them and do

surveys. This idea is strengthened by Hein (1991):

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Brown (2004) explains that assessment is an on-going process that encompasses a

much wider domain. Whenever a student responds to a question, offers a

comment, or tries out a new word or structure, the teacher subconsciously makes

an assessment of the student’s performance.

The goals of assessment are to provide feedback on both the on-going progress and the end-product in achieving the standards. Formative (on-going) and summative (end-product) assessment are carried out using both traditional tests and alternative methods of assessment. Since both traditional and alternative methods of assessment each have their own respective advantages, they are used as complementary components in the assessment process. (Vermel and Gail Mann, 2007: 3).

Further, Brown clarifies the interrelation of tests and assessment in

teaching, as shown in the following figure.

TEACHING

ASSESSMENT TESTS

Figure 2.4 Tests, assessment, and teaching

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Angelo, (1998) suggests that effective assessment should be ongoing and

continuous. It is woven into daily instruction offers students frequent

opportunities to gain feedback, to modify their learning approaches and methods,

and to observe their progress. Teachers provide informal assessment by

questioning students and offering comments. They also conduct formal

assessment at various stages of a project or unit of study.

Prior to a formal test, a teacher will administer an organized instrument to

the learners in order to measure their competence, while in the informal one, a

teacher will intuitively make a judgment on the students’ progress through

day-by-day interaction with the students. Whether assessment will be conducted

formally or informally, some considerations should be taken into account, from

both the test takers side aspects and the tester itself.

A formal test as described in The Art of Assessing, an article published in

the New Academic, (1995) has several advantages as follows:

1). Relatively economical. Formal tests can be more cost-effective than many of alternatives (though this depends on economies of scale when large numbers of

students are tested, and also of how much time and money needed to ensure

appropriate moderation of students’ performance). 2). Equality of opportunity.

Formal tests are demonstrablyfair in that students have all the same tasks to do in

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Assessment should in its result be a positive, motivating, feedback-giving

factor in the learning teaching processes. Furthermore, it should be carried out in

a manner that does not cause anxiety in the students. The autocracy of a test that

converges simply on objectivity associated with individuality is regarded no

longer prudent in measuring students’ competence and ability. New development

in assessment tends to liberalize teachers to have much freedom to measure the

successful of their learning and students’ competence progress using creative and

more varied alternative assessment methods. Teachers are supposed to be wise

enough in employing tests, which measure interpersonal, creative,

communicative, and interactive skills. The subjectivity and teachers’ presentiment

plays a very important role in this case.

Alternative assessment seems to answer the need since it will allow

teachers to observe student behavior ranging from simple responses to

demonstration of work collected over time, the same as declared by Rudner &

Boston. They support the use of alternative assessment as such assessments help

educators gain a deeper understanding of student learning, and enable them to

communicate evidence of the learning to parents, employers and the community

at large.

Alternative assessments often have high fidelity for the goals of

instruction and require students to solve complex, real-life problems. Some

educators believe that alternative assessments motivate students to show their best

performance. In short, Brown (2004) says that alternative assessments are more

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assessment can be implemented using interpersonal, creative, communicative and

interactive test. They can be used to supplement traditional test design.

The following is the distinction between traditional and alternative

assessment according to Brown (2004):

Traditional Assessment Alternative Assessment

One-shot, standardized exams Timed, multiple-choice format Decontextualized test items Scores suffice for feedback Norm-referenced scores Focus of the “right” answer Summative

Table 2.2.1 the distinction between traditional and alternative assessments

In the past, assessment tools and procedures were chosen at the level of

Ministry of Education, school constituency, school administration, or program

coordinator. Since there is a breakthrough in learning, that gives emphasize on

learner-centered and communicative methodologies, the interpretation of

assessment changes from centralized authority towards the classrooms where

assessment occurs on a regular basis as explained by Fradd and Hudelson (1995).

Education in Indonesia has also changed its perspective on assessment.

The Curriculum Centre of National Education Department with the new

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issue of new curriculum – KTSP – which follows the principle of continuous and

comprehensive assessment emphasizes the importance of applying suitable

assessment methods in the learning teaching processes. The effort will be

successful if it is followed by the betterment of teaching learning process, from

teacher-centered to learner-centered. Assessment orientation should also be

improved, from assessment which is aimed to discriminate learners to one that

differentiates learners.

7. Assessment as an Instructional System

In Senior 1 English Language Arts: A Foundation for Implementation

(1997), it is described that a cycle of planning, teaching and assessing is very

useful for teachers. Additionally, it also regards assessment as an integral part of

instruction; teachers plan, construct, and implement it as a system, in an

instructional design of assessment instrument, planning, constructing and

administering the assessment instrument.

In instructional system, planning will answer three questions: what

(objective), what procedures (activities) and how (steps) as assumed by Kemp

(1977). In planning assessment instrument, teacher should consider the goal and

objectives of their assessment by managing them in syllabus, lesson plan, or

teachers’ administration books.

As Tabatha (2006) argues, all teachers need to work from organized,

well-planned strategies. In planning the lesson, teachers should also formulate

strategies that are helpful in assessing students. Tabatha suggests three questions

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stated in lesson plan or module, how – methods of assessment to be used and

where – in what environment the assessment will take place.

Graves (2000) states that teachers need to explore what and how to work

with assessment in systematic ways. They need to conceptualize their assessment

in the first step of assessment practice. Weiss (1972) further says that in planning

assessment, teacher can determine the mode of the assessment instrument they are

going to apply, whether it is formative or summative, performance or mastery,

process or product, the schedule, the assessment criteria and the methods – formal

or informal, criterion or norm reference, etc.

The competence-based curriculum or KTSP which is applied in Indonesia

follows the principle of comprehensive and on-going assessment to support

students’ independency and autonomy. Accordingly, assessment conducted must

be in the scope of classroom-based assessment. Classroom assessment is the most

suitable to use in line with the curriculum as it is conducted integrative within the

learning-teaching processes in the classroom, as suggested by Muslich (2004).

Therefore, in constructing assessment instruments as designed in the planning

step, teachers have to reflect on the principles of classroom assessment: validity,

reliability, competence-based, integrative, educative and objective what have been

described above.

The last step in the instructional design of assessment instrument is the

way teachers administer the assessment instrument. Test administration can be in

various methods. It is subjective as the situation where teachers administer test is

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points to remind teachers to administer assessment instrument or test acceptably.

A test should not be a ‘surprise’ that it need well-preparation. It has to be

appropriate in time. The test administrator should also decide the way how the test

will be scored that accordingly they have to design student rubric. Wiggins (1998)

clarifies rubric as a set of scoring guidelines for evaluating students’ work. Setting

is also imperative in test administration in order the student may take test in good

condition and result in achieving the test objectives satisfactorily.

4. Conception and Knowledge

This section will begin with a brief examination of research dealing with

beliefs personal knowledge and thinking in general. Personal conception refers to

certain principles, beliefs, values, opinion, judgment, thoughts, views, or

knowledge that a person holds as what defined by Bunts and Anderson (2004)

who say that conception derives from perception which refers to a single meaning

or idea that is based on intuition, feeling, a brief experience and personal

knowledge. Roberts (2001) on the other hand, suggests that conception are

specific meanings attached to phenomena, which then mediate our response to

situations involving those phenomena.

Additionally, Pajares (1992) believes that conception is personal

principles, constructed from experience that an individual employs, often

unconsciously, to interpret new experiences and information to guide action.

Conceptions a person holds may vary due to the experience and knowledge they

gain. Knowledge and experiences underlie the formation of conception besides

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understanding will develop through activities that then will build personal

conceptions. Approach and method a person choose to apply reflects his/her

individual beliefs, values, principles, knowledge and experiences.

Knowledge, according to Conelly and Clandinin (1984), is body of

convictions and meanings, conscious or unconscious, which have arisen from

experiences. Knowledge is taken to be built up through intellectual activities:

experimentation, debate and reasoning and is stored in the form of propositions

that are open to further evaluation and change. In addition, Shulman (1992,

identifies four sources from which teachers may obtain knowledge about aims and

goals, learners, content, and teaching method including assessment from (1)

practical experiences: classroom observation, student teaching, regular teaching

(2) reading case studies about what successful and unsuccessful teachers have

done (3) reading theoretical articles about important ideas, conceptual system and

paradigm for thinking about teaching and assessment (4) reading empirical studies

about what the research says about your subject and how to teach it.

Teachers’ knowledge about classroom assessment, therefore, will build up

their conception of classroom assessment. Their knowledge of classroom

assessment can be obtained from practical experiences and reflection when they

apply assessment practices in their daily teaching activities and reading case

studies about what successful and unsuccessful teachers have done in classroom

assessment. Theoretical articles about important notions, conceptual systems, and

paradigm for thinking of classroom assessment and empirical studies about what

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teachers’ knowledge about classroom assessment. Teachers knowledge about

classroom assessment will reside in their belief system which finally form their

conception of classroom assessment.

5. Teachers’ Conception of Classroom Assessment

So far, EFL teachers’ conceptions towards things are mostly influenced by

how they conceive things from their point-of-view as how they conceive

classroom assessment. Vandeyar (2007) proposes that different conceptions lead

to different assessment practices. Their perspective on classroom assessment is

built by their feeling, intuition, beliefs and their prior knowledge. Actually, they

can develop their perceptions which eventually will form their conceptions

through various professionalism developing and upgrading activities, such as

reading books, discussion, seminar, and workshop.

Thompson (1992) defines teachers’ conception as a conscious or

subconscious beliefs, concepts, meaning, rules, mental images and preferences

concerning the discipline. As a component of teachers’ belief system, conceptions

of subject are closely allied with knowledge and thought. The conception resides

in teachers’ belief system and comprises part of their personal knowledge while in

his general review of literature, Calderhead (1996) found that many different

kinds of knowledge have been described as highlighting effective teaching. The

main forms are those related to subject, to teaching methods and to the ways in

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teaching. The extents to which teachers have conscious access to this knowledge

is, however, not clear.

Teachers’ knowledge of classroom assessment, subsequently, will shape

their conception of classroom assessment. Their knowledge about classroom

assessment can be taken from practical experiences – when they apply classroom

assessment. Their attention on case studies about what successful and

unsuccessful teachers have done in applying classroom assessment, on theoretical

articles about important notions, conceptual system and paradigm for thinking

about classroom assessment will make them knowledgeable about classroom

assessment. Teachers’ conception of classroom assessment then can be presumed

as teachers’ personal principles which are put up from their experiences in

implementing classroom assessment during their teaching practices, often

unconsciously, to interpret new experiences and information to guide action.

Teachers’ actions are much influenced by their conception. Brown (2003)

provides a strong argument that all pedagogical acts “are affected by the

conception teachers have about the acts of teaching, the process and purpose of

assessment, and the nature of learning”. Such conception acts as filters through

which educators view and interpret their own teaching environment as concluded

by Marton (1981) and act as barriers to change (Richard and Killen, 1993).

Consequently, any efforts to change educators’ practices, whether by mandate or

through professional development activities, may be doomed to failure, unless

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Brown (2003) further suggests that teachers hold one of four major

conception of assessment, i.e. assessment is: (a) useful because it can provide

information for improving instruction and learning; (b) a necessary process for

making learners accountable for their learning; (c) a process by which teachers

and/or schools are made accountable; and (d) irrelevant to the work of teachers

and the life of learners. All pedagogical acts, including teachers’ perceptions of

and evaluations of student behavior and performance (i.e., assessment), are

affected by the conception teachers have about the act of teaching, the process and

purpose of assessment, and the nature of learning among educational beliefs.

B. Theoretical Framework

When positioning the theoretical review on the research question of the

study, it is essential to describe the interrelation of the aspects in the topic of

teachers’ account and their behavior which shapes the theoretical framework of

this study. The theoretical framework is afterward supposed to be helpful in

finding the answer of the research question on EFL teachers’ conception of

classroom assessment and how they manifest their conception in assessment

instruments, besides it will help constructing the research procedures more easily

This research framework shows the relationship of teachers’ conception

and their actions and reasons behind their actions or behavior as manifested

in the assessment practice and assessment instrument design.

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- Reflection

Figure 2.5. Theoretical frameworks for teachers’ conception and their actions

Following Figure 2.5., teachers’ conception of classroom assessment may

come from their understanding and knowledge on classroom assessment which

they obtain from their past experiences, prior knowledge, professional

development programs as well as intellectual activities. All form their conception

of classroom assessment.

Teachers’ knowledge, experiences, understandings and thoughts of

classroom assessment accordingly internalize in teachers’ mind as the bases they

conceive classroom assessment. As Marton (1981) declares, conception is a

framework through which a teacher views, interprets, and interacts, with the - Experience

EFL Teachers’ Conception of Classroom Assessment

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teaching environment. Subsequently, what teachers manifest in the assessment

instruments definitely the expression of what they have in their mind as a

conception. Pajares (1992) in Brown (2003: 1) strengthens the idea that teachers’

conception of teaching, learning and curricula influences strongly how they teach,

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CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY

This chapter presents the research methodology and procedures that will

be used in the research. It starts from how the researcher contextualizes the study,

the setting - place and time -, up to how the data collected. This chapter is

systematized in five main parts, namely (1) research methodology, (2) nature of

data, (3) data setting and sources, (4) data collecting instruments and data

presentation, and (5) data processing.

A. Research Methodology

The research was a descriptive, qualitative research. It aimed at knowing

thoroughly what the English teachers’ conceptions of assessment were and how

the conceptions manifested in assessment instruments. Lincoln and Guba (1985)

state that a qualitative research takes place in natural setting, uses humans as

primary data-gathering instruments and attempts to look deep into the quality of

social life.

Through a qualitative research, the researcher tried to explore her own

professional culture, as she was a teacher who herself faced everyday problems

emerge in everyday teaching. The research took place in a natural setting, and she

applied narrative inquiry method. Words were used to describe human values and

understanding, while interview, observation and document analysis as the

technique. Like what proposed by Holliday (2002) that in many ways qualitative

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(2003:182) emphasizes the importance of researcher involvement in a qualitative

research:

The qualitative researcher systematically reflects on who he or she is in the inquiry and is sensitive to is or her personal biography and how it shapes the study. This introspection and acknowledgement of biases, values and interests (reflectivity) typifies qualitative research today. The personal-self becomes inseparable from the researcher-self.

Additionally, Holliday states that many cases in daily work and research

can merge. It is what many ethnographers do. Hammersley and Atkinson (1983)

in Holiday (2002: 27) support the idea of the advantageous of researchers doing

research on their natural and everyday social-life culture as the setting:

Whereas ethnographers who are first and foremost researchers by profession have to fabricate ‘normal’ roles, people doing research as part of their job have the huge advantage of starting out with a normal role within the environment in which they work which can double as a research role. The ‘pre-existing social routines and realities’ movement and the type of behavior characteristic of the researcher.

Conducting a qualitative research was certainly consistent with education

stream that proposes social and real life problems. Through the disclosure of the

conceptions of several people, EFL teachers as the research participants, of

classroom assessment, the research hopefully presented an ‘eye-opener’ towards

real problems on classroom assessment in everyday teaching in Indonesia.

The research subsequently would advocate EFL teachers to improve their

way of thinking and views towards classroom assessment and as a result it would

contribute betterment in education. Concisely, the research was based on research

participants’ own articulation on classroom assessment. It could be interpreted