A STUDY OF IGOR’S MANIC-DEPRESSIVE DISORDER AS DEPICTED IN PAULO COELHO’S THE WINNER STANDS ALONE
A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Anastasia Diyan Pramitasari
Student Number: 061214014
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
A STUDY OF IGOR’S MANIC-DEPRESSIVE DISORDER AS DEPICTED IN PAULO COELHO’S THE WINNER STANDS ALONE
A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Anastasia Diyan Pramitasari
Student Number: 061214014
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA
A Sarjana Pendidikan Thesis on
A STUDY OF IGOR’S MANIC-DEPRESSIVE DISORDER AS DEPICTED IN PAULO COELHO’S THE WINNER STANDS ALONE
By
Anastasia Diyan Pramitasari
Student Number: 061214014
Approved by
Advisor
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY
I honestly declare that this thesis, which I have written, does not contain the work
or parts of the work of other people, except those cited in the quotations and the
references, as a scientific paper should.
Yogyakarta, October 13th, 2011 The Writer
LEMBAR PERYATAAN PERSETUJUAN
PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS
Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma:
Nama : Anastasia Diyan Pramitasari Nomor Mahasiswa : 061214014
Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:
A STUDY OF IGOR’S MANIC-DEPRESSIVE DISORDER AS DEPICTED IN PAULO COELHO’S THE WINNER STANDS ALONE
Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas. Dan memplubikasikannya di Internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin dari saya maupun memberikan royalty kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis.
Demikian pernyataan ini yang saya buat dengan sebenarnya.
Dibuat di Yogyakarta,
Pada tanggal: 13 Oktober 2011
Yang menyatakan,
(Anastasia Diyan Pramitasari)
Made a wish, I can dream
I can be what I want to be
Not afraid to live my life
And fulfil my fantasies
Reaching out, for the highs
You inspired me to try
I felt the magic inside
And I felt that I could fly
I'm looking at the world in an optimistic light
You made me appreciate my life
'Cos when you came you were my
Sunshine - Gabrielle
This thesis is gratefully dedicated to:
My Savior, Jesus Christ
My beloved parents and my younger sister
Mas Paulus
and all people whom I love
ABSTRACT
Pramitasari, Anastasia Diyan. 2011. A Study of Igor’s Manic Depressive Disorder as Depicted in Paulo Coelho’s The Winner Stands Alone. Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program, Department of Language and Arts Education, Faculty of Teachers Training and Education, Sanata Dharma University.
There are many symptoms performed by a sufferer of abnormal behavior. Paulo Coelho’s The Winner Stands Alone depicts one major character who suffers one type of abnormal behavior. This study discusses abnormal behavior, particularly manic depressive disorder, experienced by Igor as the major character in the novel. The story begins when Igor loses his lovely wife because she leaves him for a Middle Eastern fashion designer. His obsession is winning her love back. The ways he uses to achieve his obsession seem peculiar and not normal. His peculiar and abnormal behaviors can also be seen through his thinking, mannerism, direct comment, reactions, conversations with others, speech, personal description, and character as seen by another.
There are two problems formulated. The first one concerns the description of Igor’s personal description. Then, the second one concerns the symptoms and types he undergoes showing that he suffers manic depressive disorder. This study is conducted by applying library research. There are two sources used to obtain the data. The first one is primary source, which is Paulo Coelho’s The Winner Stands Alone. The secondary sources are obtained from library books which consist of psychological and literary books. The literary books are used to answer the first problem, which deals with the character and characterization of Igor. Abnormal behavior, manic depressive, and motivation theories are employed to answer the second problem related to abnormal behavior experienced by Igor. Some articles from the internet are also used as additional information to support the related issues.
The results of the analysis show that Igor is revealed as a hard-working, rich, good looking, religious, and obsessive person. Furthermore, he suffers from the mildest types of manic depressive, which are called hypomania and simple depression. The symptoms of those types he shows are his inconsistency, feeling great, having unlimited confidence, thinking fast, a particularly amusing and entertaining person, feeling tireless, having many continual activities, having many worthy enthusiasm, having great plans, getting easily irritated, rationalizing easily his plans and mistakes, spending money recklessly, experiencing a slow down thinking process, requiring more energy, choosing to be alone, and realizing that he needs treatments.
Finally, this study presents suggestions for future researchers of the same novel to analyze obsessive love suffered by Igor and the motivation of some characters to achieve more fame and luxury. The other suggestion is for the implementation of teaching Paragraph Writing.
ABSTRAK
Pramitasari, Anastasia Diyan. 2011. A Study of Igor’s Manic Depressive Disorder as Depicted in Paulo Coelho’s The Winner Stands Alone. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Jurusan Pendidikan Bahasa dan Seni, Fakultas Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan, Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Banyak tanda-tanda yang dapat ditunjukkan oleh penderita perilaku abnormal. Sebuah novel The Winner Stands Alone karangan Paulo Coelho menceritakan seorang tokoh utama yang mengalami salah satu macam dari perilaku abnormal. Skripsi ini membahas seorang tokoh utama yang bernama Igor dimana dia mengalami salah satu perilaku abnormal yaitu penyakit mania dan depresi. Ceritanya berawal ketika Igor kehilangan istri tercintanya karena istrinya meninggalkan dia untuk bersama seorang perancang busana Timur Tengah. Obsesinya adalah untuk mendapatkan dan memenangkan kembali cinta dari istrinya. Cara-cara yang ia gunakan untuk meraih obsesinya tersebut sangatlah aneh dan tidak wajar. Hal tersebut dapat dilihat melalui pemikirannya, perilakunya, komentar langsung, reaksinya, pembicaraanya dengan orang lain, ucapannya, penggambaran pribadinya, dan sebagaimana ia dipandang oleh orang lain.
Ada dua masalah yang dirumuskan untuk membuat analisa dari skripsi ini menjadi lebih jelas. Masalah pertama membahas karakteristik pribadi Igor. Kemudian, pertanyaan kedua membahas tanda-tanda dan jenis tingkatan dari penyakit mania dan depresi yang ditunjukkan oleh Igor.
Metode yang digunakan untuk mengadakan skripsi ini adalah metode studi pustaka. Ada dua sumber yang digunakan untuk melengkapi data-data skripsi ini. Sumber utama adalah novel The Winner Stands Alone itu sendiri karangan Paulo Coelho. Sumber yang kedua diperoleh dari buku-buku psikologi dan kesusastraan. Buku-buku kesusastraan digunakan untuk menjawab pertanyaan pertama yang berhubungan dengan karakter dan pentokohan dari Igor. Buku-buku psikologi yang berkaitan dengan beberapa teori dari perilaku abnormal, penyakit mania dan depresi, dan motivasi digunakan untuk menjawab pertanyaan kedua yang berhubugan dengan perilaku abnormal yang dialami oleh Igor. Beberapa artikel dari internet juga digunakan sebagai tambahan informasi untuk mendukung isu-isu yang ada.
secara serampangan menghabiskan uang, proses berpikirnya menjadi lamban, membutuhkan energi lebih banyak untuk melakukan sesuatu, lebih memilih untuk sendirian, dan sadar bahwa ia membutuhkan pengobatan.
Pada akhirnya, skripsi ini menyajikan beberapa saran untuk para peneliti selanjutnya agar menganalisis obsesi cinta yang dialami oleh Igor dan motivasi-motivasi yang dialami beberapa pemain dalam novel untuk meraih lebih banyak ketenaran dan kemewahan. Saran juga ditujukan untuk pelaksanaan pengajaran Paragraph Writing.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, I would like to thank my savior, Jesus Christ. I thank Him for being my true friend who has always accompanied and helped me to face all of
my difficulties in my life, and always gives blessing and guidance so that I could
finish my thesis. I really want to show my gratitude to Him who never leaves me
alone and always protects and guides me for doing any good things in my life. I
also thank Him for giving me those lovely people who always support and love
me.
I am also very much thankful to my sponsor, Drs. L. Bambang Hendarto Y., M.Hum., who has taught and guided me kindly and patiently. I thank him for the time he has given that I could consult my problems during the process in
writing this thesis. I really thank him for his advice, assessment, and time for
revising my thesis, so that I could comprehend much better in finishing this thesis.
My deep gratitude also goes to all lecturers and secretariat staff of PBI. I thank them for the lessons, learning, suggestions, guidance, and helping during
my study at Sanata Dharma University. Especially, I would like to thank Ms. Patrice for her time and help for checking my lesson plan and the materials I attached in this study. I also thank Drs. Y. B. Gunawan, M.A. and Drs. Barli Bram, M.Ed. for their suggestions.
finish this thesis. I thank only one little sister Angelina Putri for her support and who always asks me to finish this thesis soon. I thank her for her care and love.
I want to give my profound thanks to my best friends, Agatha Wikan Adhisti, who always greatly supports and motivates me to finish my study quickly, Prisca and Norma (Mak) for being my great friends and beautiful friendship and every moment we have ever passed through together. I also thank
Rista and other friends who have ever filled part of my life and given many great moments to share.
I would like to thank my friends in Petung 27, Mbak Tika, Mbak Stef, Mbak Feb, Mbak Martha, and Atin for helping and for being pleasant members. Next, my thanks go to PURIKIDS, especially to Ditha for sharing the same struggle in completing this thesis, Mbak Shary, and others for opportunity and help. My next gratitude goes to 3G members Sarce, Vina, Rani, Oda and other members for the great experiences.
My special thanks go to my dearest, Mas Paulus Winardi for much love, care, patience, and great support. I thank him for being my faithful companion, for
the happiness and sadness we have shared in every moment, for being patient to
wait for me to finish this thesis, and for all what he has done for me.
Last but not least, I would like to thank those I cannot mention one by one
who have cared me and given me support in the process of writing this thesis.
May God bless them all.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE ... i
APPROVAL PAGES ... ii
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ... iv
PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI... ... v
DEDICATION PAGE……… . vi
ABSTRACT ... vii
ABSTRAK ... viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... x
TABLE OF CONTENTS ... xii
LIST OF APPENDICES ... xv
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ... 1
A. Background of the Study ... 1
B. Problem Formulation ... 5
C. Objectives of the Study ... 5
D. Benefits of the Study ... 5
E. Definition of Terms ... 7
CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ... 10
A. Review of Related Theories ... 10
1. Critical Approach ... 10
2. Character ... 11
4. Motivation ... 17
5. Abnormal Behavior ... 20
6. Depressive Disorder (Unipolar Disorder) ... 21
a. Causal factors ... 22
b. Treatments ... 25
7. Manic Depressive Disorder (Bipolar Disorder) ... 28
a. The Definition ... 28
b. The Factors ... 30
c. The Types ... 34
d. The Symptoms ... 39
e. The Treatments and Outcomes ... 41
B. Theoretical Framework ... 42
CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY ... 44
A. Object of the Study ... 44
B. Approach of the Study ... 45
C. Method of the Study ... 45
CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS ... 47
A. The Description of Igor’s Character ... 47
1. Hardworking ... 48
2. Rich ... 50
3. Good Looking... 51
4. Religious... 52
B. Manic Depressive Disorder Experienced by Igor ... 57
1. The Causes of Manic Depressive Disorder ... 58
2. The Type of Manic Depressive Disorder ... 62
a. Manic Type ... 62
b. Depressive Type ... 80
CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS ... 87
A. Conclusions ... 87
B. Suggestions ... 90
1. Suggestion for the Future Researchers ... 90
2. Suggestion for the Implementation of the Teaching Learning Process ... 91
REFERENCES ... 93
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1 The Summary of The Winner Stands Alone ... 96
APPENDIX 2 Biography of Paulo Coelho……….. 99
APPENDIX 3 The Pictures of Paulo Coelho………. 102
APPENDIX 4 Lesson Plan……….. 103
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
This first chapter part consists of five important things. Those are
background of the study, problem formulation, objectives of the study, benefits of
the study, and definition of terms. Background of the study discusses about the
topic explored in this study. Problem formulation consists of two questions to
analyze this study. Objectives of the study describe the goal of to achieve in this
study. Benefits of the study mention and explain what the benefits of this study
are. The last one is definition of terms that consists of some definition of terms
related to the topic.
A. Background of the Study
To live in this world is not an easy thing. What makes it difficult is that
every human being must struggle hard to survive in the condition changing every
time and cannot be predicted. The changing and unpredicted condition can result
pressures for human beings. The pressures can make somebody feel stressful or
depressed. If this happens, he or she will behave in a manner that people consider
him as strange or weird.
In some cases, there are some people in the beginning who feel depressed
and then they show some signs of strange behaviors that can be categorized as
abnormal behaviors or disorders. Wilson et al (1996) state that depression
(p. 192). As there are many kinds of abnormal behavior, it can be assumed that the
kind of abnormal behavior a person has can be seen through his or her behavior or
characteristics in his or her personal and social life. The depression that a person
has can also be classified into abnormal behavior if it changes someone’s ways of
behaving to be different from others. Coleman (1976) states that when we think of
abnormal behavior, we are likely to think of extreme, spectacular examples
because, as in other fields, it is the bizarre and the sensational that command
attention (p. 5).
Coleman also states that since the word abnormal literally means “away
from the normal,” it implies deviation from some clearly defined norm (p. 13).
Therefore, people who show their behavior of such kind “away from the normal”
can be categorized as abnormal. The indicators can be seen from the way they
behave, such as the way they speak, the way they think, the way they view
something, etc. They do something that they think is normal, but others cannot
accept it as normal. Others will see that people like that are weird and not normal.
The definition of abnormal behavior itself has developed broader along
with the changing of the time. Over the years, abnormal behavior merely belongs
to mental health, but then norms and values have been included in. That is
supported by Davison and Neale (1996). They state that over the last century, for
example, more and more people have decided that their psychological problems
needed professional help. With this increasing flow of patients, therapists and
researchers have seen problems that were new to them, and new diagnoses
One of such behaviors which is interesting to be discussed is
manic-depressive disorder. This mental disorder belongs to affective or mood disorders.
Coleman explains that the term is related to emotion or affective disorder, that
these disorders can extremely affect emotional responses that can cause the
extreme both feeling of elation and depression (p. 339). Hence, manic-depressive
disorder is also related to the emotion responses.
Furthermore, he explains that manic-depressive disorder is characterized
by episodes of extreme elation and overactivity or extreme depression and
underactivity or an alternation between the two (p. 339). Kraepelin describes the
disorder as “a series of attacks of elation and depression, with periods of relative
normality in between and a generally favorable prognosis” (as cited in Coleman,
1976, p. 340).
Coleman also mentions that historically the manic-depressive disorder that
belongs to affective disorders was found among the early period of the Egyptians,
Greeks, Hebrews, and Chinese writing and also Shakespeare’s, Dostoevsky’s,
Poe’s, and Hemmingway’s literary works. Thus, manic-depressive disorder has
been existing since many years ago. There are also many famous people
experiencing this disorder, let alone many people who experienced this disorder
are people who had power in that era. The examples of the famous and powerful
people are King George III, Moses, Rousseau, Dostoevsky, Lincoln, Tchaikovsky,
and Freud (p. 339). They experienced the disorder because they felt the extreme
The issues as described above can be portrayed in a work of literature like
novel. Little (1981) says a novel creates a completely imagined world through
description and dialogue, and may thus explore basic human issues in depth (p.
68). Through Paulo Coelho’s novel, entitled The Winner Stands Alone, the readers can get the portrayal of real life experiences about manic-depressive disorder.
The Winner Stands Alone is a novel by Paulo Coelho that depicts a situation where people obsess with wealth, love, luxury, and fame. The story starts
when the major character, named Igor Malev who is forty, rich, handsome, a
successful person and also obsesses with over wealth, has been left by his wife,
Ewa. She makes him have obsession of love upon her because Ewa leaves him for
another man, a successful fashion designer. Then, Igor travels to the Cannes
International Film Festival to get and win his lovely wife back. Even more, Igor
takes risks by destroying others to prove his seriousness to get Ewa back to him.
Igor’s obsession to get his lovely wife causes bad effect on his surrounding. The
victims of his doings are innocent people that Igor exploits to make his plan
realized. The ways of Igor destroy others by killing them in order to get her lovely
wife back to him deviate from normality.
Hence, the story of the novel gives the readers a portrayal of
manic-depressive disorder experienced by the main character. According to Igor, his
character and life, behaviors, his views of something and his ideas are normal, but
others see them as abnormal. People recognize that how he does something to get
what he really wants is uncommon. Besides, the story in this novel has other
one aspect, but many aspects, such as how the reality of glamorous and luxury life
is, crime, love, and obsession, and also there many lessons that can be learnt.
Therefore, this novel is very interesting to discuss.
B. Problem Formulation
There are two problems that the researcher formulate based on the
previous explanation:
1. How is Igor, as the major character, described in Paulo Coelho’s The Winner Stands Alone?
2. What kind of manic-depressive disorder is reflected in the major character,
Igor, in Paulo Coelho’s The Winner Stands Alone?
C. Objectives of the Study
The goals of this study are to answer the problem formulation. Therefore,
there are two goals of this study. The first one is to know how the characteristics
of Igor as the main character in Paulo Coelho’s The Winner Stands Alone. The second one is to know what kind of manic-depressive disorder and that features
that Igor shows through his manner and view.
D. Benefits of the Study
This study has some benefits for the researcher, the reader, the PBI
students and the future researchers. By this study, the researcher can dig out and
is famous and bestselling author) particularly The Winner Stands Alone novel. The researcher gain learning by answering the questions developed within this study.
The researcher also obtains new understanding of abnormal behavior experienced
by the major character in the novel studied. In addition, the researcher has
experienced in analyzing the novel, so that the researcher gets some new
knowledge, information and lesson never known before, besides abnormal
behavior, the researcher also learn the power behind entertainment world that also
told in the novel.
For the readers especially for those who like to read Paulo Coelho’s novel,
this study can help them find some aspects and information that they need.
Besides, it can help them to develop their understanding deeply about literary
works of literature in psychological aspects. The novel itself also presents some
images of some truth about abnormal behavior particularly manic-depressive
disorder, which definitely belongs to psychology aspect. Also, the readers can get
new knowledge and idea about both manic and depressive disorder.
For the PBI students, this study is useful to teach English in many aspects, for instance for literature, writing, reading lesson either reading or vocabulary
materials. The last is for future researchers who want to use Paulo Coelho’s novel
for their study. Some references book in this study can be used as references for
E. Definition of Terms
This section consists of some terms used in this study and it helps the
readers better understand the content discussed. Those terms are:
1. Character
Character plays the most important role in a novel. Without the role of
character, the story is meaningless. The character also can make the readers better
experience the story. Therefore, first of all, the definition of character must be
known and understood. Stanton (1965) says that the term character is commonly
used in two ways: it designates the individuals who appear in the story and it
refers to the mixture of interests, desires, emotions, and moral principles that
makes up each of these individuals (p. 17). From the statement above, it can be
assumed that character is the existence of some persons within a story along with
their personality.
2. Behavior
Every human being has his or her own manners to do something. The
manner itself can be assumed that it is same as behavior. As stated in Longman,
the word behavior is referred to the way that someone behaves. Behave itself
means to do things in a particular way (“Behavior”). Therefore, behavior can be
3. Abnormal Behavior
It is important to know first what abnormal behavior is, since
manic-depressive disorder discussed in this study belongs to the kind of abnormal
behavior. There are many theories about abnormal behavior. Before grasping
deeply what do means abnormal behavior is, it is important to know and
differentiate the definition of normal and abnormal in order to specify criteria for
distinguish one from the other. But actually, it is not an easy thing to consider the
means of abnormal directly. Carson, Butcher, and Mineka (2000) say that there
are confusion and disagreement considerations, and the confusions aggravated by
changing values and expectations in society at large (p. 4).
Commonly, the word abnormal learned as away from the normal. One
internet article by Schimelpfening (2004) in Abnormal Behavior says that to understand the means of abnormal, firstly it is essential to know what normal is.
Being normal means people behave and act in average, or in a typical way. While,
abnormal means that it refers to something that is not typical. In addition, Carson,
Butcher, and Mineka also consider that abnormal behavior can be said as
undesirable. It can be undesirable if it contrary to the public interest (p. 4).
4. Manic-Depressive Disorder
It is important to know deeply what by means manic-depressive disorder
is. It is also called bipolar disorder since depression and mania closely related
disorder described as mental illness characterized by elated mood or depressed
mood (“Manic-Depressive Disorder,” n.d).
In addition, Syrett (2006) in The Secret Life of Manic Depression also describes this bipolar disorder as a disorder that engages the extreme changing of
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter two consists of a review of literary theories used in this study.
It is divided into two parts. The first one is theoretical review that presents theory
of literature, theory of critical approaches, character, and characterization, the
theories of abnormal behavior, manic-depressive or bipolar disorder, and
motivation. The second part is the theoretical framework that covers all the
theories used for this study.
A. Theoretical Review
This part consists of some theories that are relevant in this study. The
theories included are theory of critical approach, character, characterization,
theory of psychology and also motivation.
1. Critical Approach
Rohrberger and Woods Jr (1971) say that a critical approach to literature
necessitates an understanding of its nature, function, and positive values. One
must know what literature is, how to read it, and how to judge it (p. 3). Therefore
they generate the theory of critical approach into five parts, namely the formalist
approach, the biographical approach, the sociocultural-historical approach, the
critical approach, which is psychological approach, needed to help the writer to
analyze the approach that appropriate for this study.
They also state that a work of art is good and moving or bad because the
parts of it are not integrated and then there is no significant statement emerges; no
logical man will accept a generalization except there are facts available to support
it, and no logical man will accept anybody’s statement unless he understands and
accepts the standards upon which that judgment is based (p. 3).
Based on that statement, to conduct and do a research about literature,
there must be a theory to underlie and strengthen the content and statement of the
study. Therefore, a critical approach is needed to underlie and support theory that
will be used for the study.
In addition, to support Rohrberger and Woods’ theory of critical approach,
Kennedy and Gioia also state and add ten critical approaches of literature. The
additional ten critical approaches stated by Kennedy and Gioia (1999) are
formalist criticism, biographical criticism, historical criticism, psychological
criticism, mythological criticism, sociological criticism, gender criticism,
reader-response criticism, deconstructionist criticism, and cultural studies (pp. 630-658).
2. Character
In the story, there is one of main elements performed that is people. People
in the story called characters have important part to make the story alive. The
reality in humans’ life. It can be said that they are as the representative of human
life.
Character also has strong relation with some aspects within literature form.
It is explored by Little (1981) who says that a novel is significantly concerned
with character. A novel will be expected to present one or few characters. It is also
expected that a novel will follow the development of characters as a result of the
events that happen and are told within plot, and explore deeply the personal
relationship of characters (p. 101).
Rohrberher and Woods, Jr. (1971) state that characters must be credible,
that means the readers see characters as believable people. By also mean that
character’s action in the story can be accepted by the readers. They also define
two kinds of character that also can be credible, which are flat and round
characters. As flat character, it is seen as one-sided, while round character are
many-sided (p. 20).
Furthermore, De Laar and Schoonderwoerd (1963) also explain about flat
and round characters (pp. 170-171). They describe that flat characters are
characters that are represented only in one aspect. They are quite performed
frequently. The author represents them as more simple character. They also never,
or barely ever, surprise the readers. Contrary to flat characters, round characters
represented in whole and all different aspects. They are represented as real human
being completely. They are able to surprise the readers by acting and performing
Holman and Harmon (1986) also explore what character is. They define
that character is a complicated term that includes the idea of the moral constitution
of the human personality, the presence of moral uprightness, and the simpler
notion of the presence of creatures in art that seem to be human beings of one sort
or another (p. 81).
They also explain that a character may be either static or dynamic. They
define that a static character is one who changes little. Things can happen to such
character and no changes happen within. The character revealed by pattern of
action. A dynamic character, on the other hand, is character altered by actions and
experiences. This kind of character appears to reveal the consequences of actions
happen. They mention that great dramas and novels have dynamic characters as
protagonist (p. 83).
Henkle (1977) mentions the idea of two kinds of the characters (pp.
92-97). He mentions major and secondary character. Major characters are the
characters that appear and inhabit within the story frequently and attract our
attention mostly. Their performance in the story also portray the problem emerge
in real human life. Another kind is the secondary or minor characters. They are
the characters who perform limited functions in the story and they are less
complex and less intense. Their role in the story to complete the major character,
they can be the one who comes to give the comment for the action of a major
3. Characterization
Rohrberher and Woods, Jr. (1971) say that characterization is the process
of how the author creates a character who can be distinguished from others
character (p. 20). The characterization must be supported by the depiction of
reality of human life. This statement is supported by Little (1981) who says that
even in fantasy and caricature, an essential element is truth of life. However
original and fantastic the author’s approach, he will fail if his readers do not feel
that his characters are real, believable, based on possible variations of human
nature (p. 92).
Furthermore, Little states that a human personality is a complex of many
traits or qualities of character, many motives and desires, some in conflict with
one another (p. 91). He also explains that character may be presented mainly
through description and discussion, or, in a more dramatic manner, by the author’s
simply reporting the character’s speech and action (p. 89). Therefore, there are
two methods to depict what character looks like. By description, the author
describes directly how the character is. The author can completely mention the
detail of character within his work. While, by discussion or dramatic manner, the
author describes the character through the way of character’s action, attitude,
thought, dialogue, etc. He states that in dramatic manner, there is no general
description to help the readers form an idea of the character; he must develop his
own ideas from the fragments of evidence given him (p. 90).
Rohrberher and Woods, Jr. also mention that there are two ways the author
through their physical appearance, for example their body, hair, shape of face,
color of their eyes, etc. Whereas, dramatic way means that the characters
described through how they behave, think, feel, or speak (p. 20).
For the descriptive and dramatic manner, there is the weakness and excess.
According to Little, each has its virtues and limitations. The descriptive method is
generally the easier to understand, but characters summed up tend to seem a little
lifeless. On the other hand, the dramatic method is more vivid and lively, but is
relatively difficult for the reader, at least in extreme forms (p. 90).
Holman and Harmon (1986) delineate some definitions what
characterization is. They say that the author presents the characters of actual
persons; and in fiction (the drama, the novel, the short story, and the narrative
poem), the author reveals the characters of imaginary persons (p. 81). In addition,
they state that the presentation of characters through actions is essentially the
dramatic method (p. 82).
In Murphy (1972), characterization seen as how the author creates and
conveys the characters and personalities of people that written in the story, and
what sort of the people they are in order to the reader get and understand the idea
of the characters (p. 161).
Murphy states that an author has to convey the characters he creates about
through some ways in order the readers are able to know how the personalities of
them (pp. 161-173).
In this way, the characters described directly through their physical or
outward appearance, or how they look like, such as their face, hair, skin, height,
the color of their eyes, etc.
b. Character as seen by another
The author describes a character through the eyes, comments or opinions
expressed by others character. It can give clue for the readers what a character
looks like.
c. Speech
Here, the character known by the way he speaks, whenever he gives
opinions, or does conversation with another character. It can show how his
personalities look like.
d. Past life
By telling the character’s life in the past, the author helps the readers to get
the clue of the idea what sort of a character is, since events in the past life can
shape a person’s character. This way can be done directly through the author’s
comment, the person’s thought, or his conversation.
e. Conversation of others
When the others character does talk about a person with another, their
dialogue directly tell the readers about the person’s character they focus on.
f. Reactions
By seeing a character face or respond toward the problem he has, the
readers will get insight what kind that character is created.
The author can clearly draw the character’s personalities by directly
describe and give comment of it. It is the easiest way in which the reader can get
the hints of character’s personalities directly and swiftly.
h. Thoughts
What the character thinks that explored by the author, it leads the readers
to identify the person of that character. Here, the author also can tell the readers
the different thought of every person is thinking.
i. Mannerism
The author may tell the character’s mannerism, habits, and traits to present
the character’s personalities for the readers.
4. Motivation
For doing an action in order to gain the aim and ambition, a person must
have motivation to force him doing that. According to Petri (1981, pp. 3-4),
motivation is the concept we use when we describe the forces acting on or within
an organism to initiate and direct behavior. Without possessing motivation, it is
quite difficult to achieve what we dream and hope since motivation itself pushes
us to focus on getting what we desire. Therefore, it is essential to have motivation
in life. In addition, he also states that the concept of motivation is often used to
indicate the direction of behavior. That means we direct our behavior to get what
we want. Since motivation is always related to how we behave and also affect
our way to behave, therefore motivation theory is also essential to be discussed in
There are also some approaching theories for understanding the activation
and direction of motivation stated by Petri (p. 4). The first is incentive approach.
In this incentive approach, it is proposed that motivation is the result of physical
needs, such as for food, water, sex, avoidance of pain, and so on. Then, the second
is cognitive approach that says our thoughts, feelings, and attitudes can motivate
us. Next, social approach that states we are socially motivated. It explains that
presence of others motivate us to socialize and interact with them. Then, the last is
actualization approach that explains how all humans strive to actualize and fulfill
their personal fulfillment.
Petri mentions two kinds of motivation, which are intrinsic and extrinsic.
According to Staw, intrinsic motivation as the value or pleasure associated with an
activity as opposed to the goal toward which the activity is directed. While,
extrinsic motivation, by contrast, emphasizes the external goals toward which the
activity is directed (as cited in Petri, 1981, p. 315).
Maslow described the basic needs and ultimate purpose of human
motivation (as cited in Petri, 1981, pp. 302-305). There are five levels mentioned
and those are divided into two parts, which are deprivation motivation that
consists of physiological needs, safety needs, love or belongingness needs, esteem
needs. Another is growth motivation that includes self-actualization. Here,
deprivation motivation includes the first four steps constitutes the needs that must
be fulfilled and satisfied before one reaches the last level, which is
self-actualization. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs consists of:
These needs engage with the primary needs of human being, such as
hunger, thirst, and sex. Therefore, humans need food and drink to survive for life.
For example of this case is someone in a state of semistarvation will constantly
think, dream, and talk about food. When these needs have been fulfilled, a person
will try to reach and fulfill the next needs.
b) Safety Needs
These needs represent that people need a security and safety from
dangerous and unsafe situation. Maslow states that safety needs primarily
triggered in emergency situation. It is also stated that in times of emergency, these
safety needs dominate our behavior.
c) Love or Belongingness Needs
After fulfilling the safety needs, a person also has love and belongingness
needs that indicate an individual needs an affection relation with another, which
requires love from another and someone to love, then he also needs to feel part of
a group where he can sense the feeling of belongs. For example is marriage, a job,
or admission to a select group.
d) Esteem Needs
These needs are broken into two subcategories, which are a need for
self-esteem and a need for self-esteem from others. The need for self-self-esteem involves
achievement, strength, confidence, independence, and freedom. The need for
esteem from others expects for reputation, status, recognition, appreciation by
others and a feeling of importance. If these needs cannot be fulfilled adequately, it
e) Self-Actualization
In this final level where the individual has reached all the first four level,
he or she will try to develop and grow more to become he or she is capable of
becoming. Maslow also adds that values such as truth, honesty, beauty, and
goodness can provide meaning to the life of the self- actualized individual.
5. Abnormal Behavior
The American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
of Mental Disorders, whose fourth edition (DSM-IV) published in 1994, considers
“abnormal behavior as a deviation symptom of a dysfunction in the individual and
it is associated to present distress or disability”. It must be considered as a
manifestation of behavioral, psychological, or biological dysfunction. It can
radically increase hazard of death, pain, disability, or an important loss freedom.
The syndrome or pattern is not simply associated with particular event that society
can sanction the response, for example the death of loved one” (as cited in Carson,
Butcher, and Mineka, 2000, p. 4).
Many experts say that abnormal behavior is behavior that deviates from
the norms of the society in which it is enacted. Carson, Butcher, and Mineka
explain that the concepts of normal and abnormal behavior are not apart from
reference to given culture because in fact that social and culture perspective are
obviously very important (p. 5).
They also utter that the consideration to determine the concepts of the
behavior fosters or threatens individual and group well-being (p. 5). Seen from
that perception, abnormal behavior is stated as maladaptive behavior. That
behavior includes the traditional categories of mental disorders, such as
alcoholism, assault, hostility, and political corruption, in spite of whether that
actions condemned or excused by given society. Those actions can lead to
personal distress that often results in destructive group conflict (p. 6).
From the delineation above, there are the foremost things that must be
ruled out, that abnormal behavior is manifestation of a behavioral dysfunction or
disability. In addition, abnormal behavior is culturally sanctioned that means it
based on the societies’ values and culture, by putting beside the fact that perhaps
for others society asses that it is not logic. Seen as behavior as maladaptive,
Carson, Butcher, and Mineka state and define it as manifestation of mental
disorder that continually diverge from individual and group well-being. It shows
that behavior as maladaptive can make result harmful and risky consequences for
others (p. 6).
6. Depressive disorder (Unipolar disorder)
Carson, Butcher, and Mineka state that the depression happens as results of sadness, discouragement, pessimism, and hopeless. Depression is unpleasant
feeling when we are in those situations, but it usually does not last long (p. 212).
Coleman (1976) asserts that in depressive type, the individual tends to
experience sadness and loneliness feeling. Further, he also mentions the in this
himself to brief answers to questions. He rarely asks questions: he avoids people
and has a listless facial expression and a stooping posture. Commonly, individual
who suffers this depressed accuses himself that he is guilty for all of what he has
done (p. 340).
Carson, Butcher, and Mineka explain that in the depressed phases of mild
to moderate, a person’s mood is dejected, and the individual experiences loss of
interest or pleasure in usual activities. In addition, the individual may show sleep
irregularity (too much or too little), low energy levels, feelings of inadequacy,
decreased efficiency, productivity, talkativeness, and cognitive sharpness, social
withdrawal, restriction of pleasurable activities, including relative lack of interest
in sex, a pessimistic and low-spirited attitude, and tearfulness (pp. 219-210).
Carson, Butcher, and Mineka (2000, pp. 224-255) mention some causal
factors of unipolar disorder, which come from biological, psychosocial, and
sociocultural factors.
a. Biological Causal Factors
They say that a variety of diseases and drugs can affect feeling or mood
disorder. And even, sometimes it can direct to depression, and sometimes to
elation or even hypomania. The researchers have considered the biological factors
into genetic or heredity factors and other factors, such as neurophysiological,
neuroendocrinological, biochemical alterations.
1) Hereditary Factors
Here, Carson, Butcher, and Mineka review some outlooks of some studies
separate heredity and environmental influences, however, a higher rate disorder
among family members cannot be always concluded as a proof of genetic
causation. Plomin et al. state “the prevalence of mood disorder is higher among
blood relatives of persons with clinically diagnosed mood disorders than in the
population at large”. Katz & McGuffin and Plomin also affirm that “the case for
some hereditary contribution in the causal patterns of unipolar major depression is
quite strong, although not as strong as for bipolar disorder” (as cited in Carson,
Butcher, and Mineka, 2000, pp.224-225).
2) Biochemical Factors
This theory of biochemical factors has been developed starting in the
1960s. This theory explains that depression may appear as a result of
neurotransmitter disequilibrium. The function of that neurotransmitter is to
regulate and mediate the activity of the brain’s nerve cells. The disturbance that
happen in neurotransmitter may comes as a result of using electroconvulsive
therapy or antidepressant drugs, which is used by the biological therapies to treat
the sufferers of severe mood disorders, since those therapy and drugs may have an
effect on the concentrations or the activity of neurotransmitters at the synapse and
also can cause the brain pathways are relatively unstable and slow in conducting
message.
3) Neuroendocrine and Neurophysiological Factors
These factors are correlated to hormonal aspects that influence on mood.
That is affirmed by some researchers. Some of them are Checkley and Shelton
neurophysiological and neuroendocrine (hormonal) correlates of some
distinguishable forms of mood disorder (as cited in Carson, Butcher, and Mineka,
2000, 226). In conclusion, some hormones in human body have significant effect
to the condition of individual mood or feeling.
4) Sleep and Other Biological Rhythms
The findings of sleep disturbances have existed as long as depression has
been studied. Further, Carson, Butcher, and Mineka reveal that depressed patients
show a variety of sleep problems, starting from waking up in early morning,
decreasing sleep or periodic awakening during the night (poor sleep maintenance),
and difficulty falling asleep.
5) Sunlight and Seasons
Some researchers state that sunlight and seasons are related to the
alteration of mood disorders. Oren and Rosenthal state that “in this type of mood
disorder, most patients seem to be responsive to the total quantity of available
light that accepted in the environment”. The same idea also mentioned by Wehr et
al and Whybrow that say “most patients will experience depression in winter and
fall and they become normal in spring and summer” (as cited in Carson, Butcher,
and Mineka, 2000, p. 228). Those views explain that the patients will be better if
they accept the sunlight in quite great quantities, since sunlight itself can help
some hormones in the body to make the feeling joyful and pleased. There are also
some researchers consider that basic activities such as sleep, activity, and appetite
b. Sociocultural Factors
These factors are related to the society and culture where the sufferers live
in. Since society and culture itself can affect the psychological or mental condition
of those who suffer the manic-depressive disorder. These factors as mentioned by
Carson, Butcher, and Mineka (2000, pp. 249-251) consist of:
1) Relieving Losses
One study stated by Seligman explains that the society which still has
reciprocity custom, the possibility of the depression to exist is low (as cited in
Carson, Butcher, and Mineka, 2000, pp. 249-250). That case may happen since
the reciprocity custom can help the individual who suffer the mood disorder to
attempt against loss becoming helplessness and hopelessness and also it can help
to prevent loss from becoming despair that then it breaks up the process of
depression.
2) Demographic Differences in Society
Kaelber et al. say for unipolar disorder the poor have higher rates of major
depression. In association with marital status, it is stated that single and divorced
persons tend to experience unipolar depression than do those who are married (as
cited in Carson, Butcher, and Mineka , 2000, pp. 250-251).
For the treatments of unipolar disorder, there are some treatments
mentioned by Carson, Butcher, and Mineka (pp. 251-255). They also note the side
effects or outcomes of these treatments. The treatments that mentioned as follow:
The patients who suffer this unipolar depressive are commonly given
antidepressant drugs. Carson, Butcher, and Mineka also propose that
unfortunately these drugs have unpleasant side effects, such as dry mouth,
constipation, sexual dysfunction, and weight gain.
1) Selective Serotonin Re-Uptake Inhibitors
Since those antidepressant drugs have bad side effects, physicians
increasingly prescribe another antidepressant drug to help their depressed patients.
The antidepressant was chosen from the selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors,
or that abbreviation is called SSRIs, which is called Prozac. As antidepressant
before, Prozac also has unpleasant side effect that the patients often complain.
Many of these drugs can affect orgasmic problems or lowered interest in sexual
activity.
2) The Course of Treatment with Antidepressant Drugs
Carson, Butcher, and Mineka note that antidepressant drugs may give
those effects at least for several weeks. The patients who use these drugs
continually, at the situation the symptoms have decreased, it may cause the
symptoms to relapse again. Whereas, if the depressed patients stop using of these
drugs because they feel better, the possibility for the symptoms to relapse again
may likely increase since the symptoms still exist.
3) Electroconvulsive Therapy
Electroconvulsive therapy or ECT is often used for the patients who
for suicide. ECT is also used for the patients who cannot respond the
pharmacological treatment very well.
b. Psychotherapy
Psychotherapy either in individual or group therapy that followed by the
using of drugs or even electroconvulsive therapy can help the patients to develop
more stable alteration within long range. In addition, some forms of this therapy,
either they are combined with drugs or without combination, can help much the
sufferers to reduce the increasing relapse within a two-year period.
1) Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy
This therapy is one of the best-known of specific psychotherapists for
unipolar disorder, which is proposed by Beck and colleagues. Another is the
interpersonal therapy (IPT) program proposed by Klerman, Weissman, and
colleagues. This behavioral therapy associated with
cognitive-behavioral techniques directed to convert and direct the negative thoughts and
beliefs of the patients so that they can identify and correct their distortions of their
assumption and beliefs (as cited in Carson, Butcher, and Mineka , 2000, p. 254).
2) Interpersonal Therapy (IPT)
It is noted that this therapy as strong and well as the cognitive one. That is
also evidence that show this therapy as effective as antidepressant drugs in which
able to run the course of milder cases, and even severe, of major depression.
Further, the patients who receive this therapy continually within once a month are
3) Family and Marital Therapy
This therapy included because as mentioned a little bit more before that
family and marriage problem can be stressors in a patient’s life, in which the
correlation is those unpleasant life situations may cause the depression to relapse
again and may require longer treatment. Therefore, the interference of family
member or spouse or couple needed to reduce the level of expressed emotion and
to prevent recurrence. It is also suggested that for married people who are
depressed and having marital conflict can join this marital therapy, in which this
therapy has been studied as well as cognitive therapy in reducing unipolar
depression.
7. Manic-Depressive Disorder (Bipolar Disorder)
a. Definition of Manic-Depressive Disorder
Carson, Butcher, and Mineka categorize manic or mania and depression as
mood disorder. Kraepelin described the disorder as “a series of attacks of elation
and depression, with periods of relative normality in between, and a generally
favorable prognosis” (as cited in Carson, Butcher, and Mineka, 2000, p. 220).
As mentioned before that manic-depressive disorder is the combination
between mania and depression. Therefore the meaning and concept of both can be
recognized separately. It is stated that mania is characterized by strong and
unrealistic feelings of enthusiasm and euphoria. On the other hand, depression is a
In addition, they say that some people can experience these kinds of mood
disorder at one time, but others can only experience the kind of depression. When
manic and depression occur in one time together, it is called bipolar disorder.
While, it is called unipolar disorder in the condition the individual only experience
depression (p. 210).
According to Wilson et. al. counter with Nathan, O’Leary, and Clark
(1996), mania is viewed as people who are highly lively and impulsive, that
means when they are highly lively they become hilarious and entertaining. But
then their mood and behavior can change spontaneously every time when they are
irritated with something. That means they are changeable or labile that gives
effect to their performance. They also can interrupt other people’s business. For
instance, they move constantly, talk loudly and continuously, they have grandiose
ideas, they go on a shopping spree, and even they do unrestrained sexual activity
(p. 195). Wilson et. al. also add that a manic mood is unrealistically expansive,
accompanied by the feeling that anything is possible.
According to Carson, Butcher, and Mineka, depression or called unipolar
disorder is unpleasant feeling when we are in situation as sadness,
discouragement, pessimism, and hopelessness about being able to improve
matters, but it usually does not last long (p. 212). That means that feeling can be
experienced for some episodes, but then it goes for some moments. Then it can
come and happen as the episode before. They also utter that the depression
They also state that depression is considered as normal if the depression is brief
and mild.
Coleman, in addition, affirms that the influence of emotional mood
experienced by the manic-depressive or bipolar disorder can be the cause of
extreme elation or depression (p. 340). Hence, he also tells that extreme
depression or elation can give crucial effects for the individuals’ emotion or mood
that also give side effect for their behavior disorder. Kraepelin also supports that
statement by describing the term of manic-depressive psychoses as “a series of
attacks of elation and depression, with periods of relative normality in between
and a generally favorable prognosis” (as cited in Coleman, 1976, p. 340).
Commonly, that disorder rates experienced higher by female than male.
The most sufferers are group of people in between ages 25-65 years old. In
addition, the children can possibly experience this disorder. Further, Coleman
explains that the patient of this disorder can experience many kinds of behavioral
disorder, such as delusions, hallucinations, suicide symptoms, etc.
b. Factors Causing Manic- Depressive
There are several factors in manic-depressive or bipolar disorder. The
factors are almost same as the unipolar one. Carson, Butcher, and Mineka (2000)
state that the biological factors are clearly dominant, while the psychosocial
factors do not get much attention unlike the biological do (pp. 243-250).
1) Biological Causal Factors
The genetic component is significant role to bipolar disorder. It is stronger
in bipolar disorder than in unipolar. Carson, Butcher, and Mineka mention one
study suggests that genetic material can influence the tendency of development of
bipolar disorder for about 80 percent.
b) Biochemical Factors
These factors related to the substance, such as drugs, which is used to treat
the manic-depressive patients. Whybrow explained that more recently it has been
suggested that norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine are all involved in
regulating our mood states. Therefore, if the disturbances or disequilibrium exist
in those balance neurotransmitters, it can be the main key why mood disorder can
cause mood or emotion up and down for the sufferers (as cited in Carson, Butcher,
and Mineka, 2000, p. 246). One issue that also stated by Carson, Butcher, and
Mineka reveals that lithium, the most effective and widely drug in the treatment of
bipolar disorder, can stabilize individuals from both depressive and manic
episodes.
c) Other Biological Causal Factors
Goodwin & Jamison and Whybrow also explain some significant
considerations related to the disturbances in biological rhythms in bipolar
disorder. They give details that during the manic episodes of bipolar, the patients
tend to sleep very little. While during depressive episodes, the patients tend to
sleep over (hypersomnia). In addition, Whybrow puts forward that bipolar patients
appear to be sensitive toward any changes in their daily phases (as cited in Carson,
2) Psychosocial Causal Factors
a) Stressful Life Events
Johnson & Miller propose a new study that finds the sufferers of this mood
disorder who have experienced negative life events of their life, they need three
times longer to recover than those without having negative life events. They also
make clarification why stressful events can affect and increase the chance of
illness to relapse. Since the effect of stressful events may give impact on
biological rhythms, in which the biological rhythms give strong implication in
bipolar disorder as discussed before (as cited in Carson, Butcher, and Mineka,
2000, p. 247).
Additionally, Swendsen et al also discuss the study that talks about the
patients of bipolar disorder who are extremely introverted or obsessional tend to
be more responsive to stress (as cited in Carson, Butcher, and Mineka, 2000, p.
248).
b) Psychodynamics Views
In Carson, Butcher, and Mineka, psychodynamic theorists view that
bipolar disorder as two different, but manic and depressive itself related each
other especially in defense-oriented strategies for dealing with severe stress. These
theorists view the shift from mania to depression or vice verse. These theorists say
that “the shift from mania to depression may tend to occur when the defensive
function of the manic reaction breaks down. Similarly, the shift from depression
inactivity and an inability to cope, finally feels compelled to attempt some
countermeasure, however desperate”.
Coleman (1976) in his Abnormal Psychology and Modern Life book also support that statement and further he also explain how the sufferers of
manic-depressive disorder try to defense themselves from the mood disorder they feel
(pp. 354-355). He says that in case of mania, the sufferers will tend to have
tremendous energy to deny their feelings of helplessness and hopelessness and
they will do many activities, such as go around of parties, do restless activities
with work, athletics, sexual affairs, and other crowded activities with aim to try to
forget the incident or threatening life situation they experience. While, the patients
experience depression, they tend to blame themselves for the difficulties that
happen in their life. They often look and recall at their past and they even accuse
themselves of selfishness, unfaithfulness, and hostile acts that did not occur.
3) Sociocultural Factors
a) A Belief in Self-Sufficiency
Carothers has observed and studied that in rural area the societies tend to
experience manic disorder, dissimilar with the modern area (in western societies)
where the societies tend to experience the depressive disorder. That can happen
since the societies who live in rural area, they are not personally responsible for
failures and misfortunes. That is contrary with modern societies who have highly
problem and responsibility for self-sufficiency. In Carothers’s view, it told that
confronted with problems of self-sufficiency, choice, and responsibility, which are
so prominent in Western cultures (as cited in Carson, Butcher, and Mineka, 2000,
p. 249).
b) Demographic Differences in Societies
There are many studies that show that bipolar disorder is more common in
the higher socioeconomic classes. It is also shown that the individual of bipolar
disorder come from families with higher status and tend to have more education
than do the unipolar one. The relation of that bipolar and higher socioeconomic
status is perhaps the bipolar leads to increase achievement and accomplishment.
The evidence of that case can be seen from some occupation, such as poets,
writers, composers, and artists.
c. Kinds of Manic-Depressive Psychoses
Within the study of manic-depressive psychoses, there are some subgroups
namely manic and depressed types. Each of them has subgroup, as Coleman
(1976, pp. 341-347) mentions as follow:
1) Manic Types
Coleman defines that this manic types characterized by variety degrees of
elation and psychomotor overactivity. Those degrees categorized from the mildest
to extreme degrees. They are defined as follow:
a) Hypomania
This is the mildest type of manic reaction. This mildest type is described
experiences this type commonly feels great, he has unlimited confidence in his
ability and knowledge, and he also without doubt and quickly express his opinion
on all subject. He thinks speedily and he may particularly become amusing and
entertaining person. The person also feels tireless that he acquires mostly no sleep
and feels that he does not need anything. He has many continual activities to do
during the day, such as talking, visiting, keeping luncheon and other
appointments, telephoning, writing, and working on various sure-fire schemes.
For the overall depiction, Coleman further reveals that in the beginning the
person seems to be an aggressive, brilliant, sociable individual who has many
worthy enthusiasm and great plans for the future. At first, he is an exciting person
to be with, but then he soon shows his self-centeredness, becomes dominant,
monopolizes the conversation, and shows difficulty in sticking to the subject. He
cannot accept or intolerance of any criticism and he even denounce as stupid fool
people who disagree with his opinion or idea and also who interfere with his
plans. In addition, he is ready with a rebuttal to against people who dare to
interfere or criticism his business. He also seldom makes his plans happen and
very few of his plans are ever put into action. For his plans or activities to be
done, he easily rationalizes them and also admits no mistakes. He spends money
recklessly and in a short period of time he may waste his entire savings.
b) Acute mania
This second type of manic reaction characterized by elation and pressure
of activities become more obvious and he may laugh boisterously and talk at the
domineering, and may command everyone around him as if he is a super dictator.
His bad temper is easily irritated anytime and his mood can change quickly from
fun to anger. Both before and during hospitalization, brutal behavior is commonly
showed. He may breaks up the furniture or things around him, defaces the walls,
and attacks nurses and other patients. He is continually walking back and forth,
gesturing to himself, singing, and slamming on the walls and door, demanding
release.
Further, the individual has a wild flight of ideas. His speech becomes
incoherent and cannot be comprehended. There may be some confusion and
disorientation for time, place, and person. He presents temporary delusions and
hallucinations, in which he hallucinates about the grandiose ideas of his wealth
and abilities or he may hallucinate that he hears voices and do conversations with
person whom he imagines to be present.
c) Delirious mania
This is the most dangerous, severe, and extreme type of manic reaction.
The characteristic of this kind of manic reaction are the individual is confused,
wildly excited, and also brutal. He shows so incoherent and disoriented, that it is
difficult to have conversation with him or hold his attention. He may experience
vivid auditory and visual hallucinations. He also shows his restlessness by
behaving like singing, screaming, gesturing, and incoherent shouting. His
condition of personal habits totally gets worse. It is unsafe to be close with him
since he may seriously injure himself and others. He also loses his weight quickly
