Meeting IV
Meeting IV
Linguistic Varieties and
Linguistic Varieties and
Multilingual Nation
Multilingual Nation
Key terms
Key terms
Repertoire
Repertoire
Vernacular
Vernacular
Standard
Standard
Lingua Franca
Lingua Franca
Pidgin
Pidgin
Example I
Example I
Kalala is 16 years old. He lives in Bukavu, an Kalala is 16 years old. He lives in Bukavu, an
African city in eastern Zaire with a population of
African city in eastern Zaire with a population of
about 220,000. It is a multicultural, multilingual
about 220,000. It is a multicultural, multilingual
city with more people coming and going for
city with more people coming and going for
work and business reasons than people who
work and business reasons than people who
live there permanently. Over forty groups
live there permanently. Over forty groups
speaking different languages can be found in
speaking different languages can be found in
the city. Kalala, like many of his friends, is
the city. Kalala, like many of his friends, is
unemployed. He spends his days roaming the
unemployed. He spends his days roaming the
streets, stopping off periodically at regular
streets, stopping off periodically at regular
meeting places in the market-place, in the
meeting places in the market-place, in the
park, or at a friend’s place. During a normal day
park, or at a friend’s place. During a normal day
he uses at least three different varieties or
he uses at least three different varieties or
codes, and sometimes more.
Example II
Example II
Mr. Patel is a spice merchant who lives in Bombay. Mr. Patel is a spice merchant who lives in Bombay. When he gets up he talks to his wife and children in
When he gets up he talks to his wife and children in
Kathiawari, their dialect of Gujerati. Every morning
Kathiawari, their dialect of Gujerati. Every morning
he goes to the local market where he uses Marathi
he goes to the local market where he uses Marathi
to buy his vegetables. At the railway station he buys
to buy his vegetables. At the railway station he buys
his ticket into Bombay city using Hindustani, the
his ticket into Bombay city using Hindustani, the
working person’s lingua franca. He reads his Gujerati
working person’s lingua franca. He reads his Gujerati
newspaper on the train, and when he gets to work
newspaper on the train, and when he gets to work
he uses enough English to enjoy an English cricket
he uses enough English to enjoy an English cricket
commentary on the radio, but he would find an
commentary on the radio, but he would find an
English film difficult to follow. However, since the
English film difficult to follow. However, since the
spice business is flourishing, his children go to an
spice business is flourishing, his children go to an
English-medium school, so he expects them to be
English-medium school, so he expects them to be
more proficient in English than he is.
Vernacular language
Vernacular language
1.
1.
refers to a language which has not
refers to a language which has not
been standardized and which does
been standardized and which does
not have official status;
not have official status;
2.
2.
refers to the way it is acquired-
refers to the way it is acquired-
usually the first languages learned by
usually the first languages learned by
people in multilingual communities;
people in multilingual communities;
3.
3.
used for relatively narrow range of
used for relatively narrow range of
informal functions
vernacular language
vernacular language
4. the most colloquial variety in a
4. the most colloquial variety in a
person’s linguistic repertoire
person’s linguistic repertoire
5. the variety used for
5. the variety used for
communication in the home and
communication in the home and
with close friends
with close friends
6. the language of solidarity
6. the language of solidarity
between people from the same
between people from the same
An influential 1951
An influential 1951
Unesco report
Unesco report
Vernacular language
Vernacular language
•
The first language of a group socially
The first language of a group socially
or politically dominated by a group
or politically dominated by a group
with a different language
with a different language
e.g. ‘Spain’ in USA in which English
e.g. ‘Spain’ in USA in which English
dominates, but not in Spain itself
dominates, but not in Spain itself
(Spain as an official language)
(Spain as an official language)
* A language which is not an official
* A language which is not an official
language in a particular context.
The extension of
The extension of
vernacular language
vernacular language
definitions
definitions
1.
1.
in a monolingual community: the
in a monolingual community: the
most informal and colloquial
most informal and colloquial
variety of a language which may
variety of a language which may
also have a standardized variety
also have a standardized variety
2.
2.
A language used for everyday
A language used for everyday
interaction, without implying
interaction, without implying
that it is appropriate only in
that it is appropriate only in
Standard languages
Standard languages
more difficult to define rather than
more difficult to define rather than
vernacular language
vernacular language
used in many different ways by
used in many different ways by
linguists
linguists
1.1.
one which is written,
one which is written,
2.
2.
which has undergone some degree
which has undergone some degree
of regularizations or codifications
of regularizations or codifications
(e.g. in a grammar and a dictionary)
Standard languages
Standard languages
3. It is recognized as a prestigious
3. It is recognized as a prestigious
variety or code by a community
variety or code by a community
4. It is used for H functions
4. It is used for H functions
alongside the diversity of L
alongside the diversity of L
varieties
varieties
5. Standard varieties are codified
5. Standard varieties are codified
Standard languages
Standard languages
Standard English emerged naturally in the 15Standard English emerged naturally in the 15thth century from century from
a variety of regional English dialects
a variety of regional English dialects
It was because this variety was used by the Court and the It was because this variety was used by the Court and the influential merchants of London.
influential merchants of London.
The area where the largest proportion of the English The area where the largest proportion of the English
population lived in a neat triangle containing London: the
population lived in a neat triangle containing London: the
Court was based and the two universities, Oxford and
Court was based and the two universities, Oxford and
Cambridge, an important agricultural and business are, the
Cambridge, an important agricultural and business are, the
hub of international trade and exports to Calais, the centre
hub of international trade and exports to Calais, the centre
of political, social and intellectual life in England.
of political, social and intellectual life in England.
Standard varieties are codified varieties. Standard varieties are codified varieties.
It has served as a useful variety for communication.It has served as a useful variety for communication. Local varieties of English has developed in Malaysia, Local varieties of English has developed in Malaysia,
Singapore, India, and many African countries.
Singapore, India, and many African countries.
codification
codification
1.
1.
achieved through grammars and
achieved through grammars and
dictionaries
dictionaries
2.
2.
part of the development of
part of the development of
every standard variety
every standard variety
3.
3.
accelerated in the case of
accelerated in the case of
English by the introduction of
English by the introduction of
Three essential criteria
Three essential criteria
of standard language
of standard language
1.
1.
Influential or prestigious variety;
Influential or prestigious variety;
2.
2.
Codified and stabilized;
Codified and stabilized;
3.
3.
Served H functions (court,
Served H functions (court,
Standard Language
Standard Language
Standard language is a particular dialect
Standard language is a particular dialect
which has gained its special position as a
which has gained its special position as a
result of social, economic, and political
result of social, economic, and political
influences.
influences.
A standard dialect has no particular
A standard dialect has no particular
linguistic merits, whether in vocabulary,
linguistic merits, whether in vocabulary,
grammar, or pronunciation
grammar, or pronunciation
It is simply the dialect of those who are
It is simply the dialect of those who are
politically powerful and socially prestigious.
Lingua Francas
Lingua Francas
A language serving as a regular means of
A language serving as a regular means of
communication between different linguistic
communication between different linguistic
groups in a multilingual speech community
groups in a multilingual speech community
A language used for communication between
A language used for communication between
people whose first languages differ
people whose first languages differ
e.g.
e.g.
1. academics and experts meet at
1. academics and experts meet at
international
international
conferences or when politicians
conferences or when politicians
arrange
arrange
summit meetings; English, French,
summit meetings; English, French,
or
Example III
Example III
In the 1960s, a Catholic nun, Sister Dominic, was sent In the 1960s, a Catholic nun, Sister Dominic, was sent
to Rome for a meeting between nuns from different
to Rome for a meeting between nuns from different
countries. She spoke no Italian but she had been
countries. She spoke no Italian but she had been
managing pretty well with her French and English until
managing pretty well with her French and English until
she lost her purse on evening. She simply was not
she lost her purse on evening. She simply was not
able to explain to the local police officer how she had
able to explain to the local police officer how she had
lost her purse. A priest overheard her struggles and
lost her purse. A priest overheard her struggles and
came to her rescue. They proceeded to explain their
came to her rescue. They proceeded to explain their
linguistic repertoires trying to find a language they
linguistic repertoires trying to find a language they
shared. He came from Brazil and spoke Portuguese
shared. He came from Brazil and spoke Portuguese
and Spanish, but he had been living in Rome for some
and Spanish, but he had been living in Rome for some
time, and so he was by then familiar with the local
time, and so he was by then familiar with the local
variety of Italian. Finally, they found a language in
variety of Italian. Finally, they found a language in
which they could communicate- Latin. At that time
which they could communicate- Latin. At that time
Latin was still the language of church services and
Latin was still the language of church services and
both learned Latin to university level.
Lingua Francas
Lingua Francas
In some countries the most useful and widely used In some countries the most useful and widely used
lingua franca is an official language or the national
lingua franca is an official language or the national
language.
language.
e.g. e.g.
1. Swahili in Tanzania
1. Swahili in Tanzania
2. Tok Pisin in Papua New Guinea
2. Tok Pisin in Papua New Guinea
3. Russian among a hundred different vernaculars
3. Russian among a hundred different vernaculars
In multilingual communities, lingua franca may In multilingual communities, lingua franca may
eventually displace the vernaculars.
eventually displace the vernaculars.
Often develop initially as trade languagesOften develop initially as trade languages
e.g. ‘Hausa’ in west Africa, ‘Swahili’ in East
e.g. ‘Hausa’ in west Africa, ‘Swahili’ in East
Africa-the becomes national language of Tanzania. Tok
the becomes national language of Tanzania. Tok
Pisin has a similar experience like Swahili.
Lingua Franca
Lingua Franca
UNESCO
UNESCO
• A language used habitually by people whose A language used habitually by people whose
mother tongue are different in order to facilitate
mother tongue are different in order to facilitate
communication between them.
communication between them.
• A variety of other termsA variety of other terms
1. a trade language (Hausa in west africa &
1. a trade language (Hausa in west africa &
Swahili –EA)
Swahili –EA)
2. a contact language (Greek Koine in The ancient
2. a contact language (Greek Koine in The ancient
world)
world)
3. an international language (English throughout
3. an international language (English throughout
the world)
the world)
4. an auxiliary language
Pidgin
Pidgin
A language which has no native speakers.A language which has no native speakers.
develop as a means of communication develop as a means of communication
between people who do not have a common between people who do not have a common language
language
arise when two groups with different arise when two groups with different
languages are communicating in a situation languages are communicating in a situation where there is also a third dominant language where there is also a third dominant language used almost exclusively for referential rather used almost exclusively for referential rather
than affective functions than affective functions
used for specific functions like buying, selling, used for specific functions like buying, selling, or animal hides, rather than to signal social or animal hides, rather than to signal social distinctions or expressed politeness
pidgin
pidgin
1.
1.
has no native speakers.
has no native speakers.
2.
2.
As a means of communication between
As a means of communication between
people who do not have a common
people who do not have a common
language.
language.
3.
3.
Both contribute to the sounds, vocabulary,
Both contribute to the sounds, vocabulary,
the grammatical features, and some
the grammatical features, and some
additional features
additional features
4.
4.
The prestigious language contribute much
The prestigious language contribute much
on vocabulary and the vernacular
on vocabulary and the vernacular
languages on the grammar of the
languages on the grammar of the
developing pidgin
Pidgin
Pidgin
5. simplified structure and a small
5. simplified structure and a small
vocabulary compared with fully
vocabulary compared with fully
develop languages
develop languages
6. short life and disappear if the
6. short life and disappear if the
Three identifying
Three identifying
characteristics of pidgin
characteristics of pidgin
1.
1.
It is used in restricted domains
It is used in restricted domains
and functions
and functions
2.
2.
It has a simplified structure
It has a simplified structure
compared to the source
compared to the source
languages
languages
3.
3.
Low prestige and attracts
Low prestige and attracts
negative attitudes-especially
negative attitudes-especially
Creole
Creole
1.
1.
A pidgin which has acquired
A pidgin which has acquired
native speakers
native speakers
2.
2.
They are learned by children as
They are learned by children as
their first language and used in
their first language and used in
a wide range of domains.
a wide range of domains.
3.
3.
They become more structurally
They become more structurally
Functions
Functions
Pidgin can become lingua franca.
Pidgin can become lingua franca.
Once a Creole has developed it
Once a Creole has developed it
can be used for all the functions
can be used for all the functions
of language, politics, education,
of language, politics, education,
attitudes
attitudes
Outsiders’ attitudes to Creole are
Outsiders’ attitudes to Creole are
often as negative as their attitude
often as negative as their attitude
to pidgin
to pidgin
This is not always the case for
This is not always the case for
Origin and endings
Origin and endings
found in every continent
found in every continent
Most are based on one of seven
Most are based on one of seven
European languages; English,
European languages; English,
French, Spanish, Portuguese,
French, Spanish, Portuguese,
The debate toward the
The debate toward the
origin of pidgin
origin of pidgin
1.
1. All pidgins and creoles have a common origin.All pidgins and creoles have a common origin.
2.
2. Each pidgin arises and develops independently.Each pidgin arises and develops independently.
They account for the similarities by pointing two
They account for the similarities by pointing two
types of constraints;
types of constraints;
1.
1. Pidgins arise in different contexts but for the Pidgins arise in different contexts but for the
same kinds of basic functions.
same kinds of basic functions.
2.
2. These functions are expressed through structural These functions are expressed through structural
processes which seem universal to all situations
processes which seem universal to all situations
of language development-such as simplification
of language development-such as simplification
and reduction of redundant features
The origin of Creole
The origin of Creole
There are a variety of answers
There are a variety of answers
depending on the social context.
depending on the social context.
1.
1.
In the societies with rigid divisions, a
In the societies with rigid divisions, a
Creole remains as a stable L variety
Creole remains as a stable L variety
alongside an officially sanctioned H
alongside an officially sanctioned H
variety.
variety.
2.
2.
Where the social barriers are more
Where the social barriers are more
fluid, the Creole may develop towards
fluid, the Creole may develop towards
the standard language
the standard language
3. used side by side with standard
3. used side by side with standard
variety
variety
→ standard variety → a
→ standard variety → a
continuum of varieties between the
continuum of varieties between the
standard and creole
standard and creole
4. may be adopted as an official language
4. may be adopted as an official language
e.g. Tok Pisin (PNG)
e.g. Tok Pisin (PNG)
