xvii ABSTRACT
Vivi Muryanti. 2016. Teachers’ Beliefs about Teaching English to Young Learners in Primary School: A Study of Classroom Practice. Yogyakarta: The Graduate Program in English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University.
An English lesson should be organized in such a way to optimize the English teaching and learning process. The organization of the English lesson is mainly the result of what are believed by the teachers. Therefore, the teachers‟ beliefs are significant in the English teaching and learning process since they will greatly influence the teachers‟ practices in the classroom. Particularly in teaching English to young learners in primary school, the teachers‟ beliefs are expected to be suitable with the special characteristics of the young learners which are different with adolescent or adult learners. By having such kind of beliefs, the English teachers in primary school have the great opportunities to optimize the teaching and learning process for the young learners. Referring to the importance of the teachers‟ beliefs above, this research aims to answer the research question: What are the teachers‟ beliefs about teaching English to young learners in primary school based on their classroom practices?
In order to achieve the aim of this research, the qualitative method was applied. The qualitative method was chosen because this method enabled the researcher to provide a detailed understanding of actions, intentions, and behaviours in a particular setting and also gave voices to the participants to describe their interpretations in identifying the beliefs of the teachers which underlie the teachers‟ actions and attitudes in the primary classroom. Furthermore, the focus group discussion was used as the data gathering technique in this research in order to gain deep and insightful ideas from the participants about the topic of this research. After that, the results of the focus group discussion were presented narratively and interpreted by using the principles of TEYL and theories of belief.
xviii
xix ABSTRAK
Vivi Muryanti. 2016. Teachers’ Beliefs about Teaching English to Young Learners in Primary School: A Study of Classroom Practice. Yogyakarta: Program Pasca Sarjana Kajian Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Setiap pelajaran Bahasa Inggris harus disusun sedemikian rupa untuk mencapai proses mengajar dan belajar yang optimal. Pengorganisasian pelajaran Bahasa Inggris pada dasarnya merupakan hasil dari apa yang diyakini oleh para guru. Oleh karena itu, keyakinan para guru sangat mendasar dalam proses mengajar dan belajar Bahasa Inggris karena keyakinan tersebut sangat berpengaruh besar terhadap tindakan-tindakan para guru di dalam kelas. Terutama dalam mengajarkan Bahasa Inggris kepada para pembelajar muda di sekolah dasar, keyakinan para guru hendaknya sesuai dengan karakteristik-karakteristik istimewa dari para pembelajar muda tersebut yang berbeda dengan para pembelajar remaja dan dewasa. Dengan memiliki keyakinan-keyakinan yang sesuai tersebut, para guru di sekolah dasar mempunyai kesempatan yang besar untuk mengoptimalkan proses belajar dan mengajar untuk para pembelajar muda. Dengan mempertimbangkan pentingnya peranan keyakinan para guru, penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menjawab pertanyaan berikut: ”Apa saja keyakinan-keyakinan para guru tentang mengajar Bahasa Inggris kepada para pembelajar muda di sekolah dasar berdasarkan tindakan-tindakan kelas para guru tersebut?”
Guna mencapai tujuan yang dikehendaki, penelitian ini menerapkan metode kualitatif. Metode kualitatif ini digunakan karena metode ini memungkinkan peneliti untuk memberikan pengertian mendalam tentang segala tindakan, maksud, dan perilaku pada tempat atau keadaan tertentu, serta memberikan kesempatan pada para partisipan untuk menyampaikan interpretasi mereka tentang keyakinan-keyakinan para guru yang mendasari tindakan-tindakan dan sikap-sikap mereka di dalam kelas. Kemudian, diskusi grup terfokus digunakan sebagai teknik pengumpulan data dalam penelitian ini guna memperoleh pendapat-pendapat yang mendalam dan mendasar dari para partisipan tentang topik yang diteliti. Setelah itu, hasil-hasil dari diskusi grup terfokus tersebut disajikan secara naratif and diinterpretasikan berdasarkan prinsip-prinsip mengajarkan Bahasa Inggris kepada pembelajar muda dan juga berdasarkan teori-teori tentang keyakinan.
xx
berdasarkan teori-teori keyakinan, diperoleh beberapa hasil interpretasi sebagai berikut. Pertama, keyakinan para guru tentang bahasa (bahasa Inggris) berdasarkan pandangan struktural. Kedua, keyakinan para guru tentang pembelajaran bahasa berdasarkan pada pandangan bahwa pembelajaran bahasa adalah sebuah proses yang harus didukung kondisi yang sesuai agar proses pembelajaran dapat terjadi. Terakhir, tentang pengajaran bahasa, guru-guru tersebut meyakini bahwa pengajaran adalah sebuah proses pemindahan pengetahuan dan manajemen pembelajaran.
TEACHERS‟ BELIEFS ABOUT TEACHING ENGLISH
TO YOUNG LEARNERS IN PRIMARY SCHOOL:
A STUDY OF CLASSROOM PRACTICE
A Thesis Presented to
The Graduate Program in English Language Studies in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree of
Magister Humaniora (M.Hum.) in
English Language Studies
by
Vivi Muryanti 136332012
Sanata Dharma University Yogyakarta
i
TEACHERS‟ BELIEFS ABOUT TEACHING ENGLISH TO YOUNG LEARNERS IN PRIMARY SCHOOL:
A STUDY OF CLASSROOM PRACTICE
A Thesis Presented to
The Graduate Program in English Language Studies in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree of
Magister Humaniora (M.Hum.) in
English Language Studies
by
Vivi Muryanti 136332012
Sanata Dharma University Yogyakarta
v
DEDICATION PAGE
This thesis is dedicated to:
Jesus Christ (my Saviour)
Then Tjhung Fat (my beloved father)
Murjana Burhan (my beloved mother)
vii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
First of all, I would like to grant my deepest gratefulness to Jesus Christ for everything that He has done in my life especially during my study in this graduate program. All happens because of His never-ending grace and never-failing love.
Then, my greatest gratitude is addressed to F.X. Mukarto, Ph.D, my thesis advisor, for his helps and guidance through the completion of this thesis. In addition, my great appreciation is addressed to my thesis reviewers, Dr. B.B. Dwijatmoko, M.A. and Dr. E. Sunarto, M.Hum. for their careful reading and insightful suggestions to my thesis. My gratitude also goes to all my lecturers: Dr. J. Bismoko, Dr. Fr. B. Alip, M.Pd., M.A., P. Sarwoto, S.S., M.A., Ph.D., Widya Kiswara, M.Hum., and Josephine Sri Murwani, M.Hum., for the enlightening knowledge given to me during my study. My gratefulness also goes to Mbak Marni and Pak Mul for their sincere helps during my days at campus.
In addition, I would like also to express my appreciation to all my friends in KBI for the precious sharing moments. Next, my special thank goes to Kristin, Joan, Bundo Wulan, Sir Ryan, Anin, Marita, Caca, Ulan, Rini, Putri, Paus, and Adri for being with me through the hard time. Then, I am also deeply indebted to all my participants for the nice discussions and sincere helps given to me within the data collection process.
Last but not least, I owe special thanks to my parents, my brothers, my sister in law, my cute nephews, and my big family in Pangkalpinang for their unconditional love and support during my study. May God always bless them all!
viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE ... i
ADVISOR‟S APPROVAL PAGE ... ii
THESIS COMMITTEE‟S APPROVAL PAGE ... iii
STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY ... iv
DEDICATION PAGE ... v
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ... vi
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ... vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ... viii
LIST OF TABLES ... xii
LIST OF FIGURES ... xiii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ... xiv
LIST OF APPENDICES ... xv
LIST OF CODES ... xvi
ABSTRACT ... xvii
ABSTRAK ... xix
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION A.RESEARCH BACKGROUND ... 1
B.PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION ... 6
C.PROBLEM LIMITATION ... 7
D.PROBLEM FORMULATION ... 8
E. RESEARCH GOALS ... 9
ix CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW
A. THEORETICAL REVIEW ... 11
1. Teachers‟ Beliefs ... 11
a. Definition of teachers‟ beliefs ... 12
b. Sources of teachers‟ beliefs ... 14
c. Areas of teachers‟ beliefs ... 16
1) Beliefs about language ... 18
2) Beliefs about learning ... 19
3) Beliefs about teaching ... 20
2. Teaching English to Young Learners in Primary School ... 21
a. Definition of young learners in primary school ... 21
b. Characteristics of young learners in primary school ... 22
c. Principles of teaching English to young learners in primary schools ... 26
3. Classroom Practice ... 30
a. Role of learners, teachers, and materials ... 31
b. Teaching activity ... 33
1) Lesson structure ... 33
2) Teaching technique ... 36
3) Classroom management ... 38
c. Teaching media ... 41
1) Flashcards ... 41
2) Songs ... 43
3) Games ... 45
x
4. Teachers‟ Beliefs and Classroom Practice ... 50
B. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ... 51
CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY A. RESEARCH METHOD ... 55
B. RESEARCH PROCEDURE ... 56
C.RESEARCH OBJECT ... 59
D.DATA ... 59
1. Nature of Data... 59
2. Sources of Data ... 60
a. Participants ... 60
b. Settings ... 61
E. DATA GATHERING ... 62
F. DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION ... 63
G.TRUSTWORTHINESS ... 64
CHAPTER IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS A.RESULTS ... 66
1. The Role of Learners, Teachers, and Materials. ... 66
a. The role of learners ... 67
b. The role of teachers ... 73
c. The role of materials ... 76
2. Teaching Activity ... 79
a. Lesson structure ... 80
b. Teaching technique ... 85
xi
3. Teaching Media ... 94
a. Flashcards ... 94
b. Songs ... 95
c. Games ... 99
4. Teachers‟ Use of Language ... 101
B. DISCUSSIONS ... 104
1. Summary of the Teachers‟ Belief ... 104
2. Classification of the Teachers‟ Beliefs ... 110
a. Teachers‟ beliefs about language ... 110
b. Teachers‟ beliefs about language learning ... 111
c. Teachers‟ beliefs about language teaching ... 111
3. Interpretation of the Teachers‟ Beliefs ... 112
a. The interpretation of teachers‟ beliefs based on theories of TEYL ... 112
b. The interpretation of teachers‟ beliefs based on theories of beliefs ... 115
1) Teachers‟ beliefs about language ... 115
2) Teachers‟ beliefs about language learning ... 116
3) Teachers‟ beliefs about language teaching ... 116
CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS A. CONCLUSIONS ... 118
B. IMPLICATIONS ... 121
C. RECOMMENDATIONS ... 122
BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 124
xii
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 2.1: CHARACTERISTIC OF YOUNG CHILDREN IN
PRIMARY SCHOOL...……… 25
TABLE 2.2: CHARACTERISTICS OF YOUNG CHILDREN AS
LANGUAGE LEARNERS ... ……… 26
TABLE 3.1: INFORMATION ABOUT THE PARTICIPANTS... 61
xiii
LIST OF FIGURES
xiv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
TEYL : teaching English to young learner FGD : focus group discussion
YLs : young learners
CPH : critical period hypothesis ELT : English language teaching ESL : English as Second Language EFL : English as Foreign Language AFTA : Asian free trade area
xv
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix 1 The Transcript of Video-Recording ... 128
Appendix 2 The Transcript of FGD 1 ... 137
Appendix 3 The Transcript of FGD 2 ... 163
xvi
LIST OF CODES
A1 = Appendix 1
A2 = Appendix 2
A3 = Appendix 3
P1 = Participant 1 P2 = Participant 2 P3 = Participant 3 P4 = Participant 4
R = Researcher
Example : A2/18/P1
A2 = Appendix 2
18 = Exchange no.18
xvii ABSTRACT
Vivi Muryanti. 2016. Teachers’ Beliefs about Teaching English to Young Learners in Primary School: A Study of Classroom Practice. Yogyakarta: The Graduate Program in English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University.
An English lesson should be organized in such a way to optimize the English teaching and learning process. The organization of the English lesson is mainly the result of what are believed by the teachers. Therefore, the teachers‟ beliefs are significant in the English teaching and learning process since they will greatly influence the teachers‟ practices in the classroom. Particularly in teaching English to young learners in primary school, the teachers‟ beliefs are expected to be suitable with the special characteristics of the young learners which are different with adolescent or adult learners. By having such kind of beliefs, the English teachers in primary school have the great opportunities to optimize the teaching and learning process for the young learners. Referring to the importance of the teachers‟ beliefs above, this research aims to answer the research question:
What are the teachers‟ beliefs about teaching English to young learners in
primary school based on their classroom practices?
In order to achieve the aim of this research, the qualitative method was applied. The qualitative method was chosen because this method enabled the researcher to provide a detailed understanding of actions, intentions, and behaviours in a particular setting and also gave voices to the participants to describe their interpretations in identifying the beliefs of the teachers which underlie the teachers‟ actions and attitudes in the primary classroom. Furthermore, the focus group discussion was used as the data gathering technique in this research in order to gain deep and insightful ideas from the participants about the topic of this research. After that, the results of the focus group discussion were presented narratively and interpreted by using the principles of TEYL and theories of belief.
xviii
xix ABSTRAK
Vivi Muryanti. 2016. Teachers’ Beliefs about Teaching English to Young Learners in Primary School: A Study of Classroom Practice. Yogyakarta: Program Pasca Sarjana Kajian Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Setiap pelajaran Bahasa Inggris harus disusun sedemikian rupa untuk mencapai proses mengajar dan belajar yang optimal. Pengorganisasian pelajaran Bahasa Inggris pada dasarnya merupakan hasil dari apa yang diyakini oleh para guru. Oleh karena itu, keyakinan para guru sangat mendasar dalam proses mengajar dan belajar Bahasa Inggris karena keyakinan tersebut sangat berpengaruh besar terhadap tindakan-tindakan para guru di dalam kelas. Terutama dalam mengajarkan Bahasa Inggris kepada para pembelajar muda di sekolah dasar, keyakinan para guru hendaknya sesuai dengan karakteristik-karakteristik istimewa dari para pembelajar muda tersebut yang berbeda dengan para pembelajar remaja dan dewasa. Dengan memiliki keyakinan-keyakinan yang sesuai tersebut, para guru di sekolah dasar mempunyai kesempatan yang besar untuk mengoptimalkan proses belajar dan mengajar untuk para pembelajar muda. Dengan mempertimbangkan pentingnya peranan keyakinan para guru, penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menjawab pertanyaan berikut: ”Apa saja keyakinan-keyakinan para guru tentang mengajar Bahasa Inggris kepada para pembelajar muda di sekolah dasar berdasarkan tindakan-tindakan kelas para guru tersebut?”
Guna mencapai tujuan yang dikehendaki, penelitian ini menerapkan metode kualitatif. Metode kualitatif ini digunakan karena metode ini memungkinkan peneliti untuk memberikan pengertian mendalam tentang segala tindakan, maksud, dan perilaku pada tempat atau keadaan tertentu, serta memberikan kesempatan pada para partisipan untuk menyampaikan interpretasi mereka tentang keyakinan-keyakinan para guru yang mendasari tindakan-tindakan dan sikap-sikap mereka di dalam kelas. Kemudian, diskusi grup terfokus digunakan sebagai teknik pengumpulan data dalam penelitian ini guna memperoleh pendapat-pendapat yang mendalam dan mendasar dari para partisipan tentang topik yang diteliti. Setelah itu, hasil-hasil dari diskusi grup terfokus tersebut disajikan secara naratif and diinterpretasikan berdasarkan prinsip-prinsip mengajarkan Bahasa Inggris kepada pembelajar muda dan juga berdasarkan teori-teori tentang keyakinan.
xx
berdasarkan teori-teori keyakinan, diperoleh beberapa hasil interpretasi sebagai berikut. Pertama, keyakinan para guru tentang bahasa (bahasa Inggris) berdasarkan pandangan struktural. Kedua, keyakinan para guru tentang pembelajaran bahasa berdasarkan pada pandangan bahwa pembelajaran bahasa adalah sebuah proses yang harus didukung kondisi yang sesuai agar proses pembelajaran dapat terjadi. Terakhir, tentang pengajaran bahasa, guru-guru tersebut meyakini bahwa pengajaran adalah sebuah proses pemindahan pengetahuan dan manajemen pembelajaran.
1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
This research attempts to identify the beliefs of English teachers who teach in primary schools about teaching English to young learners. Related to the topic of the research, this introductory chapter discusses the worldwide trend of teaching English to young learners particularly to primary students and the importance of the study about teachers‟ beliefs that are formulated in the research
background. In addition, the problem identification, the problem limitation, the statement of research question, the research goals and the research benefits are also discussed in this chapter respectively.
A.RESEARCH BACKGROUND
The trend of teaching English at younger years has attracted much interest of many researchers all over the world. As remarked by Copland and Garton, the teaching English to young learners (YLs) has become the emphasis of significant European and global studies, and also the “focus of numerous ELT professional
development networks and forums around the world” (2014:223). Various key
issues in the fields, various contexts of learning, various approaches, and even various classroom practices are investigated to highlight the significance of teaching English to young learners (YLs).
For Indonesian context, Septy (2000:10) proposes three reasons that underlie English language teaching in primary schools in Indonesia namely ideological, theoretical, and practical reasons. The ideological reasons are influenced by three factors. First factor is National Education System Act which implements the English curriculum that is linked to include English language teaching (ELT) in both primary and lower secondary schools as a continuum to higher education. Second factor is the second Long Term Development Plan which emphasizes on human resources development. Related with the implementation of Asian Free Trade Area (AFTA), English is considered as an important instrument to develop the quality of human resources in Indonesia to compete better in the AFTA. Finally, the third factor is the Regional Autonomy Policy that empowers every region to direct the objective and practice of its English language teaching (ELT). As the result, many regions decide to introduce English in primary schools as an elective and local content subject.
Meanwhile, the other reason that underlies English language teaching in primary schools in Indonesia is known as the theoretical reason. This reason is related to the benefit of young age in learning foreign language. It is believed that the younger learner of a foreign language can produce the language better (Septy, 2000:5). This reason is based on theories proposed by Richard (1987) and Bialystok and Hakuta (1999) that younger learner has better capacities in learning a language (in Septy, 2000:6).
reason is based on language transfer theory which states that second or foreign language (L2) can be learnt easier by applying first language (L1) system in the process of learning (Ellis, 1994; Gass and Selinker, 1994 in Septy, 2000: 6).
Based on the explanation above, it can be inferred that the trend of teaching English to young learners still requires many studies about its significant roles in improving the quality of English language teaching all around the world. Besides, there are still many questionable sides of this trend to be applied optimally around the world particularly to the countries where English is still a foreign language. In addition, there are also many interesting things about this trend that can be studied further. Taking for example, how this trend really works in ESL or EFL contexts and how far it contributes to the development of ELT related with the mastery of English which finally leads to the improvement of life quality.
Related to the trend and its questionable sides being explained above, this research attempts to discover the beliefs of Indonesian English teachers in primary schools about teaching English to young learners. The study of belief is important since it is the “basisof many decisions, choices, and actions of individuals” (Borg,
2001 in Uztosun, 2013:20). Meanwhile, the teachers‟ beliefs are important to be
studied since what a teacher perceives or believes about teaching and learning will greatly contribute to their teaching (Doyle, Goh, & Zhang, 2004:1). In addition, the understanding of teachers‟ beliefs can give significant insight about some
aspects in the professional world of teachers (Gahin, 2001 in Uztosun, 2013:20). Furthermore, Wedel (2009) also remarked that teachers‟ beliefs are important to
that the study of beliefs particularly teachers‟ beliefs are significant to be conducted since teachers‟ beliefs have important roles in leading the educational
system to a better direction.
In the consideration of its significance, the study of teachers‟ belief in all
educational levels has attracted the interests of many researchers for almost two decades. However, there are not many studies on teachers‟ beliefs which
connected to the practices in the real classroom. Most of the studies on teachers‟
beliefs and classroom practices only use questionnaires and interviews in obtaining the data (Richards, Gallo & Renandya, 2001 in Farrell & Ives, 2015) and only few studies combine the questionnaires and interviews with classroom observation (Kuzborska, 2011 in Farrell & Ives, 2015).
The study of this research tries to acknowledge the teachers‟ beliefs by doing observation on their practices in the real classroom. Merriam (2001) remarked that the classroom observation enables the observers to understand the beliefs by using their own perspectives and evidences in the classroom rather than using the information from the teachers‟ perspective (in Farrell & Ives, 2015).
Moreover, teachers‟ thinking process (teachers‟ beliefs) is closely related with
their actions whose effects can be observed (Clark and Peterson, 1986 in Uztosun, 2013:22). This significant relationship between teachers‟ beliefs and practices is
also supported by some researchers (Bai & Ertmer, 2004; Johnson, 1992; Mori, 2002; Woods, 1991 in Uztosun, 2013:22). Furthermore, some experts stated that the teachers‟ beliefs decide their practises (Bandura, 1986: Nespor, 1987; Pajares,
happens in the real classroom and what beliefs inferred by the practices of the teachers seen from the observers‟ perspective.
B.PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
Despite many advantages that become the underlying reasons for teaching English at younger age in all over the world, this trend actually brings about some fundamental problems. As what remarked by Emery, the two mainly problems faced by many countries in teaching English to primary schools are teacher shortages and overcrowded classrooms (2012:4). These two problems surely affect the quality of English teaching and learning wherever they exist. The similar problems also recognized by Copland and Garton (2014) related to the trend of teaching English to primary students. According to them, one of the problems in applying the policies of early language learning is the lack of primary school teachers with an English specialism (Copland and Garton, 2014:225).
As widely acknowledged, the language learning in EFL context mostly takes place in schools. In many countries around the world (including in Indonesia), homeroom teachers (or class teachers) in primary schools must teach almost all school subjects. It means that English also have to be taught by homeroom teachers. Meanwhile, many homeroom teachers do not have sufficient knowledge and competence in teaching English. In many countries, the primary schools then have to hire English teachers of higher levels or English „native
speakers‟ to teach their primary students. One of the continuing consequences of
competent English teachers‟ shortage is the overcrowded classrooms for English
Related to the problem being introduced above (particularly the overcrowded English classrooms due to the shortage of competent English teachers), English lesson should be organized in such a way to optimize the English teaching and learning process. The organization of the English lesson is mainly the result of what are believed by the teachers. Therefore, the teachers‟
beliefs are significant in the English teaching and learning process since they will greatly influence the teachers‟ practices in the classroom.
In addition, the overcrowded English classrooms in primary levels are very disadvantageous related to the special characteristics of the young children compared with the adolescents or the adults. The English teachers should articulate their beliefs appropriately with the characteristics of young learners in order to optimize the teaching and learning process in the classroom. Therefore, this research will study about the beliefs of English teachers in primary school about teaching English to young learners seen from the practices being conducted in the classroom. By doing so, it is expected that the English teaching to young learners in Indonesia particularly in primary levels can be better in quality.
C.PROBLEM LIMITATION
Related to the topic of the study, this research mainly discusses about teachers‟ belief. There are many areas of teacher‟s beliefs that can be explored
English language), beliefs about language learning, and also beliefs about language teaching.
The other limitations of this research are related to the way and procedure to study the teachers‟ beliefs. As has been discussed previously, there are many ways
to study about teachers‟ belief. It can be done by conducting survey or interview
directly to the teachers, by analyzing the lesson materials of the teachers, or by observing the teachers‟ practices in the real classroom. However, this research studies the teachers‟ beliefs by observing the teachers‟ practices in the real
classroom without conducting any surveys or interviews to the related teachers. This limitation aims to get objective understanding of teachers‟ beliefs from the
observers‟ perspectives.
Meanwhile, related to the procedure, among several procedures proposed by Richards and Lockhart (1996:6) to do the investigation of the teaching classroom (through the teaching journals, lesson reports, surveys and questionnaires, audio and video recordings, observation, or action research), this research only uses video recording of a lesson as the object of research in order to do more focused and detailed study about certain aspect of teaching and learning process. In this research, the aspect which is observed is the classroom practice done by the teachers.
D.PROBLEM FORMULATION
Based on the problem identification and problem limitation above, this research is conducted to answer one research question: What are the teachers‟ beliefs about teaching English to young learners in primary school based on their
E.RESEARCH GOALS
Teaching young learners needs special skills and competences since they have special characteristics that are quite different from the adolescents or the adults. The teachers‟ beliefs in teaching young learners will greatly affect the
success of their teaching. Those beliefs will lead the way how the teachers teach the young learners effectively based on their special characteristics. Therefore, the goal of this research is to discover the beliefs of the English teachers who teach in the primary schools about teaching English to young learners.
F. RESEARCH BENEFITS
This research is expected to give some benefits. Theoretically, this study is expected to give more information or knowledge about the characteristics of the young learners and principles of teaching them. In addition, this research also can widen the perspectives of the teachers (especially English teachers in primary schools) so they can understand how to improve the process of teaching and learning in their classroom. Moreover, it is also hoped that the knowledge can enlighten the English teachers to have better understanding in dealing with the young learners which finally can improve the quality of English language teaching and learning in Indonesia.
Practically, this study is expected to stimulate the emergence of the new ways in doing the reflection to the English teaching in Indonesia particularly to the young learners. The reflection might encourage the teachers to always reflect their own or others‟ teaching particularly the teaching to young children. The
11 CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW
In this chapter, some related theories are discussed to support the study on teachers‟ beliefs in teaching English to young learners in primary school. Those
theories are presented and clarified to formulate the conceptual framework of this study.
A. THEORETICAL REVIEW
The theoretical review covers theories related to the research topic. They are theories about teachers‟ beliefs, teaching English to young learners (TEYL) in
primary school, classroom practice, and relationship between teachers‟ beliefs and classroom practice. First of all, the discussion of theories about teachers‟ beliefs is
elaborated through some subheadings namely definition of teachers‟ beliefs,
sources of teachers‟ beliefs, and areas of teachers‟ beliefs. Meanwhile, the
discussion of teaching English to young learners in primary school is elaborated through the explanations about the definition and characteristics of the young learners in primary school, and also the principles in teaching English to young learners in primary school. Next, the theories about classroom practices and theories about the relationship between teachers‟ beliefs and classroom practice
are presented systematically. Finally, the explanations about all key constructs above are used to formulate the theoretical framework of this research.
1. Teachers‟ Beliefs
In order to gain a deep and wide understanding about teachers‟ beliefs, the
proposed by some experts and researchers. After that, the clarifications of the concepts used in this research are presented to give clear direction to the discussion of the topic.
a. Definition of teachers‟ beliefs
The discussion about teachers‟ beliefs should be preceded by the clarification of „belief‟ as the basic concept. Pajares (1992) defined belief as an “individual‟s judgment of the truth or falsity of a proposition, a judgment that can
only be inferred from a collective understanding of what human beings say, intend, and do” (in Khalid Bingimlas & Mary Hanrahan, 2010:416). Meanwhile,
according to Borg, a belief can be defined as “a proposition which may be
consciously or unconsciously held and serves as a guide to thought and behavior”
(2001:186). In addition, he also remarked that since belief is considered as a truth by an individual so it influences the individual significantly in viewing the world, perceiving new information, and understanding the events (Borg, 2001:186-187). Based on the explanations above, it can be inferred that belief is an individual‟s
judgment about the truth or falsity of a proposition that is consciously or unconsciously held and serves as a basis to think and behave, which only can be acknowledged by the understanding of the individual‟s saying, intention, and action.
Teachers‟ beliefs are also defined in some different ways by many
researchers. Borg defined teachers‟ beliefs as “a term for teachers‟ pedagogic
beliefs, or those beliefs of relevance to an individual‟s teaching” (2001:187). Similarly, Kagan (1992) defined teachers‟ beliefs as the “unconsciously held
(in Farrell & Ives, 2015:595). The other definitions of teachers‟ beliefs are also proposed by Aguirre and Speer (2000), and Senior (2006). According to Aguirre and Speer, teachers‟ beliefs are “teachers‟ conceptions about the nature of teaching and learning” (in Bingimlas & Hanrahan, 2010:416). Meanwhile, Senior
defined teachers‟ beliefs as “teachers‟ personal convictions about language teaching and learning which can be expressed” (2006:12).
Further descriptions of teachers‟ beliefs are proposed by Basturkmen,
Ernest, and Johnson. Basturkmen et al. (2004) described teachers‟ beliefs as “a thinking activity in which teachers as people construct their own personal and workable theories of teaching” (in Cetina, 2009:662). Ernest (1989) defined
teachers‟ beliefs as “mental models that shape learning and teaching practices” (in
Bingimlas & Hanrahan, 2010:416). Meanwhile, according to Johnson (1992), the result of some studies about teachers‟ beliefs suggests three basic concepts. First,
teachers‟ beliefs influence perception and judgment which determine teachers‟
actions in classrooms. Second, teachers‟ beliefs greatly affect the ways teachers learn to teach and apply what they learn in their classroom practices. Third, the comprehension of teachers‟ beliefs is significant in improving the quality of
teaching and teacher‟s preparation (in Kristiana and Setyarini).
By referring to the theories above, teachers‟ beliefs in this research are
defined as teachers‟ personal conceptions about teaching and learning, which are
consciously and unconsciously held and expressed through their actions in the classroom. Inferred by the definition, the study of teachers‟ beliefs in this research
of the teachers are significant in leading the study to investigate the teachers‟ conscious or unconscious personal conceptions about teaching and learning.
b. Sources of teachers‟ beliefs
Teachers‟ belief systems are developed over time and resulted from
different sources. Some researchers on beliefs system suggest some different sources of beliefs. Kindsvatter, Willen, and Ishler (1988 in Richards and Lockhart, 1996:30-32) described six sources that influence the teachers‟ beliefs system, that are, teachers‟ experience as language learners, teachers‟ experience in
teaching, teachers‟ personality, teachers‟ view about educational principles, teachers‟ view about an approach or method, and beliefs of teachers‟ workplace.
The six sources will be discussed further in the following paragraphs respectively to gain deeper understanding of them.
The first source is the teachers‟ experience as language learners. All
teachers are formerly the learners themselves and their experiences of being a learner will greatly influence their views about teaching and learning process. The ways they are taught and the ways they feel and react about them will create some conceptions in their mind about the nature of teaching and learning. Later on, those conceptions will become the beliefs of the teachers when they teach.
The second source is teachers‟ experience in teaching. The process of
teachers‟ beliefs about the best ways or best principles in the process of teaching
and learning.
Then, the third source is the teachers‟ personality. As a human being, each
teacher has their own special personality which influences their view about many things in their life including about teaching. The personality possessed by the teacher will guide their preferences in conducting the teaching and learning process. Taking for example, a teacher who likes to speak will prefer to teach using communicative approach which provides much interaction in the classroom rather than structural approach. In other words, the choice of teaching approach is closely connected with teachers‟ personality.
Next, the fourth source is the teachers‟ view about educational principles.
This source is connected with the teachers‟ preferences in choosing the principles
to be adopted in the classroom. Some teachers believe that the principles they get during their education are the best ones since those principles have been adopted for a long time. Some other teachers believe that the principles from recent researches are better since they are more appropriate to recent contexts and have been more tested.
The fifth source is teachers‟ view about an approach or method. The
teachers‟ preference of an approach or method will lead them to choose the
become the teachers‟ preferences and ultimately become the teachers‟ beliefs.
Based on the explanations above, it can be inferred that all those sources greatly affect what are believed by the teachers particularly about the nature of teaching and learning.
c. Areas of teachers‟ beliefs
Several researchers on teachers‟ beliefs have proposed some different
theories about the areas of beliefs. Richards and Lockhart proposed five areas of beliefs namely beliefs about English, beliefs about learning, beliefs about teaching, beliefs about the program and the curriculum, and beliefs about language teaching as a profession (1996, 32-41). The other researcher, Graves, proposed four areas of beliefs, which include beliefs about language, beliefs about social context of language, beliefs about learning and learners, and beliefs about teaching (2000, 28-31). In conclusion, the areas of teachers‟ beliefs cover beliefs about English language, beliefs about learning, beliefs about teaching, beliefs about the program and the curriculum, beliefs about language teaching as a profession, and beliefs about the social context of the language.
All the areas of teachers‟ beliefs above will be discussed briefly in the
following paragraphs. Meanwhile, in line with the topic of this research, the beliefs about language (in this case, English language), beliefs about learning and beliefs about teaching will be discussed more deeply and more detailed in the next subsections. As remarked by Graves (2000:30), beliefs about teaching are greatly affected by the beliefs about learning. This opinion is also supported by Doyle, Goh, & Zhang (2004:1) that the teachers‟ perceptions about teaching and learning
beliefs in English teaching, the discussion of beliefs in English language is also very important. The views and perceptions that the teachers have about English language will significantly influence their beliefs about how to learn it and then how to teach it in the classroom. Therefore, the deep and wide discussions about teachers‟ beliefs in English language, teachers‟ beliefs in English learning and teachers‟ beliefs in English teaching are considered significant for this research
and will be presented in the following subsections respectively.
First area of teachers‟ beliefs is beliefs about the program and the
curriculum, This beliefs might influence the teachers in some extent. Those influences are particularly related with the decisions about kind of programs, general views about teaching, general objectives, or teaching materials. However, teachers‟ personal beliefs on planning the lessons, implementing the teaching
objectives, and doing the assessments are what ultimately and primarily affect the classroom practices (Richards and Lockhart, 1996:38).
The second area of teachers‟ beliefs is beliefs about language teaching as a profession. The teachers‟ beliefs about language teaching as a profession would
influence their professionalism as teachers (Richards and Lockhart, 1996:40). If they have positive beliefs about their job as a profession, it will lead their professionalism to a better direction which can be clearly seen on their classroom practices.
Next, the third area is beliefs about the social context of language. Social context of language includes the “sociolinguistic, sociocultural, and socio-political
language and culture. Meanwhile, socio-political issues concern with how certain language or social group is viewed by other social groups, access language and services, and a critical awareness of how language is used.” (Graves, 2000:29). In other words, beliefs about social context of language enable the teachers to guide the learners how to use the language (in this case, English) wisely and appropriate to its context in the society. Connecting with the teaching and learning process, teachers‟ beliefs about the social context of language will influence the teachers‟
preferences in choosing lesson‟s topic and learning resources.
The three areas of teachers‟ beliefs above are significant in determining teachers‟ practices in the real classroom. Each area must have the impacts to
teachers in doing their professional life as teachers. Next, as previously explained, the other three areas of teachers‟ beliefs namely beliefs about English language, beliefs about learning, and beliefs about teaching will be discussed more deeply and detailed in the next three subsections below in order to give more understanding about the topic.
1) Beliefs about language
First area of teachers‟ beliefs is beliefs about language. The beliefs greatly affect the way the teachers consider what to teach and how to teach it (Graves, 2000:28). Language has been defined in many ways. According to Bailey (1998) language is defined as “pronunciation, grammar, lexis, discourse (in Graves, 2000:28). Meanwhile, language is defined as “form, meaning and use” by
the language can be viewed as meaning-based so it should be learned through meaningful activities and so on.
Similarly, Richards and Lockhart remarked that the teachers‟ beliefs about English language in some extent provide contributions to what they are doing in the classroom (1996:33). In addition, Richards and Lockhart described the teachers‟ beliefs about English are greatly affected by their contacts with the
language and its speakers. The contacts that the teachers have with the language and its speakers will influence their opinion about the significance of learning English, the important elements to be learnt, the characteristics of English language, and the importance of native-like pronunciation. All of the things above formulate the teachers‟ beliefs about English language which finally lead their
beliefs in how to learn and how to teach it through the classroom practices.
2) Beliefs about learning
When the teacher and the learner come to the classroom, they bring with them some experiences about learning. Those experiences lead them to have some degree of expectations about what to be learnt and how the process of learning should happen (Richards & Lockhart, 1996:34). These kinds of expectations then develop into beliefs about learning. In addition, Graves stated that teachers‟
beliefs in learning are reflected in the process, the roles of learners, and the focus of learning in their classrooms (2000:29). Related with the process, Stevick (1998 in Graves, 2000:30) stated his opinion like presented in the following quotation.
risk taking (affective process), or a process involving learning with others or social process”. (Stevick, 1998 in Graves, 2000:30)
Then, related with their roles, the learners can be the sources of knowledge or recipients of it and the decision-makers or subordinates” (Graves, 2000:30). Meanwhile, related with the focus, the intention of learning can be to acquire new knowledge, to master skills, to develop awareness, or to learn about attitudes “(Graves, 2000:30). Teachers‟ beliefs about learning can be derived from their
education or training, their experiences in teaching, or their experiences as learners (Freeman in Richards and Lockhart, 1996:34). The teachers and learners in the classroom may have different beliefs about learning. Those differences are potentially causes problems in the classroom. Therefore, it is important for the teachers to introduce their beliefs clearly before conducting their classroom practices.
3) Beliefs about teaching
Every teacher as an individual has their own personal views about what is teaching and what kind of teaching is effective. Those personal views then are known as beliefs about teaching. All that the teachers do in the classroom (or teachers‟ classroom practices) are primarily the representations of their beliefs
about teaching. According to Richards and Lockhart, teachers‟ beliefs about
teaching could be seen through the teachers‟ role, implemented teaching method, and teaching resources being used in the classroom (1996:36).
Similarly, Graves proposed that beliefs about teaching and teachers‟ role are
about learning process which should happen in the classroom. Related with the beliefs about teaching, it can be viewed as “a knowledge transmission, a
management of learning, a provision of learning structures, or a collaborative process‟ (Graves, 2000:31). Meanwhile, considering the beliefs about their roles,
the teachers can be considered as “decision makers, knowledge transmitters,
learning structures‟ providers, collaborators, or resources” (Graves, 2000:31).
2. Teaching English to Young Learners in Primary School
Prior to the discussion about young learners in primary school, it is important to define whom this term refers to. Later on, the characteristics of young learners in primary school by some experts and researchers are presented. Finally, the principles of teaching English to young learners in primary school which proposed by some experts in TEYL are also presented.
a. Definition of young learners in primary school
Slattery and Willis (2001:4) defined young learners as children who are seven until twelve years old. Similarly, Brewster, Ellis, and Girard (2002:28) also defined young learners as children who are seven until twelve years old and then classified them into three age groups: 3-6 years old, 7-9 years old, and 10-12 years old. The classification is based on the characteristics of children as learners which will be discussed in the following part of the research. Furthermore, Phillips (2003:3) defined young learners as “children from the first year of formal schooling (five or six years old) to eleven or twelve years of age”. In other words,
inferred that young learners are children who are five until fourteen years old and usually study in the primary school.
However, referring to the context of this research (Indonesian context), the school age for primary school is from seven to twelve years old. Thus, the term „young learners‟ in this research refers to children who are seven years old until
twelve years old and study in primary school. Furthermore, in Indonesian context, the young learners in primary school are divided into two groups, namely lower primary students (seven until nine years old) and upper primary students (ten until twelve years old). The young learners in this research particularly refer to lower primary students since the lesson being investigated is in lower primary classroom.
b. Characteristics of young learners in primary school
Based on to the definition of young learners in the previous part, that they are basically young children, thus it is significant to discuss the characteristics of young children before discussing further about young learners. As widely studied, young children have some characteristics that differentiate them with older children, adolescents, or adults. Recognizing and acknowledging those characteristics can give much contribution in understanding their way of thinking, feeling, and acting. Then, as the further result, the teacher can have more understanding about how to teach them or how to deal with them in the classroom particularly in the English classroom.
from the general until the very specific ones. The common characteristics of young children described by Brewster et al. (2002:27-28) are shown in the following quotation.
“1) Have a lot of physical energy and often need to be physically active; 2) Have a wide range of emotional needs; 3) Are emotionally excitable; 4) Are developing conceptually and are at an early stage of their schooling; 5) Are still developing literacy in their first language; 6) Learn more slowly and forget things quickly; 7) Tend to be self-oriented and preoccupied with their own world; 8) Get bored easily; 9) Are excellent mimics; 10) Can concentrate for a surprisingly long time if they are interested; and 11) Can be easily distracted but also very enthusiastic.” (Brewster, Ellis and Girard, 2002:27-28)
In addition to the common characteristics, Brewster et al. (2002:28) also described the physical and emotional characteristic of young children. According to their description, most of young children are physically active and emotionally unstable. The detailed descriptions of the physical and emotional characteristics of young children by Brewster et al. are presented in the following quotation.
Furthermore, Brewster et al. (2002:28) also state the characteristics of young children related with their conceptual, educational and linguistic development. Conceptually, young children are quite ready for rational thinking and also need greater opportunities to explore many things around them. However, young children are still developing their mastery of complex grammatical expression. The characteristics are described clearly in the following quotation.
“1) Young children are still developing numeracy and literacy in their first language and up to the age of puberty are still learning to master complex grammatical expression even when speaking or writing their L1; 2) Capable of realistic and rational thought; 3) The very young need opportunities to choose and decide on actions; to investigate, explore and be curious; be encouraged to question, to work things out; activities which help them to focus and pay attention in order to develop memory and concentration skills; activities which reinforce concepts they may be developing and develop oral skills”. (Brewster, Ellis and Girard, 2002:28)
Table 2.1
Characteristic of Young Children in Primary School (Adopted from Brewster, Ellis, and Girard, 2002:27-28) Physical
Short attention span Capable of realistic thought Very enthusiastic about
almost everything
Still developing numeracy and literacy in their first language and still learning to master complex grammatical expression Can be easily distracted Need opportunities to be
encouraged to question and
Table 2.2 Characteristics of Young Children as Language Learners
No. Characteristics of Young Children
as Language Learners
1 By nature, young children like to have fun and enjoying constructive play and games.
2 Young children can imitate the sounds they hear quite accurately. 3 Young children like songs, rhythm, and chants.
4 Young children are naturally curious, enthusiastic, and lively learners. 5 Young children have short attention span.
6 Young children consider their teachers as role models. 7 Young children are less hesitant in learning new language.
8 Young children tends to use their mother tongue to help them in learning new language.
9 Young children go for meaning rather than form in understanding new language.
10 Young children are comfortable with routines and enjoy repetition.
c. Principles of teaching English to young learners in primary schools
As widely discussed in previous parts, English is still a foreign language in Indonesia since it is not widely used in the society. Related to its status in Indonesia, English is learned as the second language by the young learners. Therefore, it is important to acknowledge the theories of language acquisition to help us in understanding better about the process of young learners in acquiring English. The theories that will be discussed include the behaviourist theories, innatist theories, and interactionist theories. These three theories are actually the basic theories of first language acquisition but then these theories are also relevant with second language acquisition since first language acquisition is widely used as the ideal model how the second language might be taught.
which puts imitation and association as the main processes. This behaviourist theory of language acquisition has given some contributions to second language teaching. One of them is the use of Audiolingual method, which emphasizes on the dialogue memorization and pattern drills as the natural sequence of first language acquisition. Furthermore, behaviorist theory also suggested that imitation, repetition, and reinforcement of grammatical structures are the main process in second or foreign language learning. In addition, errors should be corrected immediately to prevent bad habits and the main activity based on this method is drill-and-skill practice.
Second theory is called the innatist theory. According to this theory, language acquisition is facilitated by an innate or biological language acquisition device (LAD). The supporter of this theory argued that all children have universal grammar or the ability to select and construct the grammatical rules of their mother tongue through hypothesis testing. This theory claimed that only little help obtained from the parents or caregivers for children in acquiring the rules. Mainly, the children depend on their innate ability to acquire the grammar of the language. The influence of this theory to second language acquisition is the use of contrastive analysis in predicting learners‟ errors and difficulties in acquiring
second language. Constrastive analysis is a procedure for comparing the rules of learner‟s mother tongue and his or her second language.
addition, the interaction also facilitates the children in constructing the meanings of words which finally develop their language. The implication of this theory in second language acquisition is the idea of using the interaction for the negotiation of meaning. In the process of modifying the language in order to understand and to be understood, the second language learners are challenged to understand the inputs and to produce comprehensible outputs.
Based on the three basic acquisition theories being explained above, there are three main theories for language classroom practices, including in the primary classrooms. Those theories consist of input hypothesis by Krashen (1985 in Mackey, 1999:558), output hypothesis by Swain (1995 in Mackey, 1999:559), and interaction hypothesis by Michael Long (1996 in Mackey, 1999:558). In general, these three theories are in line with the basic theories of language acquisition above. Each of them would be presented and discussed respectively in the following parts.
First theory is input hypothesis by Krashen (1985 in Mackey, 1999:558). As being explained in the previous parts, this hypothesis deals with what kind of input given to the learners. The input must be higher than the learners‟ current
level of language knowledge in order to make them curious and feel challenged to learn more and more. Particularly for young learners, challenge is very important to arouse their curiosity which finally can increase their motivation in developing their English knowledge and competence. However, the inputs must not be too far from the learners‟ current level because the learners will be demotivated if the
comprehensible through some cues such as gestures, pictures, and contexts. Particularly for young learners of primary schools in Indonesia, comprehensible inputs are significant in the process of language acquisition and learning. Related with the status of English as a foreign language, the learners only have very limited contacts with the language. Therefore, the comprehensible inputs that they get in English classroom become more important to help them acquiring the language.
Next, second theory is the Output Hypothesis proposed by Swain (1995 in Mackey, 1999:559). Through this hypothesis, Swain remarked the significance of comprehensible output in second language acquisition process. According to this hypothesis, the learners must get the opportunity to produce the language since in the process of language production the learners are forced to think about the form of the language. In their attempts to be understood by the listeners, the learners will have to modify their language and this process is very useful in facilitating the second language acquisition. In other words, this hypothesis argued that the opportunities to produce the language or to talk about the language can facilitate the second language development.
opportunities to produce understandable outputs. Furthermore, during the process, the learners might be able to notice more about features of the target language (in this case, English language). Considering all theories of second language acquisition above and also the special characteristics of the young learners, some experts formulate some principles in teaching English to young learners, particularly the primary students. Brewster, Ellis, and Girard (2002:26; 39-40) stated some principles to teach English to young learners. Those principles are: 1) Teachers should provide the contextualized language use of L2 and its visual support to optimize the natural ability of children in grasping meaning like in their L1; 2) Teacher can use repetition to familiarize the sound and meanings of words, but should be combined with variety and adjusted with the learners‟ needs; 3)
Teachers should provide sufficient contextualized input for the learners; 4) Teachers can optimize “the children‟s skills at guessing and predicting” in
learning the language; 5) Teachers should encourage the learners to talk in expressing their intended meaning by using meaningful communicating activities; 6) Teachers should adjust the difficulty level of the materials and activities to maximize the learners‟ motivation in learning; 7) Teachers should adjust the
feedback in order to maintain learners‟ motivation during the learning process;
and 8) Teachers should encourage the learners to listen and act before speaking at the beginning phase of learning”. (Brewster, Ellis, and Girard, 2002:26; 39-40).
3. Classroom Practice
The term „classroom practice‟ is widely used in many researches about
is important to clarify the definition and the areas of classroom practice which used in this research in order to lead the study to an appropriate direction and in line with the topic.
Classroom practice is also known as instructional practice which refers to “everything that actually happen in the classroom” (Farrel and Tan, 2007 in
Rajasaigran, Omar, & Lee, 2014:221). In addition, Cotton (1995) defined classroom practice as a set of teaching strategies and methods of instruction employed in the classroom (in Khader, 2012:77). The term „classroom practice‟ in this research refers to the instructional practice that consists of teaching strategies and methods which employed in the classroom.
In line with the definition above, classroom practice basically consists of teaching strategies and methods of instruction. It means that classroom practice can be examined through the strategies and methods employed by the teachers during the process of teaching and learning in the classroom. Therefore, classroom practice in this research is analysed through the role of teacher, learner, and material, teaching activity, teaching media, and teachers‟ use of language.
Furthermore, the teaching activity will be discussed through lesson structure, teaching technique, and classroom management. Then, the teaching media that will be explained are flashcards, songs, and games. All the elements of the classroom practice above are discussed in details to identify the teachers‟ practices
about teaching English to young learners in primary school.
a. Role of learners, teachers, and materials
According to Richards and Rodgers (2001:20), approach refers to “the
source of practices and principles in language teaching”. The approach selection is
primarily bases on the beliefs about language and language learning. However, Richards and Rodgers remarked that similar approaches chosen by the teachers can lead to different implementations since approach does not determine the teaching techniques and activities to be employed in classroom (2001:24). Therefore, a design is needed to synchronize the approach and the procedure. A design is also known as instructional system. In developing the design, there are six factors to be adjusted with the approach which include the objective of methods, the selection and organization of the language content, types of learning tasks and teaching activities, the roles of learners, the roles of teachers, and the role of instructional materials (Richards and Rodgers, 2001:24). In other words, the roles of learners, teachers, and materials are parts of design which also means the connector between beliefs and practices. The theories about the three roles are discussed in details in the following paragraphs.
Richards and Rodgers (2001:27) remarked that the design of instructional design depends in some extent on the contribution of the learner in the learning process. In other words, learners‟ role is defined as the contribution that the
The teacher‟s role in the instructional system relates closely with the
learner‟s role. According to Richards and Rodgers (2001:28), the teacher‟s role
relates with some things as the following: 1) types of function expected from the teacher; 2) degree of control over the learning process; 3) degree of control over the content of learning; 4) the interactional pattern between the teacher and the learner. The role of teacher is the representation of the objectives of the method and the learning theory. The success of language learning can be greatly depended on the success of the teachers in accomplishing their role. The descriptions about the objectives, content, learning activities, the role of learner, and the role of teacher, determine the role of materials within the instructional system (Richards and Rodgers, 2001:29). Furthermore, they also remarked about the role of instructional materials as presented in the following quotation.
“The role of instructional materials within a method or instructional system will reflect decisions concerning the primary goal of materials, the form of material, the relation of materials to other input, and the assumptions made about teachers and learners.” (Richards and Rodgers, 2001:30)
b. Teaching activity
Teaching activity is one of the classroom practices that the teachers do in the classroom. In this research, the teaching activity is observed through three elements which include lesson structure, teaching technique, and classroom management. All the elements would be discussed respectively as the following.
1) Lesson structure
classroom), involves two kinds of parties (teacher and student), and consists of some kinds of teaching and learning activities. Inferred by the definition of lesson above, lesson structure can be defined as the ways the lesson are started, proceeded, and ended in order to achieve the learning objectives. As remarked by Richards and Lockhart (1996:113), the lesson structure is a part of teachers‟ effort
in organizing the instructional process to obtain optimal learning in particular time. Meanwhile, structuring is defined as the organizing of lessons into sequences and the achieving of lesson‟s momentum (Richards and Lockhart,
1996:114). Furthermore, they also proposed four dimensions of structuring which includes opening, sequencing, pacing, and closure.
The first dimension is opening which refers to how a lesson begins. This dimension includes the steps used by the teacher to direct the learners‟ attention
toward the objectives of the lesson. According to Kindsvatter, Wilen, and Ishler (1988), “commonly the opening (or entry) of a lesson only covers the first five
minutes but has a significant impact to how much they learn from the lesson (in Richards and Lockhart, 1996:114).
The second dimension is the sequencing that refers to how to connect an activity with the other activities. In other words, this dimension covers how the sequences of the activities are formatted in a lesson. Later on, Richards and Lockhart (1996:118-119) proposed some principles for formatting the internal structure of lessons in second language learning. Those principles are presented in the following quotation.
