A STUDY OF FORMAL LINKS IN WILLA CATHER’S DOUBLE BIRTHDAY
THESIS
Submitted as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Sarjana Degree of English Department Faculty of Arts and Humanities
State Islamic University of Sunan Ampel Surabaya
By: Fikri Ghozali Reg. Number: A83212161
ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
FACULTY OF ARTS AND HUMANITIES STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY OF SUNAN AMPEL
ABSTRACT
Ghozali, Fikri. 2016. A Formal Link Analysis in Willa Cather’s Double Birthday. Thesis. English Department. Faculty of Arts and Humanities. State Islamic University of Sunan Ampel Surabaya. Thesis Advisor: Prof. Dr. Hj. Zuliati Rohmah, M.Pd.
Key words: Formal Links, Short Story, Double Birthday
This research is focused on analyzing the formal links in the Double Birthday short story by Willa Cather. The formal link is a way of getting text hang together or has unity. It is also considered to help the readers to be able to recognize correct and incorrect sentences. So, the text of short story is chosen as the data source of this research. Furthermore, Double Birthday is chosen since there are formal links in every paragraph. This study analyzed the types of formal links and the functions of formal links in the short story. For that reason, this study is intended to describe the types of formal links used in the Double Birthday short story and describe the functions of formal links functions in the short story.
This research uses descriptive qualitative research method in which the data are taken from the text of Double Birthday short story. All of the data are
going to be analyzed based on Guy Cook’s theory of formal links. The findings of
the study on the formal links show the all types of formal links: verb form, parallelism, referring expression, repetition, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction used in the text of short story. The researcher finds that every paragraph used referring expressions. The function of verb form in one sentence can influence and limit the verb form in the next sentence, so it makes an interesting and logically connected the sentence. For parallelism is to connect two clauses or two sentences by repeating the word from one clause or sentence to another. Referring expression is used to indicate the reference pronoun. Repetition is used to make stressing and decrease the ambiguity in the text of short story while substitution and ellipsis are to make the sentence simpler and more efficient, and the conjunction is used to indicate cause and effect relationship, contrasting information, causation and also to add more information.
ABSTRAK
Ghozali, Fikri. 2016. A Formal Link Analysis in Willa Cather’s Double Birthday. Skripsi. Sastra Inggris. Fakultas Adab dan Humaniora. Universitas Islam Negeri Sunan Ampel Surabaya. Pembimbing: Prof. Dr. Hj. Zuliati Rohmah, M.Pd.
Kata Kunci: Formal Links, Short Story, Double Birthday
Penelitian ini difokuskan pada analisis formal link dalam cerita pendek Double Birthday oleh Willa Cather. Formal link dapat membantu teks memiliki kesatuan. Ini bisa membantu pembaca mengenali mana kalimat yang benar dan salah. Jadi, teks cerita pendek dipilih sebagai sumber data penelitian ini. Selanjutnya, Double Birthday dipilih karena terdapat formal link dalam setiap paragraf. Penelitian ini menganalisis jenis formal link dan fungsi formal link dalam cerita pendek. Untuk itu, penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menggambarkan jenis formal link yang digunakan dalam cerita pendek Double Birthday dan menjelaskan fungsi dari formal link dalam cerita pendek.
Penelitian ini menggunakan metode penelitian deskriptif kualitatif dimana data diambil dari teks cerita pendek Double Birthday. Semua data akan dianalisis berdasarkan teori Guy Cook link formal. Temuan dari studi pada formal link menunjukkan semua jenis formal link: verb form, parallelism, referring expressions, repetition, substitution, ellipsis, dan conjunction yang digunakan dalam teks cerita pendek. Peneliti menemukan bahwa setiap paragraf terdapat referring expressions. Fungsi dari verb form dalam satu kalimat dapat mempengaruhi dan membatasi bentuk kata kerja dalam kalimat berikutnya, sehingga membuat kalimat yang menarik dan terhubung secara logis. Untuk parallelism adalah menghubungkan dua klausa atau dua kalimat dengan mengulang kata dari satu klausa atau kalimat yang lain. Referring expressions digunakan untuk menunjukkan kata ganti referensi. Repetition digunakan untuk membuat penekanan dan mengurangi ambiguitas dalam teks cerita pendek. Sementara substitution dan ellipsis membuat kalimat sederhana dan lebih efisien, dan conjunction digunakan untuk menunjukkan hubungan sebab dan akibat, informasi kontras, sebab-akibat dan juga untuk menambah informasi lebih lanjut.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Cover ... i
Inside Cover ... ii
Declaration ... iii
Approval Sheet ... iv
Examiner Sheet ... v
Motto ... vi
Dedication ... vii
Acknowledgement ... viii
Table of Contents ... ix
Abstract ... xi
Abstrak ... xii
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ... 1
1.1 Background of Study... 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem ... 5
1.3 Objectives of the Study ... 5
1.4 Significance of the Study ... 6
1.5 Scope and Limitation ... 6
1.6 Definition of the Key Terms ... 6
CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE ... 8
2.1 Discourse Analysis ... 8
2.2 Formal Links ... 8
2.2.1 Verb Form ... 9
2.2.2 Parallelism ... 10
2.2.3 Referring Expressions... 12
2.2.5 Substitution ... 13
2.2.6 Ellipsis ... 14
2.2.7 Conjunction ... 14
2.3 Double Birthday ... 15
CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHOD ... 16
3.1 Research Design ... 16
3.2 Data and Data Source ... 17
3.3 Instrument ... 17
3.4 Data Collection ... 18
3.5 Data Analysis ... 19
CHAPTER IV FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS ... 24
4.1. Findings ... 24
4.1.1 Kinds of Formal Links ... 24
4.1.2 Functions of Formal Links ... 37
4.2 Discussions ... 49
CHAPTER V CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION ... 52
5.1 Conclusion ... 52
5.2 Suggestion ... 54
REFERENCES ... 55
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents introduction of study consisting of background of the study, research question, research objectives, significance of the research, scope and limitations, and definition of the key terms.
1.1 Background of the Study
Cook’s theory of formal links reinforces the unity of the discourse. Some researchers already conducted researches about formal links, for instance: English reading text of examination (Kulsum, 2008), English translation text of Shahih Bukhari (Maharlika, 2010), and absolutely literary works like short story can be included. A short story is shorter than a novel, the authors sometimes make sentences with brevity and succinct form. Short story also gives difficult sentences, because it can be lyrical. That makes sentences difficult to understand. This present study intends to fill in this gap to make short story easier to understand.
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developing a single central theme and limited in scope and number of characters (Webster’s New World College Dictionary).
Commonly, people who love reading fill their leisure time by reading a short story. Sometimes they need to learn to understand the text, because the language in a short story is not easy and simple. There are many possible interpretation of a text by different people in this world. In order to explain what exactly the meaning of the text is, we need to analyze the text. Sometimes we need to look at features inside the language or we can call it formal links that refers to facts inside language. We can do this through knowledge of our grammar in some text. In this case, the way we recognize whether sentences are correct or incorrect is different. Misunderstanding might occur in reading and comprehending some text since they have different way to recognize sentence whether is correct or incorrect.
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formal link is a way of getting text hang together or has unity. “Formal link between sentences or clauses is known as cohesive devices”, (Cook, 1989, p.14). “Analysis of cohesive links within a text gives us some insight into how writers
structure what they want to say, and may be crucial factors in our judgments on whether something is well-written or not” (Yule, 1985, p.106). The writer is interested in choosing formal links because, it has considered helping the readers to be able to recognize correct and incorrect sentences whether the text is well-written or not. The kinds of formal links are; verb forms, parallelism, referring expressions, repetition and lexical chains, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction (Cook, 1989). Formal links can help well in communication and language learning. Formal links are needed in order to enable the reader to comprehend the meaning of the text.
In this study, the writer is interested in choosing the Willa Cather’s Double
Birthday as his source of data. This short story is one of the best American short stories. Willa Cather has a unique trick in writing short story. She uses brilliant details and human understanding in one tidy paragraph. So many short stories made by Cather, but the writer takes one of them the success one that is Double Birthday 1929. The writer considers the short story worth analyzing because it contains many formal links existing in the text. The writer has some reasons to choose this text. There are many formal links underlying in each paragraph of the text.
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studies using English Translation of Shahih Bukhari and English Reading Texts of National Examination of Senior High School (2007 edition) as their object research. The first is Ummi Kulsum from State of Islamic University Malang also “Study of Formal Links used in English Reading Texts of National Examination
of Senior High School (2007 edition)” (2008) and the second is Nurma Maharlika from State of Islamic University Malang “An Analysis of Formal Links Used in
the English Translation of Shahih Bukhari” (2010).
In both previous studies, the first writer focuses on analyzing formal links in English reading section of National Examination 2007 edition. She considers choosing the text of reading of National Examination because she thinks it is important to understand the reading text to help them who held a National Examination. National Examination is a test that is given for students of Senior High School before they pass from the school which is held once a year. The formal links were found included verb form, parallelism, referring expression, repetition, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction that is commonly used in the English reading Text of National Examination of senior High School (2007 edition). She also found the functions of formal links in them.
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English translation of Shahih Bukhari. Shahih Bukhari consists of hadiths which are collected by Al-Bukhari.
In the present study, the writer chooses the short story because the writer has an experience of stumbling in problems in understanding literary works such as short story and some students sometimes cannot understand what the author means in the short story. Considering to the reason above, the writer needs to strengthen the importance of this study which discusses formal links in the “Double Birthday” short story.
In conclusion, the writer describes the sentences in Willa Cather’s Double Birthday through Cook’s theory of formal links. Then, the writer identifies it using formal link theory to know what the functions in each kind of formal link in Willa Cather’s Double Birthday.
1.2 Statement of the Problems
Based on background of the study, there are problems related to the study, which leads to the following research question:
1. What are the formal links used in Willa Cather’s Double Birthday? 2. What are the functions of formal links used in Willa Cather’s Double
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1.3 Objectives of the Study
This study is to find out the answer from the following problems:
1. To describe the kinds of formal links used in Willa Cather’s Double Birthday.
2. To explain the function of formal links in Willa Cather’s Double Birthday.
1.4 Significance of the Study
The significance of this study is the writer wants to discover the use of formal links in Willa Cather’s Double Birthday. The writer hopes to get some advantages and well understanding of language use in a short story text. By knowing formal links, the writer is able to figure out the use of formal links in plain language and share the ideas of the short story to be easier to understand. And, the writer hopes this study may be a reference for the readers to gain knowledge about formal links especially students of State Islamic University of Sunan Ampel Surabaya and the other English Department. The writer hopes this study might get useful in understanding texts and make a good text.
1.5 Scope and Limitation
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1.6 Definition of the Key Terms
Formal Link is a link that can help understand and comprehend texts, from inside the language. Cook states that formal link is referring to facts inside language.
Willa Cather is one of the most important American novelists of the first half of the twentieth century, critics have increasingly identified Cather as a canonical American writer, the peer of authors like Hemingway, Faulkner and Wharton (The Willa Cather Foundation).
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Discourse Analysis
According to Cook (1989) there are two different potential objects for study. One abstracted in order to teach a language or literacy, or to study how the rules of language work. The latter kind is language in use, for communication, is called Discourse; and the search for what gives discourse coherence is Discourse Analysis. Discourse analysis is defined as concerned with language use beyond the boundaries of a sentence/utterance, concerned with the interrelationships between language and society and as concerned with the interactive or dialogic properties of daily communication (Slembrouck, 2003).
2.2 Formal Links
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formal features which operate within sentences and across sentences need to be examined how far they will go in helping to explain why a succession of sentences is discourse, and not just a disconnected jumble (Cook, 1994).
This theory is different from cohesive devices by Halliday and Hasan. Cohesive devices are the devices that create relation. These devices function as the formal links between sentences and between clauses. In the other word, cohesive devices of the text or language are tools that is used to the relationship between one part of sentence to another sentences, and one of clause to another clauses in the text. For past and contemporary researchers alike, Cohesion in English (Halliday and Hasan, 1976) has provides an important framework for identifying and analyzing cohesive devices in spoken and written discourse. In their work, Halliday and Hasan specify five types of cohesion: reference, ellipsis, substitution, conjunction, and lexical cohesion. Each cohesive device type consists of several subtypes.
Formal links includes: verb form, parallelism, referring expressions, repetition and lexical chains, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction (Cook, 1994).
2.2.1 Verb Form
A link within discourse may constitute a verb form. The form of the verb in one sentence can limit the choice of the verb form in the next. We may be justified in saying that a verb form in one sentence is ‘wrong’ or at least
‘unlikely’, because it does not fit with the form in another.
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‘When two lovers come together, their brains begin to “fall in love”. The couple’s pheromones- chemical signals that work through our senses- are very high, so when they smell each other or look into each other’s eyes, their separate male and female minds become like one.’
(Taken from Reader’s Digest, February 2005, page 64) From the previous discourse, we can see that the verbs (come, begin, work, smell, look, and become) are all in the simple present since the verbs refer to the general truth- what happens when two people fall in love. There seems to be a formal connection between them, a way in the first tense conditions all the others.
2.2.2 Parallelism
Another link deals with parallelism, a device which suggests a connection, simply because the form of one sentence or clause repeats the form of another. This can be found in speeches, prayers, poetry, and advertisements. It is used to provide a powerful emotional effect to the audience. There are three kinds of parallelism:
2.2.2.1Grammatical parallelism, here a discourse proceeds through a repeated grammatical structure into which different words are slotted (Cook, 1994). Consider the following Christian prayer as an example:
‘Teach us Good Lord, to give and not to count the cost, to fight and not to heed the wounds, to toil and not to seek for rest, to labor and not to ask for reward, save that of knowing that we do Thy will.’
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2.2.2.2Sound Parallelism, which suggests a connection of meaning through an echo of form, does not have to be grammatical parallelism. It may be a sound parallelism as in the rhyme, rhythm and other sound effects of verse.
Leisure
W.H. Davies What is this life, if, full of care,
We have no time to stand and stare,
No time to see, when woods we pass, Where squirrels hide their nuts in grass,
No time to see, in broad daylight, Streams full of stars, like skies at night … (Simon and Schuster, 1966)
The stanzas of this poem are linked through the same rhyme scheme, aa, the same sound pattern or rhythm and the same stanza form, couplet.
2.2.2.3Semantic Parallelism, The semantic parallelism happens when the sentences are linked because they mean the same thing.
Study the following example:
‘… I oppose all forms of cruelty to animals. I hope all of humankind will realize that animals are living creatures and have a certain degree of intelligence. We
are not the only intelligent beings on earth, even though we think we are gifted
ones and masters of the other animals. Animals do communicate with one
another in ways that we do not know or cannot decipher. And they sometimes
display kindness, loyalty and love better than humans. Let us respect all living creatures on earth…’
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2.2.3 Referring Expressions
Referring expressions mean words of which the meaning can only discovered by referring to other words or to elements of the context which are clear to both sender and receiver. (1) Anaphoric ref.: The identity of someone or something is given once at the beginning, and thereafter referred to with pronouns. (2) Cataphoric ref.: The pronouns are given first and then the identity is revealed. (3) Exophoric ref.: The meaning is found contextually from the outside world. Referring expressions fulfill a dual purpose of unifying the text (they depend upon some of the subject matter remaining the same) and of economy, because they save us from having to repeat the identity of what we are talking about again and again (Cook, 1994). Consider the following example:
‘There are an estimated 195,000 elephants left in Central Africa, but their distribution is patchy. Throughout the region, they have been heavily poached, so they
tend to be nervous of people. If we come across one unexpectedly, it may well charge.
And if we do not get out of the way in time we will probably be killed- speared on its
tusks, thrown around like a rag doll, then trampled into the ground. Some have lived to tee the tale, but they have impressive scars to go with their stories…’
(Taken from Reader’s Digest, September 2004, page 48) The meanings of they, their, them, it, and it are referred to elephants as the identity of elephants is given at the beginning. This makes a kind of chain, running through the discourse, in which each expression is linked to another.
2.2.4 Repetition and Lexical Chains
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not necessarily consist of words that mean the same, they may also be created by words that associate with each other.
We have described referring expressions, repetition, and elegant repetition as establishing `chains´ of connected words running through discourse. Such lexical chains need not necessarily consist of words which mean the same, however. They may also be created by words which associate with each other.
Here is an example:
It is time that we citizens celebrate love instead of hate, celebrate kindness, instead
of revenge, and, for once, let us celebrate similarities instead of differences… ‘
(Taken from Reader’s Digest, September 2004, page 6)
Here the clauses are linked through the repetition of ‘celebrate’ and
their meanings are synonymous that we are asked to promote virtues rather than violence.
2.2.5 Substitution
Another kind of formal link between sentences is the substitution of words like do or so for a word or group of words which have appeared in an earlier sentence. See the following example:
‘Can there really be such people out there? Aren’t these mass murderers the same people whose mothers once held them in their arms, nurtured them, gave
them an education and brought them up to be people of this world? If so, what
triggers them to so much destruction?
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Here ‘so’ substitutes the sentences that have appeared earlier. It
substitutes the questions about how come people who have been brought up and nurtured by their mothers have become murderers.
2.2.6 Ellipsis
Ellipsis is omitting part of sentences on the assumption that an earlier sentence or the context will make the meaning clear. Sometimes we don´t even need to provide a substitute for a word phrase or which as already been said. We can simply omit it, and know that the missing part can be reconstructed quite successfully. Study the following example:
The Aztecs believed in the periodic destruction and re-creation of the world
we live in. The first era was destroyed by tigers, the second by wind that turned
people into monkeys, the third by fire that changed people into birds, and the fourth
ended in floods that turned people into fish, as can be seen in the middle of the
calendar stone. The stone predicts our present era will be destroyed by earthquakes,
but no one has yet deciphered when the Aztecs thought the end of the fifth era would be.’
(Taken from Reader’s Digest, March 2005, 21) In this example, there are some words that are omitted because it is clear what the context is, for instance, ‘era’ in ‘the second, the third, etc.
2.2.7 Conjunction
Another type of formal relation between sentences is provided by those words and phrases that explicitly draw attention to the type of relationship that exist between one sentence or clause or another.
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b. Elaborating or exemplifying (for instance, other words, etc.)
c. contrasting new information with old information (or, on the other hand, etc.)
d. Relating new information to what has already been given in terms of causes (so, consequently, because, for this reason, etc.)
e. or in terms of time (formerly, then, in the end, etc.)
f. Indicating a new departure or a summary (by the way, well, to sum up, etc.) (Cook, 1994).
There are many words and phrases which can be put into this category in English, and many different ways in which they can be classified. They indicate the relationship of utterances in the mind or in the world and are thus in a way contextual (Cook, 1994).
2.3 Double Birthday
Characters in Double Birthday short story is face mortality, remember the past, and persist in lives lived against the grain of financial success. Albert Engelhardt and his uncle with the same name (hereafter "Albert" and "Uncle Albert"). Fifty-five-year-old Albert has squandered his family’s fortune, and eighty-year-old Uncle Albert, although once a successful throat doctor, gambled all his hope on the voice of one young singer—and lost. Albert and Uncle Albert find meaning in the city by linking together different houses, neighborhoods, and points in history. The story’s houses are all based on places Cather knew, and the motion between them forms the story’s structure
CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHOD
This part tells about the research approach, technique of data collection and technique of data analysis. The approach of this study is qualitative research. The writer analyzes of the data in the short story to answer statement of the problems.
3.1 Research Design
In this study, the writer used descriptive qualitative method for the research because this study intended to find out formal links in short story.
According to Litosseliti (2010:52) “qualitative research is concerned with
structures and patterns, but quantitative research focuses on how much or how many there are of a particular characteristic or item”. Basically,
description used in this qualitative research. Qualitative research is an emergent design in its negotiated outcomes. Meanings and interpretations are negotiated with human data sources because it is the subjects’ realities that the researcher attempts to reconstruct (Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Merriam, 1988).
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sentences, paragraph as the data of his study. Thus, by knowing formal links the writer is able to figure out the use of formal links in plain language. Furthermore, this study shared the ideas of the short story to be easier to understand.
3.2 Data and Data Source
[image:26.595.129.512.234.615.2]The writer took a short story that is Double Birthday by Willa Cather as his source of data. The data itself was a transcript of short story Double Birthday. The short story taken from The Best American Short Story of the Century by John Updike, Katrina Kenison in a form of portable document format. The data of this study are words, phrases, sentences, paragraph which contains kinds of formal links.
Figure 1
3.3 Instrument
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1985; Merriam, 1988). However, the writer also needed some supporting tools such as, notebook laptop, internet, camera hand phone and hard copy of Double Birthday’s short story to collect the data. All the activities were done by operating personal computer or notebook laptop and some office software.
3.4 Data Collection
The data were collected from any paragraphs that consist of sentences, phrases, and words in Double Birthday short story that contain kinds of formal links. The writer did several steps to obtain the data.
1. First, the writer read the short story “Double Birthday” from his notebook laptop.
2. Next, the writer printed out the short story.
3. Then, the writer read once again and underlined any sentences, phrases and words that contain kinds of formal links.
4. Last, the writer sort out the data of formal links that appears in the short story.
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3.5 Data Analysis
After doing a data collection, the writer did several procedures in analyzing the data. Data analysis was inductively building from particulars to general themes, and the researcher made interpretations of the meaning of the data (Creswell, 2014).
3.5.1 Identifying the Formal Links of the “Double Birthday” short story
The writer identified the data of the “Double Birthday” that contain kinds of formal links. The writer gave codes to the data in order to make the writer easy to classify and to make the reader easy to read the data. The writer gave codes the underlying data based on this rules:
Codes for kinds of formal links: a. Verb Form codes VF
b. Kinds of Parallelism; Grammatical Parallelism codes GP, Sound Parallelism codes SoP, and Semantic Parallelism codes SeP
c. Kinds of Referring Expressions; Anaphoric ref. e codes REA, Cataphoric ref. codes REC, and Exophoric ref. codes REE d. Repetition and Lexical Chains codes R
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The following of data coding wrote as follow:
[image:29.595.140.504.257.558.2]For example: {1/1/2/E} = the datum number 1 found in page 1 in line 2. The kind of formal links is Ellipsis.
Figure 1.2 The Example of Identifying Data
3.5.2 Classifying Kind of Formal Links
The writer classified kind of formal links and the researcher also applies it in the percentage by using this formula:
Percentage of each kind: x 100 %
x: the frequency of kind of formal links y: the total number of frequency
The writer classified kinds of formal links based on Guy Cook theory. It represents to answer research question number 1
[1/1/2/E]
[2/1/3/R]
[3/1/5/GP]
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3.5.3 Identifying the Functions of Formal Links
The writer identified the functions of formal links in the “Double Birthday”. The writer gave codes to the functions of formal
links in order to make the writer easy to classify and to make the reader easy to read it. The writer gave codes the underlying data based on this rules:
Codes for functions of formal links:
a. Verb Form = Influencing and limiting verbs codes I & L b. Parallelism = Connecting clause codes Co
c. Referring Expression = Indicating reference pronoun codes IRP
NO. Code Data Frequency Percentage
1. VF
2. GP
3. SoP
4. SeP
5. REA
6. REC
7. REE
8. R
9. S
10. E
11. C
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d. Repetition = Stressing codes St
e. Substitution and Ellipsis = being efficient codes Eff
f. Conjunction = Adding more information codes AMI, giving cause and effect codes C & E, Contrasting information will be codes Con, illustrating terms of time codes ToT
The following of data coding wrote as follow:
For example: {1/1/2/E/Eff} = the datum number 1 found in page 1 in line 2. The kind of formal links is Ellipsis, and the Function is Efficient.
3.5.4 Classifying Function of Formal Links
The writer classified kinds of formal links based on Guy Cook theory. It represents to answer research question number 2
Formal Links Functions Data Frequency Percentage
Verb Form I & L
Parallelism Co
Referring
Expression IRP
Repetition St
Substitution and
Ellipsis Eff
Conjunction
AMI C & E
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3.5.5 Interpret the data
After classifying and determining the kinds of formal links, the writer made interpretation of the data of words, phrases, sentences, paragraph which contain kinds of formal links. Then, the writer described the function of formal links used in the short story “Double Birthday”, to find out the function of each kind of formal links.
3.5.6 Drawing Conclusion
CHAPTER IV
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
This chapter deals with the research findings and discussion about the statement of problems formulated in chapter one. This chapter consists of two sections; findings and discussions.
4.1 Findings
Based on the research problems, two topics are presented in this part simultaneously. The first part is kinds of formal links in “Double Birthday” short story and the second part is the functions of formal links in the short story.
4.1.1 Kinds of Formal Links
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The chart above shows that anaphoric referring expression is the most dominant among kinds of formal links in “Double Birthday” short story. It reaches the highest number with 24 data out of 67 data or 36% of all the kinds.
It shows that “Double Birthday” short story mostly uses anaphoric referring
expression to give pronouns that refers to identity of someone or something that is already given once at the beginning, in this case is the character of the short story.
The second highest number amount of formal links is conjunction with the total data of 20 out of 67 data or 30% of the total kinds of formal links. Substitution is the third highest number with 7 data out of 67 data or 10% of
the total. Repetition in “Double Birthday” short story only has 6 data out of 67
data or 9% of the total. Verb Form is 4 data out of 67 data or 6% of the total. Cataphoric referring expression and ellipsis has the same amount of data with 2 data out of 67 data or 3% of the total. The rest kind of formal links is grammatical parallelism and semantic parallelism that come as the lowest number in “Double Birthday” short story. Each of those kinds occurs once out of 67 data, with 1.5% each kind of the total. The kinds of formal links are explained in a detailed way as follows.
4.1.1.1 Anaphoric Referring Expression
Anaphoric referring expression is pronouns that express someone or something is given once at the beginning. “The passengers presented
themselves for checking before boarding the plane.” is one of the
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formal links used in “Double Birthday” short story. There are 24 data out of 67 data or 36% of the total. They are data (5/1/23), (6/2/4), (7/2/8), (10/2/26), (11/2/28), (12/2/31), (13/2/40), (17/3/11), (18/3/25), (19/3/31), (23/5/6), (29/7/4), (30/8/6), (31/8/14), (35/9/16), (39/10/16), (45/11/36), (46/11/38), (52/15/3), (54/15/23), (57/17/5), (58/17/14), (60/18/22), and (64/19/26). Here the writer takes three data to be discussed.
Excerpt 1 (18/3/25)
Judge Hammersley's house out on Squirrel Hill sat under a grove of very old oak trees. He lived alone, with his daughter, Margaret Parmenter, who was a widow. She had a great many engagements, but she usually managed to dine at home with her father, and that was about as much society as he cared for. His house was comfortable in an old-fashioned way, well appointed — especially the library, the room in which he lived when he was not in bed or at the Court House. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 3)
The narrator tells about Judge Hammersley’s house that used many
pronouns. The meanings of he and his are referred to Judge Hammersley as the identity of someone is given at the beginning. Meanwhile, the meanings of she and her are referred to Margaret Parmenter as the identity of someone is given after her father. This makes a kind of chain running through the discourse, in which each expression is linked to another. Another example of anaphoric referring expression can be found in excerpt 2.
Excerpt 2 (23/5/6)
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his daughter, in an evening cloak, stopped at the library door to wish him good night and went down the hall. He listened for the closing of the front door; it was a reassuring sound to him. He liked the feeling of an orderly house, empty for himself and his books all evening. He was deeply read in divinity, philosophy, and in the early history of North America. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 5)
The words of he, his, him, and himself are referred to Judge as the identity of someone given at the beginning. This makes a kind of chain running through the discourse in which each expression is linked to another. Another example of anaphoric referring expression can be found in the next excerpt.
Excerpt 3 (12/2/31)
He was the last of the Engelhardt boys, and they had none of them had anything to show. They all died much worse off in the world than they began. They began with a flourishing glass factory up the river, a comfortable fortune, a fine old house on the park in Allegheny, a good standing in the community; and it was all gone, melted away. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 2)
The meanings of they, and them are referred to Engelhardt boys as the identity of someone is given at the beginning. This makes a kind of chain running through the discourse, in which each expression is linked to another.
4.1.1.2 Conjunction
Conjunctions are the words to join sentence elements such as words, phrases, or clauses, or even sentences. This is the second highest
kind of formal links used in “Double Birthday” short story. There are 20
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(36/9/27), (37/9/34), (40/10/19), (42/11/9), (43/11/12), (48/13/14), (51/14/35), (53/15/15), (59/17/22), (61/18/29), (63/19/24), (66/21/15), and (67/23/19). Here the writer takes three data to be discussed.
Excerpt 4 (32/8/27)
Conductors of orchestras and singing societies recommended Doctor Engelhardt because he was very lax about collecting fees from professionals, especially if they sent him a photograph floridly inscribed. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 8)
The sentence above shows that because here gives new information to what has already been given in terms of causes. The new information is Doctor Engelhardt was very lax about collection fees from professionals; this is why conductors of orchestras and singing societies recommended him. Another example of conjunction can be found in excerpt 5.
Excerpt 5 (40/10/19)
She thought it was lovely of him, but she was very fond of her classmates, and she wanted to graduate with her class next year. Moreover, she had just been given a choir position in one of the biggest churches in Pittsburgh, though she was still a schoolgirl; she was going to have money and pretty clothes for the first time in her life and wouldn't miss it all for anything. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 10)
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Excerpt 6 (20/3/38)
As a young girl his daughter had used to take up the challenge and hotly defend the person who had displeased or disappointed her father. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 3)
The sentence above shows that or here indicates new contrasting information with old information.
4.1.1.3 Substitution
Substitution is kind of formal link that the word like do or so substitutes for a word or group of words which have appeared in an earlier sentence. This is the third highest kind of formal links used in “Double Birthday” short story. There are 7 data out of 67 data or 10% of the total. They are data (21/4/8), (22/4/20), (47/13/4), (50/14/19), (55/16/20), (62/19/17), and (65/20/38). Here the writer takes three data to be discussed.
Excerpt 7 (21/4/8)
"Oh, did you really? I haven't seen him for years, not since the war. How was he looking? Shabby?"
"Not so shabby as he ought to. That fellow's likely to be in want one of these days."
"I'm afraid so," Mrs. Parmenter sighed. "But I believe he would be rather plucky about it." (Willa Cather, 1929, page 4)
Here “so” substitutes the underlined sentence that has appeared
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Excerpt 8 (22/4/20)
"Can he be as old as that? Yes, I suppose so. When we were both at Mrs. Sterrett's, in Rome, I was fifteen, and he must have been about thirty." (Willa Cather, 1929, page 4)
Here “so” substitutes the word that has appeared earlier. It
substitutes the questions “Can he be as old as that?”. Another example of substitution can be found in next excerpt.
Excerpt 9 (55/16/20)
"And we were always going to run away to Russia together, and now there is no Russia. Everything has changed but you, Mrs. Parmenter." "Wish I could think so. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 16)
Here “so” substitutes the sentences that appeared earlier. It
substitutes the declaration about everything that has changed but not Mrs.
Parmenter. In this case, word “so” substitutes a statement, “And we were
always going to run away to Russia together, and now there is no Russia. Everything has changed but you, Mrs. Parmenter”.
4.1.1.4 Repetition
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Excerpt 10 (56/17/2)
The library opened directly into the hall; he couldn't help overhearing his daughter, and he disliked her free and unreproachful tone with this man who was young when he should be old, single when he should be married and penniless when he should be well fixed. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 17)
Here the clauses are linked through the repetition of “when he
should be” and their meanings are synonymous that he thinks still young rather than being old. The first clause is about young that should be old, second is about single that should be married, and third is about penniless that should be well fixed. Another example of repetition can be found in excerpt 11.
Excerpt 11 (9/2/24)
He was really a sympathetic man, and though so stern of manner, he had deep affections; was fiercely loyal to old friends, old families, and old ideals. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 2)
Here the word “old” is repeated and their meanings are
synonymous that someone was fiercely loyal to old friends, old families, and old ideals. Another example of repetition can be found in excerpt 12. Excerpt 12 (14/3/3)
Their bringing-up was wrong; August had too free a hand, he was too proud of his five handsome boys, and too conceited. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 3)
The word “too” in the sentence above is repeating because of
August’s bringing-up was wrong. He had too free a hand means let the
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4.1.1.5 Verb Form
Verb form is kind of formal link that deals with verb in one paragraph; the form of the verb in one sentence can limit the choice of the verb form in the next. Verb Form in “Double Birthday” short story only has 4 data out of 67 data or 6% of the total. They are data (8/2/20), (38/10/4), (41/10/25), and (49/13/25). Here the writer takes three data to be discussed.
Excerpt 13 (8/2/20)
"Certainly, certainly." The Judge spoke up quickly and for the first time looked Albert squarely in the eye. "Don't give him any of that bootleg stuff. I can find something in my cellar. Come out to-morrow night after eight, with a gripsack of some sort. Very glad to help you out, Albert. Glad the old fellow holds up so well. Thank'ee, Albert," as Engelhardt swung the heavy door open and held it for him to pass. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 2)
From the paragraph above, there are two different verb forms because there are monologue and dialogue in this paragraph. First is monologue, we can see that the verbs (spoke, looked, and swung) are all in the simple past since the verbs refer to what activity that already done in the past.
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Excerpt 14 (38/10/4)
She came to lunch with them again and again, because she liked the boys, and she thought the house magnificent. The Doctor observed her narrowly all the while. Clearly she had no ambition, no purpose; she sang to be agreeable. She was not very intelligent, but she had a kind of personal warmth that, to his way of thinking, was much better than brains. He took her over to his office and poked and pounded her. When he had finished his examination, he stood before the foolish, happy young thing and inclined his head in his peculiar fashion. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 10)
From the previous discourse, we can see that the verbs (came, liked, and thought,) are all in the simple past since the verbs refer to the woman who as usual come to lunch with them again and again in the past and verbs (observed, sang, took, poked, pounded, stood, and inclined) are all in the simple past since the verbs refer to the Doctor that excited and observed the woman. Another example of verb form can be found in the next excerpt.
Excerpt 15 (49/13/25)
The tortured man looked up through the linden branches at the blue arch that never answers. As he looked, his face relaxed, his breathing grew regular. His eyes were caught by puffy white clouds like the cherub-heads in Raphael's pictures, and something within him seemed to rise and travel with those clouds. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 13)
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4.1.1.6 Cataphoric Referring Expression
Cataphoric referring expression is kind of formal link that the pronouns are given first and then the identity is revealed. “This is what she said –our teacher is a raving lunatic!” is one of the examples of cataphoric referring expression. This kind of formal link appears in “Double Birthday” short story only with 2 data out of 67 data or 3% of the total. Excerpt 16 (26/6/28)
"The daughter, she still lives with him? A damned fine-looking woman!" he muttered between his teeth. Uncle Albert, a bachelor, had been a professed connoisseur of ladies in his day. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 6)
The meanings of he and his are referred to Uncle Albert as the identity of someone is given after the pronouns. This makes a kind of chain running through the discourse, in which each expression is linked to another. Another example of cataphoric referring expression can be found in excerpt 17.
Excerpt 17 (27/6/30)
Immediately after dinner, unless he were going somewhere, Albert always played for his uncle for an hour. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 6)
The meaning of he is referred to Albert as the identity of someone is given after the pronouns. This makes a kind of chain running through the discourse, in which each expression is linked to another.
4.1.1.7 Ellipsis
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omit it, and know that the missing part can be reconstructed quite successfully. This kind of formal link appears in “Double Birthday” short story only with 2 data out of 67 data or 3% of the total.
Excerpt 18 (1/1/2)
EVEN IN American cities, which seem so much alike, where people seem all to be living the same lives, striving for the same things, thinking the same thoughts, there are still individuals a little out of tune with the times — there are still survivals of a past more loosely woven, there are disconcerting beginnings of a future yet unforeseen. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 1)
In the paragraph above, there are some words that are omitted because it is clear what the context is, for instance where people seem all to be in the paragraph in the next is omitted in “striving for the same things, thinking the same thoughts”.
We can put where people seem all to be in each actually, and
become “where people seem all to be living the same lives, where people
seem all to be striving for the same things, where people seem all to be thinking the same thoughts” but it is omitted since the context is clear.
Another example of ellipsis can be found in excerpt 19. Excerpt 19 (15/3/3)
Their bringing-up was wrong; August had too free a hand, he was too proud of his five handsome boys, and too conceited. Too much tennis, Rhine wine punch, music, and silliness. They were always running over to New York, like this Albert. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 3)
From the paragraph above, we can see the word too much is omitted in “Rhine wine punch, music, and silliness” because the context is
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Rhine wine punch, too much music, and too much silliness” but since the context is clear, the word too much is omitted.
4.1.1.8 Grammatical Parallelism
Grammatical parallelism is a device which suggests a connection, proceeds through a repeated grammatical structure into which different words are slotted. This kind of formal link is the lowest number in “Double Birthday” short story. It occurs once out of 67 data, with 1.5% of
the total.
Excerpt 20 (3/1/5)
EVEN IN American cities, which seem so much alike, where people seem all to be living the same lives, striving for the same things, thinking the same thoughts, there are still individuals a little out of tune with the times — there are still survivals of a past more loosely woven, there are disconcerting beginnings of a future yet unforeseen. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 1)
The paragraph above employs parallelism to link clauses as there is a repeated grammatical structure (there are … of …).
4.1.1.9 Semantic Parallelism
Semantic Parallelism is a device suggests a connection; the sentences are linked because they mean the same thing. This kind of formal link is the lowest number in “Double Birthday” short story. It occurs once out of 67 data, with 1.5% of the total.
Excerpt 21 (16/3/13)
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lived with his old uncle. The county took care of him for the sake of his father, who had been a gallant officer in the Civil War, and afterward a public-spirited citizen and a generous employer of labor. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 3)
The above sentences are connected as they reveal the same meaning that Albert could hold his head up.
4.1.2 Functions of Formal Links
Based on the data analysis, the writer found 67 data containing functions of formal links. The chart below shows the data of functions of formal links. It presents the total number and frequency of each function.
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67 data or 9% of the total functions of formal links. Contrasting information and illustrating terms of time has the same amount of data with 5 data out of 67 data or 7.5% of the total. Influencing & limiting verbs is 4 data out of 67 data or 6% of the total. Connecting clause is 2 data out of 67 data or 3% of the total. The rest function of formal links is adding more information come as the
lowest number in “Double Birthday” short story. This function occurs once
out of 67 data or 2% of the total. The functions of formal links are explained in a detailed way as follows.
4.1.2.1 Indicating Reference Pronoun
This function comes as the highest functions of formal links in “Double Birthday” short story. Reference is the link between an element
and others in a text in which it is interpreted. It is reach the highest number with 26 data out of 67 data or 39% of the total. They are data (5/1/23), (6/2/4), (7/2/8), (10/2/26), (11/2/28), (12/2/31), (13/2/40), (17/3/11), (18/3/25), (19/3/31), (23/5/6), (26/6/28), (27/6/30), (29/7/4), (30/8/6), (31/8/14), (35/9/16), (39/10/16), (45/11/36), (46/11/38), (52/15/3), (54/15/23), (57/17/5), (58/17/14), (60/18/22), and (64/19/26).
Excerpt 22 (23/5/6)
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divinity, philosophy, and in the early history of North America. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 5)
From the paragraph above, there is one reference. His here indicates reference pronoun as possessive, the Judge. He here indicates reference pronoun as subject, pointing upward to Judge. Him here indicates reference pronoun as object. Himself here indicates reference pronoun as possessive object.
4.1.2.2 Being Efficient
This function makes sentence more simpler and efficient. This function comes as the second highest functions of formal links in “Double Birthday” short story. It occurs 9 data out of 67 data or 13% of the total. They are data (1/1/2), (15/3/3), (21/4/8), (22/4/20), (47/13/4), (50/14/19), (55/16/20), (62/19/17), and (65/20/38).
Excerpt 23 (15/3/3)
Their bringing-up was wrong; August had too free a hand, he was too proud of his five handsome boys, and too conceited. Too much tennis, Rhine wine punch, music, and silliness. They were always running over to New York, like this Albert. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 3)
From the paragraph above, we can see the word too much is omitted in “Rhine wine punch, music, and silliness” because the context is
clear. The ellipsis here, make the sentence simpler and effecient. The word too much only appears once. If the sentence not effecient, it wiil be “Too much tennis, too much Rhine wine punch, too much music, and too much
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Excerpt 24 (21/4/8)
"Oh, did you really? I haven't seen him for years, not since the war. How was he looking? Shabby?"
"Not so shabby as he ought to. That fellow's likely to be in want one of these days."
"I'm afraid so," Mrs. Parmenter sighed. "But I believe he would be rather plucky about it." (Willa Cather, 1929, page 4)
From the conversation above, it can be simplified that so is substitution of That fellow's likely to be in want one of these days. The substitution here makes the sentence "I'm afraid so," more efficient. If the sentence not efficient, it will be “I'm afraid that fellow's likely to be in
want one of these days.”
2.1.2.3 Giving Cause and Effect
This function occurs when conjunction like (so, because, consequently, for this reason, etc.) appeared. This function comes as the second highest functions of formal links in “Double Birthday” short story. There are 9 data out of 67 data or 13% of the total. They are data (4/1/9), (24/5/30), (28/6/37), (32/8/27), (33/8/37), (36/9/27), (37/9/34), (66/21/15), and (67/23/19).
Excerpt 25 (24/5/30)
He was delighted to have a home again, to unpack his own furniture and his books and pictures — the most valuable in the world to him, because they were full of his own history and that of his family, were like part of his own personality. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 5)
The word because in the paragraph above show cause & effect
function. The cause is “they were full of his own history and that of his
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delighted to have a home again, to unpack his own furniture and his books and pictures — the most valuable in the world to him”. We can see the keyword for cause is the word because itself, and the keyword for effect is “the most valuable”. This is about relating new information what has
already been given in terms of causes. Another example of giving cause and effect function occurs in excerpt 26.
Excerpt 26 (33/8/37)
One morning when the Doctor was taking his customary walk about the Park before office hours, he stopped in front of the Allegheny High School building because he heard singing — a chorus of young voices. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 8)
From the sentence above, we can see that the word because gives cause and effect function. The cause is clear after the word because that “he heard singing — a chorus of young voices”. The effect is before the
word because that “he stopped in front of the Allegheny High School building”. This is about relating new information what has already been given in terms of causes. Another example of giving cause and effect function occurs in the next excerpt.
Excerpt 27 (36/9/27)
The boys were delighted with her because she was jolly and interested in everything. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 9)
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because that “The boys were delighted with her”. This is about relating new information what has already been given in terms of causes.
4.1.2.4 Stressing Points
This function is unique; it shows when there are repetition words. Stressing sometimes is often used rather than refer to pronoun and it helps to focus the ideas and to keep your reader/listener on track. This function is the third highest number in “Double Birthday” short story with 6 data out of 67 data or 9% of the total functions of formal links. They are data (2/1/3), (9/2/24), (14/3/3), (25/5/31), (44/11/23), and (56/17/2).
Excerpt 28 (2/1/3)
EVEN IN American cities, which seem so much alike, where people seem all to be living the same lives, striving for the same things, thinking the same thoughts, there are still individuals a little out of tune with the times — there are still survivals of a past more loosely woven, there are disconcerting beginnings of a future yet unforeseen. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 1)
From the paragraph above, the word same is repeated in order to give stressing function that in American cities people seem all to be in the same lives, things, and thoughts. The repeated word same helps the reader/listener keep on track. Another example of stressing points function occurs in excerpt 29.
Excerpt 29 (25/5/31)
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From the paragraph above, the word his own is repeated in order to give stressing function. We can see that the stressing is about belonging to
someone, that’s why the word his own is repeated. It helps the
reader/listener keep on track. Another example of stressing points function occurs in the next excerpt.
Excerpt 30 (44/11/23)
"Before my marriage, Doctor Engelhardt, you offered to take me to New York to a teacher, and lend me money to start on. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 11)
From the sentence above, the word to gives stressing function. The word to is repeated to gives stressing about what Doctor Engelhardt offer before marriage. It helps the reader/listener that Doctor Engelhardt’s offer
is something important.
4.1.2.5 Contrasting Information
This function occurs when conjunction such as (or, on the other hand, etc.). This function is about contrasting new information with old information. This function appears in “Double Birthday” short story with 5 data out of 67 data or 7.5% of the total. They are data (20/3/38), (42/11/9), (43/11/12), (48/13/14), and (53/15/15).
Excerpt 31 (48/13/14)
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The word or in the sentence above is showing contrast function. The difference is between drunken man contrasting with dying man. Another example of contrasting information function occurs in excerpt 32. Excerpt 32 (53/15/15)
His old schoolfellows went to New York now as often as he had done in his youth; but they went to consult doctors, to put children in school, or to pay the bills of incorrigible sons. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 15)
The word or in the sentence above indicates contrast function, contrasting new information with old information. After consulting to doctor, differentiate about putting children in school or pay the bills of incorrigible sons.
4.1.2.6 Illustrating Terms of Time
This function occurs when conjunction like (formerly, then, in the end, etc.). This function appears in “Double Birthday” short story with 5 data out of 67 data or 7.5% of the total. They are data (34/9/2), (51/14/35), (59/17/22), (61/18/29), and (63/19/24).
Excerpt 33 (51/14/35)
The next evening after dinner Albert left the house with a suitcase, the bag that used to make so many trips to New York in the opera season. He stopped downstairs to ask Elsa to carry her sewing up and sit with his uncle for a while, then he took the street car across the Twenty-second Street Bridge by the blazing steel mills. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 14)
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in order of Albert’s position. Another example of illustrating terms of time
function occurs in excerpt 34. Excerpt 34 (59/17/22)
The Engelhardt boys were different, like people in a book or a play. All the young men in her set were scornful of girls until they wanted one; then they grabbed her rather brutally, and it was over. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 17)
From the paragraph above, the word then makes the sentence is clear in terms of time. It tells about Engelhardt boys have different treatment to a woman, and explained it in detail. The word then here is following next after in order of Engelhardt boys wanted one. Another example of illustrating terms of time function occurs in the next excerpt. Excerpt 35 (61/18/29)
"You'll have all you want for once. It's a great occasion. Did you shave carefully? I'll take my bath, and then you must be ready for me." (Willa Cather, 1929, page 18)
From the conversation above, the word then here means that someone must be ready when the other already takes bath. The word then here is following next after in order of command someone to ready.
4.1.2.7 Influencing and Limiting Verbs
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Excerpt 36 (8/2/20)
"Certainly, certainly." The Judge spoke up quickly and for the first time looked Albert squarely in the eye. "Don't give him any of that bootleg stuff. I can find something in my cellar. Come out to-morrow night after eight, with a gripsack of some sort. Very glad to help you out, Albert. Glad the old fellow holds up so well. Thank'ee, Albert," as Engelhardt swung the heavy door open and held it for him to pass. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 2)
From the paragraph above, there are two different verb forms because there are monologue and dialogue in this paragraph. First is monologue, we can see that the verbs (spoke, looked, and swung) are all in the simple past since the verbs refer to what activity that already done in the past. The first verb spoke influences and limits the next verb in past verb form.
Second is dialogue, we can see that the verbs (give, find, come, help, and holds) are all in simple present since the verbs refers to a conversation between Albert and Judge Hammersley in “Double Birthday” short story. The first verb give influences and limits the next verb in present verb form. Another example of influencing and limiting verbs function can be found in excerpt 37.
Excerpt 37 (38/10/4)
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From the previous discourse, we can see that the verbs (came, liked, and thought,) are all in the simple past since the verbs refer to the woman who as usual come to lunch with them again and again in the past and verbs (observed, sang, took, poked, pounded, stood, and inclined) are all in the simple past since the verbs refer to the Doctor that excited and observed the woman. All the verbs here are in the past verb form since the function of influencing and limiting verbs occurred. Another example of influencing and limiting verbs function can be found in the next excerpt. Excerpt 38 (49/13/25)
The tortured man looked up through the linden branches at the blue arch that never answers. As he looked, his face relaxed, his breathing grew regular. His eyes were caught by puffy white clouds like the cherub-heads in Raphael's pictures, and something within him seemed to rise and travel with those clouds. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 13)
The paragraph above, we can see that the verbs (tortured, looked, relaxed, grew, caught, and seemed) are all in the simple past since the verbs describing the man who extremely stressed. All the verbs here are in the past verb form since the function of influencing and limiting verbs occurred. The first verb makes the next verb in the past verb form. There seems to be a formal connection between them, a way in the first tense conditions all the others.
4.1.2.8 Connecting Clause
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Excerpt 39 (3/1/5)
EVEN IN American cities, which seem so much alike, where people seem all to be living the same lives, striving for the same things, thinking the same thoughts, there are still individuals a little out of tune with the times — there are still survivals of a past more loosely woven, there are disconcerting beginnings of a future yet unforeseen. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 1)
The paragraph above employs parallelism to link clauses as there is a repeated grammatical structure (there are … of …). The form of clauses is connected because the repeated (there are … of …) to another. It connects and become one good paragraph to understand. Another example of connecting clause function can be found in excerpt 40.
Excerpt 40 (16/3/13)
Judge Hammersley didn't see how Albert could hold his head up. He had some small job in the County Clerk's office, was dependent upon it, had nothing else but the poor little house on the South Side where he lived with his old uncle. The county took care of him for the sake of his father, who had been a gallant officer in the Civil War, and afterward a public-spirited citizen and a generous employer of labor. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 3)
The above sentences are connected as they reveal the same meaning that Albert could hold his head up.
4.1.2.9 Adding More Information
This function occurs when conjunction such as (furthermore, in addition, moreover, etc.). This function comes as the lowest number in “Double Birthday” short story. This function occurs once out of 67 data or
