INVESTIGATED LEARNING-TEACHING METHOD; A
CONTENT ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH EDUCATIONAL
RESEARCH REPORTS
A Thesis Presented to
the Graduate Program in English Language Studies in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Magister Humaniora (M. Hum.)
in English Language Studies
AGATHA LISA 156332027
THE GRADUATE PROGRAM OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
i
INVESTIGATED LEARNING-TEACHING METHOD; A
CONTENT ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH EDUCATIONAL
RESEARCH REPORTS
in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Magister Humaniora (M. Hum.)
in English Language Studies
AGATHA LISA 156332027
THE GRADUATE PROGRAM OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA 2017
A Thesis Presented to
iv
“
It always seems impossible until it is
done.
”
(Nelson Mandela)
Optimism is the faith that leads to
achievement. Nothing can be done
without hope and confidence.
”
(Helen Keller)
This research is proudly dedicated to:
1. My adorable parents, Al. Wahyu Bawono and MM. Listiyani Darayanti,
and my dearest brother, Fransciscus Buwana, who have given endless
love, support and affection in my life.
vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Foremost, all praises are forwarded to Allah, Jesus Christ and Mary, the most Gracious and the most Merciful who have given the writer inspiration,
strength, blessing, spirit, hopes and guidance in accomplishing this thesis.
First of all, I would like to extend my deepest gratitude and appreciation to
the best advisor Bapak Dr. J. Bismoko. His guidance, suggestions, corrections, comments, and criticism can become the improvement of this research. Moreover,
his support and inspiration make me struggle with all the obstacles during the
completion. I would like to thank Bapak Dr. B. B. Dwijatmoko, M. A., Bapak F.X. Mukarto, Ph. D., as Thesis reviewers, and Bapak Dr. E. Sunarto, M. Hum., as my thesis examiner. Thank you for all suggestions which encourage me in completing or revising my thesis. I thank Bapak Paulus Sarwoto, Ph.D., as the chairperson of English Language Studies.
For everything, I thank Babe Drs. Al. Wahyu Bawono, B.Sc., mami Maria Magdalena Listiyani Darmayanti, S.Pd., and kakak dr. Fransciscus Buwana. As my family, they have done their best to me. They always support me emotionally and materially with effort, prayer, love, and patience.
I would like thank my cousins Agnees Dyah R., S. Pd., Clara Rusdiana Dwi, W., S.Pd, and Ega Bima P., S. Kom., Msi, my boarding housemate Agata Endang S., Titis Sekar P., Intan, Elma Palimbong, Josephine Fanny D., S. Pd., Dian Indita, S. Pd., Maria Diah W., Karina Krisnadia., S. E, Vina, and
Ensa Puspitasari, my beloved friends, Sonia Alexandra P., S. Pd, Nadia Gitya Y., S. Pd., Arum Galih R, Vitha Ama M., S. Pd., Paskalia Siwi., M. Pd, Ni Luh Enita M., S. Pd., Natalia Sulistya. A., S. Pd., Yoanna, Maria Dea Wrestiningtyas., S. Pd., M. Hum., bapak Rosipani for helping me finding data in UAJ Jakarta, and my thesis team Supriyani, S. Pd., M. Hum., and Monica Sindhi Galih S., S. Pd., M. Hum. I also thankall my friends of KBI batch 2015.
Finally, the researcher thanks all people whom the researcher could not
mention for their unforgotten contribution during the thesis writing process.
Hopefully this thesis will be beneficial for everyone.
viii
TABLE OF CONTENT
Pages
TITLE PAGE ... i
APPROVAL PAGE ... ii
THESIS DEFENSE APPROVAL PAGE ... iii
DEDICATION PAGE ... iv
STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY ... v
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ... vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ... viii
LIST OF TABLES ... x
LIST OF FIGURES ... xi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ... xii
ABSTRACT ... xiii
ABSTRAK ... xiv
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ... 1
A. RESEARCH BACKGROUND ... 1
B. SCOPE OF THE STUDY ... 9
C. PROBLEM FORMULATION ... 10
D. RESEARCH GOALS ... 10
E. RESEARCH BENEFITS ... 11
CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW ... 13
A. THEORETICAL REVIEW ... 13
1. Educational Research Reports ... 13
2. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching ... 21
a. Approach ... 27
1) Communicative Language Teaching ... 28
2) Cooperative Language Learning ... 29
3) Task-based Language Teaching ... 30
4) Project-based Learning ... 32
5) CALL ... 33
b. Design ... 34
1) Learning-Teaching Materials ... 34
2) Learning-Teaching Media ... 36
3) Learning-Teaching Assessment ... 38
4) Learner roles ... 40
5) Teacher roles ... 41
2) Procedure ... 42
3. Classification Area of English ... 44
a. Inner-Circle Countries ... 45
b. Outer-Circle Countries ... 46
c. Expanding-Circle Countries ... 46
d. Asia ... 47
e. Indonesia ... 48
ix
a. Definition of Content Analysis ... 49
b. Purposes of Content Analysis ... 51
c. Types of Content Analysis ... 52
d. Procedures of Content Analysis ... 53
B. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ... 56
CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY ... 59
A. RESEARCH GOALS AND METHOD ... 59
B. NATURE AND DATA SOURCES OF DATA ... 61
C. INSTRUMENTS ... 63
D. DATA GATHERING ... 67
E. DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION ... 72
F. VALIDITY ... 73
CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION... 75
A. ANALYSIS RESULTS ... 75
1. Origin and Year of Publication ... 76
2. Investigated Topic ... 78
3. Related Topic ... 85
4. Research Goal ... 88
5. Research Design and Method ... 89
6. Data Gathering Instruments ... 91
7. Participants ... 92
8. Sample Sizes ... 95
9. Sampling Technique ... 96
10.Validity ... 97
11.Data Analysis Technique ... 97
12.Research Results ... 98
13.Implication or Suggestion ... 100
14.Not Available or Not-Reported ... 101
B. DISCUSSION ... 102
CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS... 110
A. CONCLUSION ... 110
B. IMPLICATIONS ... 113
C. SUGGESTIONS ... 114
BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 116
APPENDICES ... 123
Appendix 1: Data Sources ... 123
Appendix 2: Concept Clarification Table... 130
Appendix 3: Quantitative Data ... 156
x
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1 Data Sources ... 64
Table 3.2 Quantitative Table ... 65
Table 3.3 Qualitative Table ... 65
Table 3.4 Concept Clarification... 66
Table 3.5 Master Table ... 67
Table 4.1 Year of Publication ... 78
Table 4.2 Learning-Teaching Approach/Method ... 80
Table 4.3 Learning-Teaching Media ... 81
Table 4.4 Learning-Teaching Assessment ... 83
Table 4.5 Learning-Teaching Materials ... 83
Table 4.6 Learning-Teaching Techniques/Strategies ... 84
Table 4.7 Investigated Skills and Knowledge ... 86
Table 4.8 Investigated Attitude and Related Learning Factors ... 87
Table 4.9 Research Goal ... 88
Table 4.10 Research Design and Method ... 89
Table 4.11 Data Gathering Instruments ... 91
Table 4.12 Participants ... 93
Table 4.13 Sampling Technique ... 96
Table 4.14 Validity ... 97
Table 4.15 Research Results ... 98
Table 4.16 Suggestion/Implication ... 100
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Three Competences of the 2013 Curriculum ... 5
Figure 2.1 Typical Research Article Structure ... 16
Figure 2.2 Summary of Elements and Sub-Elements of Method ... 26
Figure 2.3 Basic Elements of an Inquiry Process ... 42
Figure 2.4 Asia within Three Circles ... 48
Figure 2.5 A Framework for Content Analysis ... 54
Figure 2.6 Framework of Pre-Understanding... 58
Figure 3.1 Open Sources ... 63
Figure 3.2 Google Search ... 68
Figure 3.3 – Figure 3.7 Chosen Page Link ... 71
Figure 4.1 Origin ... 77
Figure 4.2 Learning-Teaching Method ... 79
Figure 4.3 Sampling Sizes ... 95
xii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ADP Approach, Design, and Procedure
ELT English Language Teaching
CLT Communicative Language Teaching
CLL Cooperative Language Learning
TBLT Task-Based Language Teaching
PBL Project-Based Learning
CALL Computer Assisted Language Learning
ECC Expanding-Circle Countries
OCC Outer-Circle Countries
ICC Inner-Circle Countries
CA Content Analysis
ICT Information Communications Technology
xiii
ABSTRACT
Lisa, Agatha. (2017). Investigated Learning-Teaching Method; A Content Analysis of English Educational Research Reports. Yogyakarta: The Graduate Program, English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University.
English language teaching has undergone many changes. Various teaching methods have come into vogue and then some still exist but some disappeared. In Indonesia, Competence Based Learning (CBL) has been introduced for more than ten years at the school level and more than fifteen at the university level. The goal is for students to acquire three competencies; knowledge, skill, and attitude. Hence, the implementation of CBL leads to the emergence of various teaching learning methods and practices which are relating with the three competencies. There have been a lot of research reports discovering learning-teaching method in the field of English Language Teaching (ELT). Therefore, this research aims to discover the trends of English educational research on learning-teaching method. The term method within this research is divided into three elements; approach, design (learning-teaching materials, media and assessments), and procedures (learning-teaching techniques or strategies). The value of examining research trends is that to see the status of academic discipline periodically looks at for the purpose of learning where it has been, where it is currently, and where it tends to be in the future. It can help ELT academics, researchers, policy makers, or university managers to see research studies that were mostly as well as rarely explored.
A content analysis method, both quantitative and qualitative, are used in this study. A total of 110 education research reports published were examined. The data were English educational research reports from Indonesia, Asia, inner circle countries (ICC) and outer circle countries (OCC) published within the last ten years, 2007-2016. The research reports were from open sources by using keywords. The results of the analysis were presented in the forms of tables, charts showing the frequencies, percentages of the findings and description.
The findings revealed that researches in English educational learning-teaching method were mostly conducted in learning-learning-teaching media (45.45%), and the most frequently studied was the innovation in emerging uses of ICT, for instance YouTube, twitter, Facebook, edmodo, podcast, interactive weblogs, and etc. For the studied sample, these studies were mostly conducted on university students which are from English Department (48.9%). The reasons for investigating learning-teaching method is to examining the effectiveness of learning-teaching method on students’ achievement or performance (70.91%), examining participants’ perception (14.55%), and examining the comparison of the usage one learning-teaching method and the other method (9.09%). Moreover, there was a tendency to employ quantitative research design (36.36%). In line with this finding, tests and questionnaire were found as the most common instrument to collect the data (22.73%).
For the research results, almost all research report results are good and effective. Only one research report which concluded that the impact of learning-teaching method on students’ achievement or performance is not effective. Therefore, for future researchers should conduct another holistic research which the results are not easy to be predicted as effective or good.
xiv
ABSTRAK
Lisa, Agatha. (2017). Investigated Learning-Teaching Method; A Content Analysis of English Educational Research Reports. Yogyakarta: Kajian Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma
Pengajaran Bahasa Inggris telah banyak mengalami perubahan. Berbagai metode pembelajaran ditemukan, ada beberapa metode yang masih ada dan populer, namun ada beberapa yang sudah tidak dipakai lagi. Sementara itu, pembelajaran berbasis kompetensi telah diterapkan dalam dunia pendidikan di Indonesia selama lebih dari sepuluh tahun di tingkat sekolah dan lebih dari lima belas di tingkat universitas. Tujuan dari pembelajaran tersebut adalah menekankan siswa untuk mencapai kompetensi pengetahuan, keterampilan, dan sikap. Terdapat banyak penelitian yang meneliti tentang metode belajar mengajar Bahasa Inggris. Tujuan dari penelitian tersebut adalah untuk memberikan kontribusi dalam upaya meningkatkan kualitas pembelajaran di kelas. Oleh karena itu, penelitian ini mempunyai satu rumusan masalah yang bertujuan untuk mengetahui seperti apa penelitian-penelitian tentang metode pembelajaran dalam bidang pendidikan bahasa Inggris tersebut.
Penelitian ini merupakan kuantitatif dan kualitatif analisis isi. Penelitian ini menganalisa 110 laporan penelitian dalam bidang pendidikan Bahasa Inggris yang telah dipublikasin. Data laporan penelitian di pendidikan Bahasa Inggris diambil dari berbagai Negara, antara lain adalah Indonesia, Asia, Inner Circle Countries (ICC) dan Outer Circle Countries (OCC) yang diterbitkan dalam sepuluh tahun terakhir, mulai dari tahun 2007 sampai 2016. Instrumen yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah kata kunci dan tabel. Hasil analisis ditampilkan dalam bentuk persentase dan deskripsi.
Hasil analis menunjukkan bahwa penelitian dalam metode pembelajaran bahasa Inggris sebagian besar dilakukan pada media pembelajaran (45.45%), dan yang paling sering diteliti adalah inovasi pembelajaran Bahasa Inggris dengan memanfaatkan Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi (TIK), seperti contoh dengan menggunakan YouTube, twitter, Facebook, edmodo, podcast, interactive weblogs,
dan lain-lain. Mayoritas dari penelitian dilakukan terhadap mahasiswa yang berasal dari Jurusan Bahasa Inggris (48.9%). Sedangkan alasan untuk menyelidiki metode belajar mengajar adalah untuk menguji efektivitas penerapan metode pembelajaran terhadap pencapaian prestasi siswa (70.91%), menguji persepsi siswa (14.55%), dan membandingkan suatu metode pembelajaran dengan metode pembelajaran yang lain (9.09%). Peneliti cenderung menggunakan metode kuantitatif (36.36%), dengan menggunakan tes dan kuesioner sebagai instrumen untuk mengumpulkan data (22.73%).
Untuk hasil penelitian, hampir semuanya baik dan efektif. Hanya satu laporan penelitian yang menyimpulkan bahwa suatu metode pembelajaran tidak efektif dalam meningkatkan pencapaian prestasi siswa. Oleh karenanya, sangat disarankan untuk melakukan penelitian yang lebih holistik dimana hasilnya tidak mudah diprediksi sebagai efektif atau bagus.
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
This chapter consists of five sections which is intended to present the
purpose and background of this study. This chapter contains research background,
scope of the study, problem formulation, research goals, and research benefits.
The explanation of each section is presented as follows.
A. RESEARCH BACKGROUND
Teaching and learning are causally tightly bound activities.
Kumaravadivelu (2003: 5) say “Educators say that teaching is both an art and a
science. It is basically a subjective activity carried out in an organized way.
While, learning is about how we perceive and understand the world, about making
meaning. Marton and Booth (1997) say “but ‘learning’ is not a single thing, it is
about change. It may involves mastering abstract principles, understanding proofs,
remembering factual information, acquiring methods, techniques and approaches,
recognition, reasoning, debating ideas, or developing behavior appropriate to
specific situations” (as cited from Fry, Ketteridge, & Marshall, 2009: 8). What is
the cause effect relationship between teaching and learning? The question is based
on the assumption that teaching actually causes learning to occur. Does it, really?
We know by experiential knowledge that teaching does not have to automatically
lead to learning; conversely, learning can very well take place in the absence of
teaching. Kumaravadivelu (2003: 7) answer “the entire edifice of education,
however, is constructed on the foundation that teaching can contribute to
accelerated and accomplished learning”. Therefore, learning-teaching is very
complex. It is not easy to translate theoretical knowledge, beliefs or assumptions
into practical implications for teaching. As educators, the have to understand
students’ learning. Moreover, they have been working to better prepare today’s
graduates for a world in which academic content mastery and skills such as
critical thinking, problem solving, creativity, innovation, communication,
self-confidence, self-efficacy, technology literacy, and collaboration. There are no
simple answers to the questions “How as educators can we bring about learning?”
“Which method is best?” This is partly because education deals with specific
purposes and contexts that differ from each other and with students as people,
who are diverse in all respects, and ever changing. Not everyone learns in the
same way, equally or readily about all types of material. The discipline and level
of material to be learnt have an influence. Students bring different backgrounds
and expectations to learning.
English language teaching has become very important because of the
global status of English and people all over the world are learning this language.
In Indonesia, there are many problems that foreign language learners have when
they deal with those communication problems in teaching and learning process.
As a result, ideal subjects are not practical and failing to realize what has been
expected. Some factors are behind the failure of the application. For instance in
teaching pronunciation, the students are varied and they are all influenced by their
own mother tongues. Hence, generally “How to motivate students to learn?”
“How to make the students understood?” Those questions lead an educator to
understood. A teacher should choose the proper method according to the concrete
aim and problem in the learning-teaching process.
In learning-teaching process, approaches and methods reflect particular
assumptions and beliefs about how learners should learn. The assumptions are
reviewed based on the roles of autonomous learning, learning strategies, learning
style preference, students’ feelings and technology-mediated learning. Approaches
and methods also prescribe how teacher should teach. Those reflect assumptions
about the nature of good teaching, the teaching-learning process characteristics,
the practice and technique, teacher’s goals, teacher’s role, language skills, culture,
resources, grouping, arrangement, evaluation and interaction.
English language teaching in the post-method era invites the educators to
become creative, innovative and autonomous in terms of teaching methodologies,
designing materials, and teaching technique which can make the enjoyable and
lively teaching and learning atmosphere process. Therefore, innovation in
language teaching should provide an appropriate balance of opportunities for
learning and should cover four equal strands which are proposed by Paul Nation
in 2007. The principle of the four strands consist of four equal strands – meaning
focused input, meaning focused output, language focused learning, and fluency
development. Each strand should receive a roughly equal amount of time in a
course (Nation, 2007: 167). Hence, the four strands of language learning is a
succinct balanced approach of looking at language learning. Richards and
Renandya (2002: 11) say “An approach to language pedagogy is not just a set of
static principles “set in stone.” It is, in fact, a dynamic composite of energies
continued experience in learning and teaching”. Hence, Kumaravadivelu (1994:
27) say “the post method condition can also reshape the character and content of
L2 teaching, teacher education, and classroom research. in practical terms, it
motivates a search for an open-ended, coherent framework based on current
theoretical, empirical, and pedagogical insights that will enable teachers to
theorize from practice and practice what they theorize. Therefore, the new
paradigm of teaching approaches and methods give a chance for teachers to look
for unconventional teaching techniques to facilitate students’ learning process.
Social media includes social networks, wikis, blogs, podcasts, forums, content
communities, and microblogging. Among this media, social networks seem to be
the most widely accessed and used and they have been the new trend of today’s
communication.
The techniques in teaching and learning process cannot be separated from
the changing curriculum since it will define what to be learnt and actions on how
to attain the expected outcomes. Tanner (1980: 13) defines “curriculum is the
planned and guided learning experiences and intended outcomes, formulated
through the systematic reconstruction of knowledge and experiences under
auspices of the school, for the learners’ continuous and willful growth in personal
social competence.” In Indonesia, the curriculum has been renewing 11 times
started from curricula 1947, 1952, 1964, 1968, 1975, 1984, 1994, 1999, 2004,
2006 until the most updated curriculum which is 2013. The English Language
Teaching pedagogies in curricula 2013 are focusing on developing learners’
communicative competence and autonomy in language classrooms have two key
hands of the students to manage their own learning, and providing teachers with
the role as facilitators of knowledge to help learners learn. As the 2013
Curriculum is implemented in schools, the teaching and learning stages should
involve the students to actively participate through observing, questioning,
exploring, associating and communicating. Those stages are designed in order to
reach the goal of the 2013 Curriculum – to create Indonesians who are competent,
religious, productive, innovative, and affective, and are able to contribute to the
society, country, and the global civilization (Law No. 69, 2013, Ministry of
Education and Culture). Three competencies of the 2013 Curriculum can be seen
in Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1. Three competencies of the 2013 Curriculum
(The Ministry of Education and Culture, Implemeted Kurikulum 2013)
From the Figure above, it can be interpreted that English teaching and learning
process should be adjusted by emphasizing skills, knowledge and attitude.
Therefore, the revised curriculum is also clear that approaches to teaching
can and must be varied to complement learning and take into account the
and the many ways in which they learn. It is stated in the curriculum that the
teacher needs to adopt innovative approaches to teaching and to be aware of
changes and developments in educational theory and practice. Nowadays, teachers
can choose their textbooks and other supplementary materials; they can also
choose methods or activities they want to use in their lessons. It is a big advantage
but also a big challenge.
Learning-teaching method can be incorporated as an aspect which
influences students’ performance. In fact, the students will learn effectively if
teachers present an appropriate teaching method to stimulate the learning process
and towards the end it will improve the students’ achievement. However, it is not
easy to find a suitable approach for all learners. Therefore, in order to discover,
evaluate and know whether learning-teaching method is effective, suitable and
appropriate related to students’ skills and knowledge, students’ attitude,
motivation, belief, or perception toward the learning-teaching method, some
educators conducted an educational research. Some researchers, educators and
practitioners conducted an educational research in some purposes. For instance
they want to discover, evaluate and know whether learning-teaching method is
effective, suitable and appropriate related to students’ skills and knowledge,
students’ attitude, motivation, belief, or perception toward the learning-teaching
method. In Indonesia, different people do some research with different purposes.
They are not only teachers and lecturers but also scholars, students, and
researchers. One of purposes in conducting some researches is that the credit
system in Indonesia which demands the students to do a research as the
(2013: 3) say that “No person would like to do research unless there are some
motivating factors.” They presents ten motivations about what makes people do
research. One of them is “to get a research degree and then to get a teaching
position in a college or university or become a scientist in a research institution”.
Relating to the fact about the credit system in Indonesia, it can be proved that
some people do a research at the end of their study in university as the partial
fulfillment of the requirements to obtain their degrees. The thesis is the end
product and record of students’ years of academic training and research efforts.
The students will be considered to pass or fail from their study depending on this
research paper. The Directorate of Higher Education (DIKTI), every year, also
always offers many kinds of grants for students in order to develop students’
ability in expressing their ideas and the results of their scientific activity in the
form of scientific article based on the criteria or standard of writing scientific
journal (Ditlitabmas Dirjen Dikti, 2014: 24). Therefore, it can be implied that
writing a research is compulsory for the students who study in the university since
most university programs require the completion of a mid-level to senior-level of
research project. Moreover, the students will be considered “pass or fail” from
their study depending on their research which is written in the process or in end of
their study in university.
Therefore, as a result, many types of researches have been conducted in
English education field. One of them is learning-teaching method, as one of
non-learners components in English education. There are some methods which can be
used in learning and teaching process. They are expected to give some significant
education. Therefore, this research aimed to discover how far English educational
research on learning and teaching method which has been investigated in the last
ten years. The value of examining research trends is that to see the status of
academic discipline periodically looks at for the purpose of learning where it has
been, where it is currently, and where it tends to be in the future. Lee, Wu, and
Tsai (2009) say that “information about the current status and trends of research in
their fields is helpful for their career and academic publications (as cited from
Cavas, 2015: 575). Similarly, being aware of publications in important academic
journals for novice researchers helps them to understand the field of science
education more broadly. Tsai and Wen, (2005) say that “It will help to minimize
the replication study. Moreover, a systematic analysis of publications in academic
journals may assist researchers to explore the current status and future trends of
researches (as cited from Cavas, 2015: 575). Therefore, it can be said that
investigating the trends of those research can provide information on the progress
and current status of English education.
Studies which have looked at research trends and progresses can be found
in several disciplines in English education. They are Choi and Lee (2008) who
had analyzed the trends and issues of English language education in Asia. It is
then followed by Renandya et al. (2014) who also investigated the current ELT
trends and practices in Southeast Asia. Meanwhile Abilasha and Ilankumaran
(2014) had examined the trends of English Language teaching in the entire world
with specific reference to the trends prevalent during the previous decades. From
the review of these previous three studies, this study is valuable and different from
content but also latent content. Secondly, this study was scrutinized the research
reports on learning-teaching method in terms of different variables unlike similar
researches. Last, this study provides a systematic review to cover recent trends
through analyzing the research reports published up to 2016.
Hence, the trends in English language teaching and learning will have
been giving tremendous significance advantages in education systems. It has
undergone numerous innovations and changes in language education include new
pedagogic approaches, such as task-based language teaching; changes to teaching
materials; technological developments, such as computer-assisted language
learning; and alternative assessment methods, such as the use of portfolios.
Therefore, related to the phenomena, this research will focus to discover the
trends from some published educational researches on one of external factors in
language teaching, English teaching and learning method.
This research is collaborative with other two researchers, Supriyani and
Monica Sindhi Galih Susanti. Supriyani’s research focuses on investigating skills
and knowledge in English education. Meanwhile, Supriyani’s research focuses on
investigating attitude and related learning factors in English education.
B. SCOPE OF THE STUDY
English educational research on learning and teaching method should be
done thoroughly. However, due to the time and place constraint, the researcher
considered some limitations. First, this study is limited to the topic of research
reports being analyzed. This research focuses only on analyzing research reports
Second, the limitation is related to the number of the learning-teaching method in
English educational research. This study only examines 110 education research
reports which are published from Expanding-Circle Countries (ECC), Inner-Circle
Countries (ICC) and Outer-Circle Countries (OCC). The research reports are
written by practitioners, teachers, lecturers, or university students (both the
graduate and post-graduate) which were published between the years 2007-2016.
Third, the analysis of the research reports is only intended to the method of
teaching and the content of each research reports. However, the researcher will
analyze 110 research reports in which 90 research reports are originated from
Indonesia, 10 of them are from Asia, and 5 are from each of OCC and ICC.
Therefore, due to the limited data acquisition, the results of this study may not
represent the general reality or condition in the world.
C. PROBLEM FORMULATION
Considering the background of the study, the problem of this study is
formulated in a research question. The research question is: what are the trends of
research on learning-teaching method in English education?
D. RESEARCH GOALS
The main purpose of this study is to discover the trends of research on
learning-teaching method in English education. This goal of research can be
achieved through finding out the elements of research reports which covers
investigated topic, concept of clarification of the topic being analyzed, related
technique, sampling technique, validation technique, results, and recommendation
or suggestion. Moreover, this information leads to discover the existence of
learning-teaching method and various learning-teaching practices in post-method
era.
E. RESEARCH BENEFITS
This study is intended to explore the trends of English educational research
on learning and teaching method in the last ten years in Indonesia. Therefore, it is
expected to give some significant contributions to the following; scientific
benefits and practical benefits. The scientific benefit contributes on researchers,
especially for English Language Studies knowledge regarding to English
educational research on learning-teaching method since this research offers a
description of each learning-teaching method; approach, design, and procedure. It
also offers the findings about developmental path to what extend the English
educational researches on teaching and learning are develop in the ten years.
Another benefit is related to practical benefit. This study is expected to be
beneficial to students, educators, practitioners, researchers, or policy makers. It
might possible to guide for the next researchers who makes studies and researches
on this issue. They can use the results of this study to conduct an extended
research about teaching and learning method as their references since this study
find out the significant scientific discoveries of the investigated learning-teaching
methods. Specifically, the attributes will be described through the types of method
teaching and the content of the research reports. Those information will present a
methods in English educational research are discovered and frequently
discovered.
In addition, this study can offer insight and benefit for the English
practitioners and policy maker who want to conduct research, as well as to see the
aspects of the research that still need to be improved and it can be used for
evaluation. Also, it can reach efficiency in English education research, particularly
in teaching and learning method research and contribute greatly to the
advancement of humanity since understanding each method allow us to see some
CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter includes two parts, namely theoretical review and theoretical
framework. The theoretical review presents some important concepts which are
related to the research. The theoretical framework consists of summary from the
theories that will be used to solve the research problems.
A. THEORETICAL REVIEW
The theoretical description presents some important concepts which are related to the research. The concepts are: (1) Educational Research Report, (2)
Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching, (3) Classification Area of
English, and (4) Content Analysis. The description of each concept will be
discussed as follow.
1. Educational Research Reports
Research is a process in which the researchers engage in a small set of
logical steps (Creswell, 2012: 2). Educational research report is a brief
information and description of the research work done by the researcher. It can be
in a form of theses, dissertations, journal article and proceedings. It is one of the
means by which we seek to discover the logical and empirical truth in the field of
education. Rajasekar, Philominathan and Chinnathambi (2013: 2) say “It is an
investigation of finding solutions to scientific and social problems through
objective and systematic analysis. It is a search for knowledge, that is, a discovery
of hidden truths. Here knowledge means information about matters. The
information might be collected from different sources like experience, human
beings, books, journals, nature, etc.” It can be interpreted that academic
educational research reflects the interests, issues, and concerns of the teachers,
educators, and researchers. They are meant for knowledge development in which
individuals evaluate different aspects of education including, student learning,
teaching methods, teacher training, and classroom dynamics. Therefore, they are
expected to give some significant contributions to improve the quality of teaching
and learning success in English education. Rajasekar, Philominathan and
Chinnathambi (2013: 2) say “A research can lead to new contributions to the
existing knowledge. Only through research is it possible to make progress in a
field”. In the different term, Carrol and Morrell (2010: 2) say “educational
research is important in proposing theories, testing theories, increasing our
understanding, and improving teaching and learning. Therefore, it can be said that
educational research is not just a way to come up with new ideas about teaching
and learning, but most often it is a way to convince us that the ideas we already
have are worth exploring. Hence, conducting research is not something easy to do
as it is composed of several steps. Creswell (2012: 7) proposes six steps of how to
conduct research namely: (1) Identifying a research problem, (2) Reviewing the
literature, (3) Specifying a purpose for research, (4) Collecting data, (5) Analyzing
and interpreting the data, and (6) Reporting and evaluating research. These steps
are considered as the foundation for conducting educational research.
A key feature of reports is that they are formally structured in sections.
The use of sections makes it easy for the reader to jump straight to the information
they need. Therefore, as proposed by Yates (2004: 16-17), the criteria of good
defined as good research reports technically. It means that the researches were
conducted systematically. In other words, they follow the procedure properly.
Second, they are good if they made contribution to knowledge. The result of the
research should establish a breakthrough of science which is not previously
known. They can prove something which is vague so that better understanding can
be made. Third, they should achieve something that mattered. It can be universally
or specifically for a particular context. For example: a research on the
implementation of certain teaching technique in English education which aimed at
improving the students’ proficiency. Therefore, generally, in reporting an
educational research, there are several parts to be presented in the report, namely
abstract, introduction, literature review, methodology, results or findings, analysis
results and interpretation, conclusion, implication and recommendation or
suggestion. The structure of research report can be seen in the following Figure
Figure 2.1. Typical Research Article Structure (as cited from https://csumb.edu/library/structure-typical-research-article)
Abstract is the summary of the research or study in which will help the
readers easily to identify what, why, how and the result or summary of main
findings. In introduction, the researcher outlines context, background and purpose.
It exposes what the researcher researched and why. Literature review which
sometimes may be combined and included in the introduction refers to other
was done and outlines how the data was collected. Results or findings which
sometimes may be combined with discussion presents the findings of the research.
In this part, the researcher should write and present the facts only without
interpretation by using graphic form, for instance, tables or graphs. Analyses
results which may be combined with interpretation presents the findings which
refers to literature review. It also presents an interpretation and evaluation of the
results. Conclusion which may be combined with recommendations and
suggestion is a brief statement of what was found. Recommendations is about
suggestion about suitable changes or solutions. References is regarding to all
references used in your report or referred to for background information.
Sometimes, an educational research reports provides appendix. Appendix is any
additional material which will add to researcher’s report.
The judgment of the education research can be done through looking at the
elements research reports. Judgments about education research involve judgments
about research and about education since they involve some consideration both of
the methodological (how well it was done) and of the substance (what it
achieved). Therefore, examining the elements of research reports are necessary as
it provides information which can be used to see what elements are absent and
still need to be improved. Hence, such this exploration is necessary to discover
how much the education has improved within a specific period of time in term of
learning-teaching method. To assist researchers examining the research reports,
especially for those who obtained large data, a table consisting research attributes
The table should cover the attributes of research. Sozbilir (2016: 1651) has
developed paper classification form (PCF) which consists of five sections: subject
of the paper, research design or methods, data collection tools, sample, and data
analysis methods. The researcher within this research has adjusted the paper
classification form so that it becomes more adaptive. As the results, eleven main
categories are formulated. Those are (1) origin, (2) investigated issue, (3) related
issue, (4) participant, (5) research problem/goal, (6) research design and method,
(7) data gathering instrument, (8) data analysis instrument, (9) sampling
technique, (10) validation, and (11) results, (12) conclusion, and (13) additional
information.
First, the classification of origin is based on the classification area of
English discussed in the previous part which is proposed by Kachru (1985). There
are three areas namely Inner-Circle Countries (ICC), Outer-Circle countries
(OCC) and Expanding-Circle countries (ECC) in which the majority of countries
in Asia belong to this area. But, as the researcher wanted to focus more on
Indonesia, she adjusted the classification into four, namely ICC, OCC, Asia and
Indonesia.
Second, in terms of investigated issue, the researcher has used the theories
of learning-teaching method in determining the classification. They are approach,
design and procedure. However, to get richer results, the researcher also put other
related issue as the third category. The classification will be based on what the
researcher found in the studied research reports.
Fourth category is participant as the studied sample. It can be high school
this category will also be based on what have been found within the studied
research reports.
Fifth category is about the goal of the research. Considering the various
goals that will be found within the studied research reports, therefore the
researcher will make generalization to classify them so that it will be easier to
interpret. Firstly, she will read each research report and make a list on the goal.
Then, she will classify the similar goal under one classification as the
generalization.
Sixth category is research design and method which can be broadly
categorized into quantitative, qualitative and mixed (the combination of both
quantitative and qualitative). Creswell (2012: 12) mention that experimental,
correlation, and survey belong to quantitative designs. While, grounded theory,
ethnography, and narrative belong to qualitative designs. Mixed methods and
action research designs belong to combine designs. Furthermore, Fraenkel and
Wallen (2009) also proposes that experimental, correlation and survey belong to
quantitative. While content analysis, ethnography, and historical research belong
to qualitative. They also mention mixed method and action research. In the
different term, Ary et al. (2010: vii) make a clear distinction between the two. The
quantitative is composed of experimental and non-experimental. While the
qualitative consists of case study, content analysis, ethnography, grounded theory,
historical, narrative, and phenomenological. The research design and method,
therefore, are formulated based on the classification of those experts and what
Seventh, the data gathering instrument consists of several tools which are
commonly used to obtain data for both quantitative and qualitative research. Ary
et al. (2010: 527) have defined various data gathering instruments such as field
note, observation, interview, written response (questionnaire), performance
measures on and student’s information which can be in the form of portfolio or
work samples, test, and many others. They also point out two instruments used in
educational research which aims at measuring the value, namely achievement test
and aptitude test (Ary et al., 2010: 201). Creswell (2012: 212) mention that
qualitative data can be collected through several instruments such as observation,
interview, document and audiovisual materials. Considering the use of these
instruments, the researcher will put them in classification if the researcher finds at
least two or more than twice.
Eighth, data analysis instrument is formulated based on three types of
research, quantitative, qualitative and mixed. Data analysis instrument in
Sozbilir’s (2016: 1651) paper classification form also consists of quantitative and
qualitative. The researcher involves mixed instrument since several researches in
English education also employ both quantitative and qualitative within the
analysis.
Ninth, sampling technique is determined based on two types of sampling,
probability and nonprobability. Ary et al. (2010) differentiate between the two
types of sampling. They mention that random sampling, stratified sampling and
cluster sampling are the examples of probability sampling. While nonprobability
sampling involves convenience sampling, purposive sampling and quota
in quantitative research. Probability sampling consists of random sampling,
stratified sampling and cluster sampling. Meanwhile, nonprobability sampling is
composed of convenience sampling and snowball sampling. Therefore, the
researcher has determined random sampling, stratified sampling, cluster sampling,
purposive sampling, convenience sampling and quota sampling as the sampling
techniques to be put in the research reports classification.
Tenth, validation is significant in both quantitative and qualitative
research. Validity and reliability are commonly used for quantitative research as it
always depends on measurement. As stated by Ary et al. (2010: 225) both validity
and reliability are essential in developing and evaluating instruments. In
qualitative research, the researchers can use credibility, transferability,
trustworthiness and confirmability (Ary et al., 2010: 498). The researcher within
this category has chosen validity, reliability, trustworthiness and credibility as the
sub-categories of validation.
The last category is result. In determining the classification, the researcher
will do the same procedure as in defining the classification of goal. She will make
a list of result from each research report and then the similar results will be put
under one classification. By doing so, it will assist the researcher in interpreting
the results of large number of research reports.
2. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching
People talk about approaches, methods, techniques, procedures or models
into the practice of English teaching since in the middle age to 17th century. In that
century, John Locke, Basedow and Comenius devised new method of teaching
speaking form. It also was happened as the influence of Latin 500 years ago
before the foundation of Roman Empire in which Romans studied Greek as their
second language. The process of second language acquisition was similar to be the
acquisition of the first language such as repetition, imitation, and reproduction of
words, phrases or sentences. Mackey (1950) also believes that all teaching,
whether good or bad, must include some sort of repetition, presentation, selection,
and gradation. Therefore, in the reform movement, about four decades ago
Edward Anthony (1963) identified three levels of conceptualization and
organization, which he termed approach, method, and technique. An approach,
according to Anthony was a set of assumptions dealing with the nature of
language, learning and teaching. Method was described as an overall plan for
systematic presentation of language based upon a selected approach. An approach
is axiomatic and a method is procedural. Technique is the implementation of
specific activities manifested in the classroom that were consistent with a method
and therefore were in harmony with an approach as well (as cited in Richards &
Rodgers, 2014: 21).
Therefore, a couple of decades later, Richards and Rodgers (1982, 1986,
and 2001) proposed a reformulation of the concept of “method”. Anthony’s
approach, method, and technique were renamed, respectively, approach, design,
and procedure, with a super ordinate term to describe this three-step process, now
called method. Kumaravadivelu (1994: 29) defines method as “a single set of
theoretical principles derived from feeder disciplines and a single set of classroom
procedures directed at classroom teachers”. While, Bell (2003: 326) defines
(with an uppercase M) as “a fixed set of classroom practices that serve as a
prescription and therefore do not allow variation”. Prabhu (1990: 162), on the
other hand, uses the term ‘method’ to refer “both to a set of activities to be carried
out in the classroom and to the theory, belief, or plausible concept that informs
those activities”. Pennycook (1989: 610) argued that methods actually serve the
dominant power structures in society, leading to “a de-skilling of the role of
teachers, and greater institutional control over classroom practice”.
Therefore, as a consequences of repeatedly articulated dissatisfaction with
the limitation of the concept method and the transmission model of teacher
education, the L2 profession is faced with an imperative need to construct a
postmethod. The term postmethod was first coined by Pennycook in 1989 and was
later studied by many other scholars like N.S. Prabhu, R.L. Allwright, H. H. Stern,
etc. The concept of postmethod condition was officially firstly introduced by
Kumaravadivelu (1994). Kumaravadivelu (1994, 2001, 2003b) who is information
currents of thought: One emphasizes the need to go beyond the limitations of the
concept of method with a call to find an alternative way of designing effective
teaching strategies (Clarke, 1994; Kumaravadivelu, 1994; Prabhu, 1990), and
another emphasizes the need to go beyond the limitations of the transmission
model of teacher education with a call to find an alternative way of creating
efficient teaching professionals (Freeman & Johnson, 1998; Johnson, 2000;
Woods, 1996). Kumaravadivelu (1994, pp. 43-44) adds that “the postmethod
condition can potentially reshape the character and content of L2 teaching, teacher
education, and classroom research. It can empower teachers with the knowledge,
coherent, and relevant alternative to method”. However, the source of inspiration
for philosophizing postmethod is postmodernism. So before dealing with the
postmethod pedagogy, it would be helpful to take a glance at the concept of
postmodernism (Hashemi, 2011).
However, despite the widespread dissatisfaction with the prescriptive
nature of language teaching methods and approaches, Islam (2017: 545) gives an
opinion in his research that the focus of ELT should not center on discussing
methodological issues in a sporadic way, but on the ways how teachers can
implement those issues in classroom practices or how they can go beyond the
prevailing methods.
In fact, postmethod pedagogy does not “imply the end of methods but rather an
understanding of the limitations of the notion of method as it is narrowly defined and a desire to transcend those limitations” (Bell, 2007: 143) by empowering educators towards developing a standardized system of language teaching. Efforts in developing a standard method of teaching were very much apparent during the method era but they were sporadic and ultimately resulted in failures. But postmethod pedagogy has tried to string together these diverse, piecemeal efforts in a harmonious way so that it can overcome the limitations of method.
From the different point of views which some experts talk about method
and postmethod, it can be concluded that as educators, they should be exposed to
all methods so that they themselves can choose from the existing methods or even
construct what principles they will use in their teaching. Moreover, method still
retains a place in postmethod and postmethod makes a newer type of method in
the name of eclecticism and principled pragmatism. Electicism is related to
conceptual approach which holds multiple theories, various teaching styles or
ideas to gain deep and clear understanding. While, principle pragmatism is related
to teacher’s plausibility which connotes the involvement of both teacher and
methods give benefit for teacher especially for those who have recently started
their teaching. They can get pack of suggestions including a set presciptions on
what teachers and learners should do in the classroom. Moreover, there are losts
of limitations and challenges in postmethod pedagogy. Akbari (2008: 645) The
big problem is that, in postmethod pedagogy, teachers’ responsibilities are much
broader and other than their academic duties, they are also assigned with “extra
roles of social reformer and cultural critic” thus taking “language teaching beyond
the realms of possibility and practice”. Shohamy (2004: 101-106) gives opinion
that in many circumstances, most teachers are viewed as “servants of the system”
who prepare students for a specific exam or test by just “implementing the testing
policies of central agencies with no power and authority to resist”. They are not
only teaching but also assigning their academic or administrative duties. In this
matter, the teacher does not have enough time and energy to have kind of
reflection regarding to their own teaching to overcome the language classroom
problems in an era when there is not any method anymore. In line with what Islam
(2017: 545) says that though the postmethod pedagogy encourages teachers’
autonomy and freedom of will in language classrooms, the set up acts the
opposite. And teachers’ lack of competence and confidence does not allow them
to be bold enough to exercise freedom. It is also certain that very few postmethod
teachers have the time, resources, or the willingness to shoulder responsibilities.
Therefore, the term method in this research will follow Richards and
Rodgers (2014, p. 22) who say “method is theoretically related to an approach, is
organizationally determined by a design, and is practically realized in procedure”.
specification and interrelation of theory and practice. An approach defines
assumption, beliefs, and theories about the nature of language and language
learning which the sources of the way things are done in the classroom and which
provide the reasons for doing them. Design is the level of method analysis in
which included the objective of method, the types of learning tasks, teaching
activities, learners’ role, teachers’ role and the role of instructional materials.
Designs specify the relationship of those theories to classroom materials and
activities. Procedures are an ordered techniques and practices that are derived
from one’s approach and design. A procedure is a sequence which can be
described in terms such as first you do this, then you do that.... It is smaller than a
method, it is bigger than technique. The relationship between approach, design,
and procedure, the final step in implementing a method can be demonstrated in
the Figure2.2.
The Figure 2.2 presents information that Approach, Design, and Procedure are
related each other. Different theories about the nature of language and how
languages are learned (the approach) imply different ways of teaching language
(the method) and different methods make use of different kinds of classroom
activities (the techniques). The description of elements and sub elements that
constitute method will be presented as follow.
a. Approach
In the nineteenth century, Grammar-translation method emerged and
brought foreign-language learning into school curriculums. In this method, the
students were given explanations of individual points of grammar, and then they
were given sentences which exemplified these points. These sentences had to be
translated from the target language (L1) back to the students’ first language (L1)
and vice versa. At the end of nineteenth century, the direct method arrived as the
product of a reform movement which was reacting to the restrictions of
Grammar-translation. Translation was abandoned in favor of the teacher and the students
speaking together, relating the grammatical forms they were studying to objects
and pictures. In the 1920s and 1930s, the direct method morphed into the
Audio-lingual method. The method attempted through a continuous process of such
positive reinforcement, to engender good habits in language learners by using the
stimulus-response-reinforcement model. Audiolingualism relied heavily on drills
to form habits. Therefore, the purpose was habit-formation through constant
repetition of correct utterances. A variation on the method is the procedure most
often referred to as PPP (Presentation-Practice-Production). The PPP procedure
the 1970s and 1980s, such as Community Language Learning, Suggestopedia,
Total Physical Response (TPR), and Silent Way. The emergence of
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) was in the 1980s. The general
principles of CLT are today widely accepted around the world. Therefore, some
approaches also emerged, such as Cooperative Language Learning, Content-based
Teaching (CBT), Task-based Teaching, and Participatory Approach. Those can be
regarded as a logical development of some core principles of Communicative
Language Teaching.
1) Communicative Language Teaching
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), rooted in the multidiscipline,
the initiation of communicative approach, came up at the beginning of the
nineteenth century, and formalized in the late 1960s, when language studies and
foreign language teaching ideas made big changes in America, Britain and
Europe. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) refers to a diverse set of
principles that perfect a communicative view of language and language learning
and that can be used to support a wide variety of classroom procedures. Richards
and Rodgers (2014: 87) have mentioned that CLT in language teaching starts form
a theory of language as communication. The goal of language teaching itself is to
develop communicative competence. Furthermore, Widdowson (1978) said that
CLT focuses on the communicative acts underlying the ability to use language for
different purposes. Briefly, it can be inferred that CLT focuses the language
teaching on communicative proficiency rather than on mere mastery of structures.
Richards and Rodgers (2014) also proposed some principles in Communicative
using it to communicate, (2) Authentic and meaningful communication should be
the goal of classroom activities, (3) Fluency is an important dimension of
communication, (4) Communication involves the integration of different language
skills, and (5) Learning is a process of creative construction and involves trial and
error. Common activity types in CLT include Jig-saw activities, Task-completion
activities, Information-gathering activities, Opinion-sharing activities,
Information-transfer activities, reasoning gap activities, and Role plays. One of
description examples of CLL types is in Jig-saw activities. In this activities, the
class is divided into groups and each group has part of the information needed to
complete an activity. The class must fit the pieces together to complete the whole.
2) Cooperative Language Learning
Cooperative learning has been proved to be an effective teaching strategy
to both the teachers and learners. The focus in cooperative language learning
moves from teacher-centered to student-centered. The students will not perceive
to be empty vessels awaiting the teachers’ knowledge like a traditional methods,
but in cooperative learning, it recognizes the importance of students’ existing
knowledge and puts that knowledge to work. Slavin (1995: 2) defines it:
Cooperative learning refers to a variety of teaching methods in which students work in small groups to help one another learn academic content. In cooperative classrooms, students are expected to help each other, to discuss
and argue with each other, to assess each other’s current knowledge and fill in gaps in each other’s understanding.
In other words, cooperative learning should boost interpersonal relationship.
Moreover, it should assist learners to develop high appreciation of collaborating
with others. In the different term, Richards and Rodgers (2014: 246) point out that
dimension of CLL: it seeks to develop classrooms that foster cooperation rather
than competition in learning. Therefore, the idea of CLL is that it helps students to
benefit from collaboration with peers in their learning (Jacob & Hannah, 2004). In
applying this approach, there are some principles which teachers should
acknowledge before implementing in their classes. The principles are proposed by
some experts (Kagan 1994; Slavin 1995; Johnson et al.) They are positive
interdependence, individual accountability, interaction, equal participation, equal
opportunity for success, and group processing. Al-Yaseen (2014: 93) summarizes
the aims of cooperative learning from some experts. The aims of Cooperative
learning can be summarized as it help students to learn academically, learn listen
to each other and to solve problems together (social-affective learning), and help
students strengthen the confidence in their abilities and motivate them to apply
themselves more in the learning process (personality development). Olsen and
Kagan (1992: 88) gives several examples and also procedures of CLL activities
such as Three-step interview, Roundtable, Think-Pair-Share, Solve-Pair-Share,
and Numbered heads.
3) Task-based Language Teaching
Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) is one of approaches in CLT. It
refers to the use of tasks as the core unit of planning and instruction in language
teaching. It also becomes the basic guidelines to design the classroom activities.
Nunan (2004: 216) states, “task-based language teaching is an approach to
language teaching organized around tasks rather than language structures”. While,
Branden (2006) defined it as “an approach to language education in which
