Remediation methods of polluted soils

(1)

Remediation methods

of polluted soils

(2)

Classification of remediation methods on

base of activities

(3)

Grouping of remediation methods on base

of environment and technologies

(Visitt 6.0 1997)

 Number of remediation methods and technologies:

 371

 Environment:

 68 % soil, 32 % water

 Technologies:

 39 % biological

 21 % physical

 21 % thermal

(4)

Treatment Technologies

Screening Matrix

(FRTR 2001)



Applicability of different technologies

can be checked from this matrix:

(5)

Treatment technology profiles

(FRTR 2001)

 Soil, Sediment, Bedrock and Sludge Treatment

Technologies

 Biological Treatment

 Physical/Chemical Treatment  Thermal Treatment

 Ground Water, Surface Water, and Leachate

Treatment Technologies

 Biological Treatment

(6)

Soil, Sediment, Bedrock and Sludge Treatment Technologies

Biological Treatment (FRTR 2001)



Bioventing,

_{In Situ}



Enhanced Bioremediation,

_{In Situ} 

Phytoremediation,

_{In Situ}



Biopiles,

_{Ex Situ}

(7)

Bioventing, in situ

(FRTR 2001)



Introduction:



Oxygen is delivered to contaminated

unsaturated soils by forced air movement

(either extraction or injection of air) to

(8)

Typical bioventing system

(9)

Bioventing

Applicability, duration, limitations, costs (FRTR 2001)

 Applicability for pollutants

 petroleum hydrocarbons, nonchlorinated solvents,

some pesticides, wood preservatives, and other organic chemicals.

 Duration

 Medium to long-term technology. Cleanup ranges from

a few months to several years.

 More detailed data

(10)

Enhanced Bioremediation, in situ

biostimulation, bioaugmentation, enhanced biodegradation (FRTR 2001)



Introduction:

 The activity of naturally occurring microbes is

stimulated by circulating water-based solutions through contaminated soils to enhance in situ

biological degradation of organic contaminants or immobilization of inorganic contaminants.

 Nutrients, oxygen, or other amendments may be

(11)

Typical Enhanced Bioremediation

system

(FRTR 2001)

(12)

Enhanced Bioremediation

 petroleum hydrocarbons, solvents, pesticides, wood

preservatives, and other organic chemicals

 Duration

 Long-term technology which may take several years for

cleanup of a plume.

(13)

Phytoremediation, in situ

vegetation-enhanced bioremediation (FRTR 2001)



Introduction:

 Phytoremediation is a process that uses plants to

remove, transfer, stabilize, and destroy

contaminants in soil and sediment. Contaminants may be either organic or inorganic.

 The mechanisms of phytoremediation include enhanced

rhizosphere biodegradation, phyto-extraction (also called accumulation), degradation, and

(14)

Typical In Situ Phytoremediation

System

(FRTR 2001)

(15)

Phytoremediation

 metals, pesticides, solvents, explosives, crude oil, PAHs,

and landfill leachates

 Duration

 Long-term technology which may take even decades for

cleanup of a plume.

(16)

Biopiles,

ex situ

(FRTR 2001)



Introduction:



Excavated soils are mixed with soil

amendments and placed in aboveground

enclosures.



It is an aerated static pile composting

(17)

Typical Biopile System for Solid Phase

Bioremediation

(FRTR 2001)

(18)

Biopile

 nonhalogenated VOCs and fuel hydrocarbons.

 Duration

 Short-term technology. Duration of operation and

maintenance may last a few weeks to several months

(19)

Composting,

ex situ

(FRTR 2001)



Introduction:

 Contaminated soil is excavated and mixed with

bulking agents and organic amendments such as wood chips, hay, manure, and vegetative (e.g., potato) wastes.

 Proper amendment selection ensure adequate

(20)

Typical Windrow Composting Process

(FRTR 2001)

(21)

Composting

 biodegradable organic compounds (incl. PAH)  Pilot and full-scale projects have demonstrated

explosives

 Duration

 Duration of operation and maintenance may last to

several months

(22)

Landfarming,

ex situ

(FRTR 2001)



Introduction:



Contaminated soil, sediment, or sludge is

(23)

Typical Landfarming Treatment Unit

(FRTR 2001)

(24)

Landfarming

Applicability, duration,

limitations, costs

(FRTR 2001)

 petroleum hydrocarbons, diesel fuel, No. 2 and No. 6

fuel oils, JP-5, oily sludge, wood-preserving wastes (PCP and creosote), coke wastes, and certain pesticides.

 Duration

 Duration of operation and maintenance may last to

many years

(25)

Slurry Phase Biological Treatment,

ex situ (FRTR 2001)



Introduction:

 An aqueous slurry is created by combining soil,

sediment, or sludge with water and other additives.

 The slurry is mixed to keep solids suspended and

microorganisms in contact with the soil contaminants.

 Upon completion of the process, the slurry is

(26)

Typical Bioreactor Process

(FRTR 2001)

(27)

Slurry Phase Biological Treatment

 explosives, petroleum hydrocarbons, petrochemicals,

solvents, pesticides, wood preservatives, and other organic chemicals

 Duration

 Short- to medium-term technology.

(28)

Physical/Chemical Treatment (FRTR 2001)

 Chemical Oxidation, In Situ

 Electrokinetic Separation, In Situ  Fracturing, In and Ex Situ

 Soil Flushing, In Situ

 Soil Vapor Extraction, In Situ

 Solidification/Stabilization, In and Ex Situ  Chemical Extraction, Ex Situ

 Chemical Reduction/Oxidation, Ex Situ  Dehalogenation, Ex Situ

(29)

Chemical Oxidation,

In Situ

(FRTR 2001)



Introduction:

 Oxidation chemically converts hazardous

contaminants to non-hazardous or less toxic compounds that are more stable, less mobile, and/or inert.

 The oxidizing agents most commonly used are

(30)

(31)

Chemical oxidation

Applicability,

duration, limitations, costs (FRTR 2001)

 many toxic organic chemicals, unsaturated aliphatic (e.g.,

trichloroethylene,TCE) and aromatic compounds (e.g., benzene)

 Duration

 Medium to long-term technology. Cleanup ranges from a few

months to several years.

(32)

Electrokinetic Separation,

in situ

(FRTR 2001)

 Introduction:

 The Electrokinetic Remediation (ER) process removes metals

and organic contaminants from low permeability soil, mud, sludge, and marine dredging.

 ER uses electrochemical and electrokinetic processes to

desorb, and then remove, metals and polar organics.

 This in situ soil processing technology is primarily a

(33)

Typical In Situ Electrokinetic

Separation System

(FRTR 2001)

(34)

Electrokinetic Separation

 heavy metals, anions, and polar organics in soil, mud,

sledge, and marine dredging

 Duration

 Short to medium-term technology. Cleanup ranges

from a few weeks to several months.

(35)

Fracturing,

In Situ

(FRTR 2001)



Introduction:



Cracks are developed by fracturing beneath

the surface in low permeability and

over-consolidated sediments to open new

passageways that increase the

(36)

Typical Pneumatic Fracturing

Process

(FRTR 2001)

(37)

Fracturing

Applicability, duration,

limitations, costs (FRTR 2001)

 Fracturing is applicable to the complete range of contaminant

groups with no particular target group. The technology is used primarily to fracture silts, clays, shale, and bedrock.

 Duration

 Normal operation employs a two-person crew, making 15 to

25 fractures per day with a fracture radius of 4 to 6 meters to a depth of 15 to 30 meters. For longer remediation programs, refracturing efforts may be required at 6- to 12-month

intervals.

(38)

Soil Flushing,

In Situ

(FRTR 2001)



Introduction:

 Water, or water containing an additive to enhance

contaminant solubility, is applied to the soil or injected into the ground water to raise the water table into the contaminated soil zone.

 Contaminants are leached into the ground water,

(39)

Typical Soil Flushing System

(FRTR 2001)

(40)

Soil Flushing

Applicability, duration,

limitations, costs (FRTR 2001)

 inorganics including radioactive contaminants. The

technology can be used to treat VOCs, SVOCs, fuels, and pesticides.

 Duration

 Short to medium-term technology. Cleanup ranges

from a few weeks to several months.

(41)

Soil Vapor Extraction,

In Situ

(FRTR 2001)



Introduction:

 Vacuum is applied through extraction wells to

create a pressure/concentration gradient that induces gas-phase volatiles to be removed from soil through extraction wells.

 This technology also is known as in situ soil

(42)

Typical In Situ Soil Vapor Extraction

System

(FRTR 2001)

(43)

Soil Vapor Extraction,

Applicability,

duration, limitations, costs (FRTR 2001)

 The target contaminant groups for in situ SVE are VOCs

and some fuels

 Duration

 The duration of operation and maintenance for in situ

SVE is typically medium- to long-term.

(44)

Solidification/Stabilization,

In Situ

(FRTR 2001)



Introduction:



Contaminants are physically bound or

enclosed within a stabilized mass

(solidification), or chemical reactions are

induced between the stabilizing agent and

contaminants to reduce their mobility

(45)

Typical In Situ Vitrification

System

(FRTR 2001)

(46)

Solidification/Stabilization,

 The target contaminant group for in situ S/S is

generally inorganics (including radionuclides).

 Duration

 The timeframe for in situ S/S is short- to medium-term,

while in situ ISV process is typically short-term.

(47)

Chemical Extraction,

Ex

Situ

(FRTR 2001)



Introduction:

 Waste contaminated soil and extractant are mixed

in an extractor, thereby dissolving the contaminants.

 The extracted solution is then placed in a

separator, where the contaminants and extractant are separated for treatment and further use.

 Two main types of extraction are Acid Extraction,

(48)

Typical Chemical extraction

System

(FRTR 2001)

(49)

Chemical extraction

,

 primarily organic contaminants such as PCBs, VOCs,

halogenated solvents, and petroleum wastes.

 Duration

 The duration of operations and maintenance for

chemical extraction is medium-term.

(50)

Chemical Reduction/Oxidation,

Ex

Situ

(FRTR 2001)



Introduction:

 Reduction/oxidation chemically converts

hazardous contaminants to non-hazardous or less toxic compounds that are more stable, less

mobile, and/or inert.

(51)

Typical Chemical

Reduction/Oxidation Process

(FRTR 2001)

(52)

Chemical Reduction/Oxidation

,

 Mainly for inorganics, but also effect against

nonhalogenated VOCs and SVOCs, fuel hydrocarbons, and pesticides.

 Duration

 a short- to medium-term technology.

(53)

Dehalogenation,

Ex

Situ

(FRTR 2001)



Introduction:



Reagents are added to soils contaminated

with halogenated organics.



The dehalogenation process is achieved by

either the replacement of the halogen

(54)

Typical BCD Dehalogenation

Process

(55)

Dehalogenation,



Applicability for pollutants

 halogenated SVOCs and pesticides



Duration

 a short- to medium-term process



More detailed data

 http://www.frtr.gov/matrix2/section4/4-17.ht

(56)

Separation,

Ex

Situ

(FRTR 2001)



Introduction:



Separation techniques concentrate

contaminated solids through physical and

chemical means.



These processes seek to detach

contaminants from their medium (i.e., the

soil, sand, and/or binding material that

(57)

Typical Gravity Separation

System

(FRTR 2001)

(58)

Separation

,

Applicability, duration,

limitations, costs (FRTR 2001)

 SVOCs, fuels, and inorganics (including radionuclides)

 Duration

 a short-term process

(59)

Soil Washing,

Ex

Situ

(FRTR 2001)



Introduction:

 Contaminants sorbed onto fine soil particles are

separated from bulk soil in an aqueous-based system on the basis of particle size.

 The wash water may be augmented with a basic

(60)

Typical Soil Washing Process

(FRTR 2001)

(61)

Soil Washing

,



Applicability for pollutants

 SVOCs, fuels, and heavy metals



Duration

 typically short- to medium-term



More detailed data

(62)

Solidification/Stabilization,

Ex

Situ

(FRTR 2001)



Introduction:



Contaminants are physically bound or

enclosed within a stabilized mass

(solidification), or chemical reactions are

induced between the stabilizing agent and

contaminants to reduce their mobility

(63)

Typical Ex Situ Solidification/

stabilization Process Flow Diagram

(FRTR 2001)

(64)

Solidification/ stabilization

, Applicability, duration, limitations, costs (FRTR 2001)

 The target contaminant group for ex situ S/S is

inorganics, including radionuclides

 Duration

 Typical ex situ S/S is a short- to medium-term

technology

(65)

Thermal Treatment (FRTR 2001)



Thermal Treatment,

_{In Situ}



Hot Gas Decontamination,

_{Ex Situ} 

Incineration,

_{Ex Situ}



Pyrolysis,

_{Ex Situ}

(66)

Thermal Treatment

,

In Situ (FRTR 2001)



Introduction:



Steam/hot air injection or electrical

resistance/electromagnetic/fiber optic/radio

frequency heating is used to increase the

volatilization rate of semi-volatiles and

(67)

Typical Six-Phase Soil Heating

System.

(FRTR 2001)

(68)

Soil Heating



Applicability for pollutants

 SVOCs and VOCs



Duration

 Thermally enhanced SVE is normally a short-

to medium-term technology



More detailed data

(69)

Hot Gas Decontamination

,

Ex Situ (FRTR 2001)



Introduction:



The process involves raising the

temperature of the contaminated

equipment or material for a specified

period of time.



The gas effluent from the material is

(70)

Typical Process Flow Diagram for Hot Gas

Decontamination of Explosives Contaminated

Equipment

(FRTR 2001)

(71)

Hot Gas Decontamination,

 explosive items, such as mines and shells, being

demilitarized (after removal of explosives) or scrap material contaminated with explosives.

 Duration

 a short-term technology

(72)

Incineration,

Ex Situ (FRTR 2001)



Introduction:



High temperatures, 870-1,200 °C, are used

to combust (in the presence of oxygen)

organic constituents in hazardous wastes.



Different types of combustion processes

 Circulating Bed Combustor (CBC)  Fluidized Bed

(73)

Typical Mobile/Transportable

Incineration Process

(FRTR 2001)

(74)

Incineration

,

 explosives and hazardous wastes, particularly

chlorinated hydrocarbons, PCBs, and dioxins.

 Duration

 incineration technology ranges from short- to long-term

(75)

Pyrolysis

,

Ex Situ (FRTR 2001)



Introduction:



Chemical decomposition is induced in

organic materials by heat in the absence of

oxygen.



Organic materials are transformed into

(76)

Typical Pyrolysis Process

(FRTR 2001)

(77)

Pyrolysis

,

 SVOCs and pesticides

 Duration

 incineration technology ranges from short- to long-term

(78)

Thermal Desorption

,

Ex Situ (FRTR 2001)



Introduction:

 Wastes are heated to volatilize water and organic

contaminants.

 A carrier gas or vacuum system transports

volatilized water and organics to the gas treatment system.

 High Temperature Thermal Desorption (HTTD)

 320 – 560 °C

 Low Temperature Thermal Desorption (LTTD)

(79)

Typical High Temperature Thermal

desorption Process

(FRTR 2001)

(80)

Thermal desorption

,



Applicability for pollutants

 SVOCs, PAHs, PCBs, and pesticides



Duration

 short-term technolgy



More detailed data

(81)

Ground Water, Surface Water, and

Leachate

Biological Treatment (FRTR 2001)



Enhanced Bioremediation,

_{In Situ}



Monitored Natural Attenuation,

_{In Situ} 

Phytoremediation,

_{In Situ}



Bioreactors,

_{Ex Situ}

(82)

Enhanced Bioremediation,

In Situ

(FRTR 2001)



Introduction:

 The rate of bioremediation of organic

contaminants by microbes is enhanced by

increasing the concentration of electron acceptors and nutrients in ground water, surface water, and leachate.

 Oxygen is the main electron acceptor for aerobic

bioremediation.

 Nitrate serves as an alternative electron acceptor

(83)

Typical Oxygen-Enhanced Bioremediation

System for Contaminated Ground water with Air

Sparging

(FRTR 2001)

(84)

Enhanced Bioremediation,

 nonhalogenated VOCs, nonhalogenated SVOCs, and

fuels

 Duration

 long-term technologies, which may take several years

for plume clean-up

(85)

Monitored Natural Attenuation,

In Situ (FRTR 2001)



Introduction:



Natural subsurface processes—such as

dilution, volatilization, biodegradation,

adsorption, and chemical reactions with

subsurface materials—are allowed to

(86)

Typical Monitoring Well Construction

Diagram

(FRTR 2001)

(87)

Monitored Natural Attenuation

,

 VOCs and SVOCs and fuel hydrocarbons, maybe also

halogenated VOCs

 Duration

 long-term technologies, which may take several years

(88)

Phytoremediation

,

In Situ (FRTR 2001)



Introduction:



Phytoremediation is a set of processes that

uses plants to remove, transfer, stabilize

and destroy organic/inorganic

(89)

Typical In Situ Phytoremediation

System

(FRTR 2001)

(90)

Phytoremediation,

 organic contaminants from surface water, ground

water, leachate, and municipal and industrial wastewater

 Duration

 Long-term technology which may take even decades

for cleanup of a plume.

(91)

Bioreactors

,

Ex Situ (FRTR 2001)



Introduction:

 Contaminants in extracted ground water are put

into contact with microorganisms in attached or suspended growth biological reactors.

 In suspended systems, such as activated sludge,

contaminated ground water is circulated in an aeration basin.

 In attached systems, such as rotating biological

(92)

Typical Rotating Biological Contactor

(RBC)

(FRTR 2001)

(93)

Bioreactors

,

Applicability, duration,

limitations, costs (FRTR 2001)

 SVOCs, fuel hydrocarbons, and any biodegradable

organic material

 Duration

 Bioreactors are a long-term technology. The process

may take up to several years.

(94)

Constructed Wetland

,

Ex Situ (FRTR 2001)



Introduction:

 The constructed wetlands-based treatment

technology uses natural geochemical and biological processes inherent in an artificial

wetland ecosystem to accumulate and remove metals, explosives, and other contaminants from influent waters.

 The process can use a filtration or degradation

(95)

Typical Constructed Wetlands System

(FRTR 2001)

(96)

Constructed Wetland,

 organic matter; nutrients, such as nitrogen and

phosphorus; and suspended sediments

 Duration

 Wetland treatment is a long-term technology intended

to operate continously for years.

(97)

Ground Water, Surface Water, and

Leachate

Physical/Chemical Treatment

(FRTR 2001)



Air Sparging,

_{In Situ} 

Bioslurping,

_{In Situ}



Chemical Oxidation,

_{In Situ} 

Directional Wells,

_{In Situ}



Dual Phase Extraction,

_{In Situ} 

Thermal Treatment,

_{In Situ} 

Hydrofracturing,

_{In Situ}



In-Well Air Stripping,

_{In Situ}

(98)

Air Sparging,

In Situ

(FRTR 2001)



Introduction:



Air is injected into saturated matrices to

(99)

Typical Air Sparging System

(FRTR 2001)

(100)

Air Sparging

,

 VOCs and fuels

 Duration

 a medium to long duration which may last,

generally, up to a few years



(101)

Bioslurping,

In Situ

(FRTR 2001)



Introduction:



Deep well injection is a liquid waste

disposal technology.



This alternative uses injection wells to

place treated or untreated liquid waste into

geologic formations that have no potential

to allow migration of contaminants into

(102)

Typical Deep Well Injection System

(FRTR 2001)

(103)

Bioslurping

,

Applicability, duration,

limitations, costs

(FRTR 2001)



Applicability for pollutants

 VOCs, SVOCs, fuels, explosives, and pesticides



Duration



no data



More detailed data

(104)

Chemical Oxidation

,

In Situ

(FRTR 2001)



Introduction:

 Oxidation chemically converts hazardous

contaminants to non-hazardous or less toxic compounds that are more stable, less mobile, and/or inert.

(105)

Typical Chemical Oxidation

System

(FRTR 2001)

(106)

Chemical Oxidation

,

Applicability,

duration, limitations, costs

(FRTR 2001)

 many toxic organic chemicals, unsaturated aliphatic

(e.g., trichloroethylene,TCE) and aromatic compounds (e.g., benzene)

 Duration

 Medium to long-term technology. Cleanup ranges from

a few months to several years.

(107)

Directional Wells,

In Situ

(FRTR 2001)



Introduction:

 Drilling techniques are used to position wells

horizontally, or at an angle, to reach contaminants not accessible by direct vertical drilling.

 Directional drilling may be used to enhance other

in-situ or in-well technologies such as ground

(108)

Typical Diagram of In Situ Air

Stripping with Horizontal Wells

(109)

Directional Wells

,

Applicability,

duration, limitations, costs

(FRTR 2001)



Applicability for pollutants

 no particular target group



Duration

 no data



More detailed data

(110)

Dual Phase Extraction,

In Situ

(FRTR 2001)



Introduction:



A high vacuum system is applied to

simultaneously remove various

combinations of contaminated ground

water, separate-phase petroleum product,

and hydrocarbon vapor from the

(111)

Typical Dual Phase Extraction

Schematic

(EPA 1996)

(112)

Dual Phase Extraction

,



Applicability for pollutants

 VOCs and fuels (e.g., LNAPLs)



Duration

 Medium to long-term technology.



More detailed data

(113)

Thermal Treatment

,

In Situ

(FRTR 2001)



Introduction:



Steam is forced into an aquifer through

injection wells to vaporize volatile and

semivolatile contaminants.



Vaporized components rise to the

(114)

Subsurface Development

Process

(FRTR 2001)

(115)

Thermal Treatment

,

Applicability,

duration, limitations, costs

(FRTR 2001)

 SVOCs and fuels

 Duration

 typically short to medium duration, lasting a few weeks

to several months

(116)

Hydrofracturing

,

In Situ

(FRTR 2001)



Introduction:



Injection of pressurized water through

wells cracks low permeability and

over-consolidated sediments.



Cracks are filled with porous media that

(117)

Typical Sequence of Operations for

Creating Hydraulic Fractures

(FRTR 2001)

(118)

Hydrofracturing

,

Applicability,

duration, limitations, costs

(FRTR 2001)



Applicability for pollutants

 a wide range of contaminant groups with no

particular target group



Duration

 no data



More detailed data

(119)

In-Well Air Stripping

,

In Situ

(FRTR 2001)

 Introduction:

 Air is injected into a double screened well, lifting the water

in the well and forcing it out the upper screen.

 Simultaneously, additional water is drawn in the lower

screen.

 Once in the well, some of the VOCs in the contaminated

ground water are transferred from the dissolved phase to the vapor phase by air bubbles.

 The contaminated air rises in the well to the water surface

(120)

(121)

In-Well Air Stripping,



Applicability for pollutants

 halogenated VOCs, SVOCs, and fuels



Duration

 no data



More detailed data

 http://www.frtr.gov/matrix2/section4/4-40.htm

(122)

Passive/Reactive Treatment

Walls,

In Situ (FRTR 2001)



Introduction:



These barriers allow the passage of water

while causing the degradation or removal

of contaminants.



Different types of walls:

 Funnel and Gate

(123)

Typical Passive Treatment

Wall (Cross-Section)

(FRTR 2001)

(124)

Passive/Reactive Treatment

Walls,

Applicability, duration, limitations, costs

(FRTR 2001)

 VOCs, SVOCs, and inorganics

 Duration

 generally intended for long-term operation to control

migration of contaminants in ground water.

(125)

Ground Water, Surface Water, and

Leachate

Containment (FRTR 2001)



Physical Barriers

(126)

Physical Barriers,

(FRTR 2001)



Introduction:



These subsurface barriers consist of

vertically excavated trenches filled with

slurry.



The slurry, usually a mixture of bentonite

and water, hydraulically shores the trench

to prevent collapse and retards ground

(127)

Typical Keyed-In Slurry Wall

(Cross-Section)

(FRTR 2001)

(128)

Physical Barriers

 Slurry walls contain the ground water itself, thus

treating no particular target group of contaminants

 Duration

 no data

(129)

Deep Well Injection,

(FRTR 2001)



Introduction:



Deep well injection is a liquid waste

disposal technology.



This alternative uses injection wells to

place treated or untreated liquid waste into

geologic formations that have no potential

to allow migration of contaminants into

(130)

Typical Deep Well Injection

System

(FRTR 2001)

(131)

Deep Well Injection



Applicability for pollutants

 VOCs, SVOCs, fuels, explosives, and pesticides



Duration

 no data



More detailed data

(132)

Sources

 EPA 1993. Decision-Support Software for Soil Vapor Extraction Technology Application: HyperVentilate. Cincinnati, OH: Office of

Research and Development. EPA/600/R-93/028.

 EPA 1994. Remediation Technologies Screening Matrix and Reference Guide. Second Edition. DOD Environmental Technology

Transfer Committee. EPA/542/B-94/013.

 EPA 1996. A Citizen’s Guide to Soil Vapor Extraction and Air Sparging. Solid Waste and Emergency Response (5102G). EPA

542-F-96-008 April 1996.

http://www.epa.gov/OUST/pubs/tum_ch11.pdf

 FRTR 2001, Remediation Technologies Screening Matrix and Reference Guide, Version 4.0

http://www.frtr.gov/matrix2/section4/4_1.html

 Navvac, Naval Facilities Engineering Command

https://portal.navfac.navy.mil/portal/page?_pageid=181,5364943&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL#slide3_start