CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
A. Writing
1. The Nature of Writing
Writing is on of the four language skills, and the three others are
reading, speaking, and listening. There are many theories about writing suggested by some expert. According to Indonesian Ministry of
National Education ( 2009: 3), writing is transforming thoughts into language; it means that one needs to think about the content of his writing first and then arrange the ideas using appropriate language.
Writing involves several sub skills. Some of these are related to accuracy of using the correct forms of language. Writing is also about
having a message and communicating it successfully to other people. To do this, it is needed to have enough ideas, organize them well and express them in an appropriate style.
Ghaith (2000) states that writing is a complex process that allows writers to explore thoughts and ideas, and make them visible and concrete. Writing encourages thinking and learning for it motivates
communication and makes thought available for reflection when thought is written down, ideas can be examined, reconsidered, added
Writing is an activity to pour the idea out to script form. It is a skill
that cannot be mastered instantly. This skill can be learned and mastered. Human needs it so much. Writing skill in this case means the ability to express an idea to the correct writing, appropriate the rules
and can be understood.
In order to get good writing, we can make correct sentences to
organize a paragraph and also we have purpose to communicate with our readers using written language. Before starting writing the students
should determine the purposes of writing in order that they can express ideas correctly and clearly.
2. The Purpose of Writing
Writing is not just arranging some word into sentences; moreover, writing has certain purposes based on the writer desire. Charlie
(2008:111) mentioned the purpose of writing. a. Giving information to the reader
A text is used to give information about something to others
people.
b. Recording the history
By writing the history, the next generation will be able to know
and learn about it.
c. Expressing writers‟ own self
d. Showing idealism
Someone uses a text to highlight idealism about something. It
is because text able to spread fast. e. Declaring opinion
Writing is used to declare the opinion or theory that is
eternalized in form of text.
3. The Importance of Writing
Writing is clearly complex activity. It means that in writing
students have to consider many things to build a good writing. Harmer (2004: 31-33) states that there are many importance of learning writing, by writing students can:
a. Avoid the limitation of time
It means that students have longer time to think than in speaking
activities. They can consult the words will be used to express their thought. They can check their grammar patterns.
b. Practice the use of language
By practicing it completely, their ability in English can develop well.
c. Summarize the materials that are explained by teacher.
They use writing skill to make a note about what they have learnt while learning process happens.
As the example, teacher asks students to write short dialogue
which they will then act out.
f. Answer question test-types of activities
Writing is important to face question test. In the examination,
students are asked their answer in written.
From description above, the writer can conclude that writing
skill is very important to be learnt. Writing can help us in solving and improving other skills in learning language. By having good writing
skill, article, comic, and book, etc.
4. Process of Writing
Harmer, in his book entitle “How To Teach Writing” (2004: 4-6)
states that writing has four steps as follows: a. Planning
Before starting to write or type, the writer tries and decides what they are going to say. For some writers this may involve making detailed notes. When planning, writers have to think about
three main issues. In the first place, they have considered the purpose of their writing since this will influence (amongst other things) not only the type of text they wish to produce, but also the
language they use, and the information they choose.
Secondly, experienced writers think of the audience they
consider the content structure of the piece. That is how best to
sequence the facts, ideas, or arguments which they have decided to include.
b. Drafting
Once writers refer to the first version of a piece of writing is a draft. This first „go‟ at a text is often done on the assumption
that it will be amended later. As the writing process proceeds into editing, a number of drafts may be produced on the way to the final
version.
c. Editing (reflecting and revising)
Once writers have produced a draft they then, usually, read
through what they have written to see where it works and where it does not. Perhaps the order of the information is not clear and the
way something is written is ambiguous or confusing. They may then move paragraphs around or write a new introduction and use a different from of words for a particular sentence. More skilled
writers tend to look at issues of general meaning and overall structure before concentrating on detailed features such as individual words and grammatical accuracy. The latter two are, of
course, important and are often dealt with later the process. d. Final Version
edit the draft to be the final version. This may look considerably
different from both the original plan and the first draft, because things have changed in the editing process. But the writer is now
ready to send the written text to its intended audience.
The process of writing is not linear, it is tend to recursive. It
means that writers plan, draft and edit but then often re-plan, re draft, and re-edit. Even when they get to what they think is their final draft they may find themselves changing their mind and
re-planning, drafting, or editing. These aspects of the writing process are representing to process wheel. Therefore the process wheel
below clearly shows the many direction that writers can take.
Figure 2.1
The Procedure of Writing
5. Types of Text
a. Narrative Text
The purpose of this to entertain, to tell an imaginary story or to teach. The generic structure of this text is:
1). Orientation, tells who, where, when.
2). Series of events, describes happenings preceding the complication.
3). Complication, introduces main problem/conflict. 4). Resolution, tells how problem get resolved. b. Recount Text
This text is made to tell what happened, to reconstruct a chronologically ordered sequence of past events. The generic
structure of recount text is:
1). Orientation which tells who, where, when.
2). Series of events.
3). Personal commentary/conclusion, states thoughts and feelings about the events, summarizes account.
c. Procedure Text
The purpose of this text is to tell how to do something, to provide a clear set of directions for completing a specific task. The
reader must follow step by step the instructions in order to reach the result expected. It has generic structure as follow:
3). List of materials/ Ingredients
4). Steps in Sequence 5). Additional Suggestions 6). Visual Aids
d. Report Text
The purpose of this text is to give information and to report
phenomena in a systematic manner. The generic structure of report text is:
1) Classification, general statement of topic or phenomenon. 2) Series of description paragraph.
e. Explanation Text
This text is the purpose of to describe how something works, to give reasons for a phenomenon. It has generic structure as follows: 1) Phenomenon identification, describe the phenomenon.
2) Series of events which offer more detailed information about
temporal or casual sequences.
6. The Aspect of Writing
There are some elements that can be used to evaluate or analyze students‟ writing. According to Hughes (1982: 91-93), there are five
elements for evaluating students‟ writing are: 1) Grammar
2) Vocabulary
Vocabulary means the writers should choose appropriate words and arrange the words into paragraph.
3) Mechanic
Mechanic is how all the words are developed in correct spelling. It is also correct punctuation in writing.
4) Fluency
Fluency of writing deals with the students‟ ability in writing the
content. A good fluency should be clear and relevant. 5) Form
Form means how paragraphs are arranged to be a good text and
coherent.
In this research, those aspects were used to evaluate students‟
writing procedure text. In addition, the students‟ writing is evaluated through inter-rater agreement to minimize subjectivity in scoring process. Inter-rater agreement is the degree to which two or more evaluators give
the same rating to an identical observable situation using the same rating scale (CECR, 2011). The agreement was done by two raters: the teacher and the observer.
B. Procedure Text
1. The Definition of Procedure Text
says procedure text consists of a sequence of instruction designed with
some accuracy in order to reach an objective. In our perspective, procedure texts range from apparently simple cooking recipes to large maintenance manuals.
2. The Generic Structure of Procedure Text
Generic structure is the way in which a text is constructed to suit
its purpose. Generic structure also means the text organization or the text arrangement.
There are six generic structures of procedure text as follows: a. Heading/Title
It consist of the theme of the text b. End Goal
It consists of target/ purpose the activity. c. List of Materials/ingredients
It consists of substances, or what is required. d. Step of Sequence
It consists of stages, steps to do the activity. e. Additional Suggestion
It consists of extra information about the activity. f. Visual Aids
C. Video
1. The Definition of Video
Video is medium that has movement, captions, sound, color, and concrete picture that can be seen and heard. It is also called
audio-visual media. Video contains contextual clues and meaning to be offered because video shows practical application. Mayer on
Muniandy, et al. (2011) states that video as a kind of multimedia material consisting of verbal presentations displaying simultaneous
images, narration and on screen text. Video is a form of multimedia that conveys information through two simultaneous sensory channels: aural and visual. It often uses multiple presentation modes, such as
verbal and pictorial representations in the case of on-screen print and closed-captioning (Mayer, 2001). From the statements above, it could
easily understand that video is a kind of media that consists of sequencing image and audio presentation.
2. The Advantages of Video
According to Harmer (2003:282), there are four advantages of video for teaching English:
a. Seeing language-in-use
By watching video students do not just hear language, they also see the step to make something too. It will convey general meaning
b. Cross-cultural awareness
Video uniquely allows students a look at situations far beyond their classrooms. It gives the students a chance to see such things in other countries.
c. The power of creation
When students use video cameras themselves, they are given the
potential to create something memorable and enjoyable. d. Motivation
Most students show an increased level of interest when they have chance to see the use of language as well as hear it, and it is coupled with interesting tasks.
D. Teaching Procedure Text Using Video
Video is defined as a moving picture/video that shows oral explanation
with acting or showing something or objects to communicate process by using television. In writing procedure text, video could help us do a task or make something. Video could be a set up of instruction or direction, for
the example was the instruction to make iced tea. 1. Preparation
a. The teacher prepares the equipment to play video as a media
for teaching learning activity.
b. The teacher stimulates students by giving questions of how to
2. Presentation
a. Firstly, the teacher opens the lesson and gives explanation
about material that is how to make procedure text.
b. Teacher gives some explanation of conjunction/ how to connect
sentences (firstly, secondly, then, finally etc).
c. Teacher plays a video which contain of steps to make
something.
d. Teacher asks students to make sentences based on the video.
Then teacher correct the sentences made by students. 3. Practice
a. The teacher asks the students to make a pairs. b. Teacher plays another video.
c. Teacher gives instruction the students to pay attention about
how to write procedure text after watching video (write the title, ingredients, list utensils, and steps).
d. Then each group will have to make a procedure text.
E. Related Research
There were some studies about implementing audiovisual media to improve writing skill. Barrata and John (2008) wrote “Using Film to
Introduce and Develop Academic Writing Skills among UK Undergraduate Students: How Film was used to instruct the Students”. It is
using audiovisual as analogous to teach aspect of writing. Kasper (2002) in
Barrata (2008) says that film providing students with a graphic illustration of relevant content information.
The important thing to do was providing film related to and
supporting the material. It focused on three material, how to make good introduction paragraph, unity of paragraph, and structure and coherence.
Three were there main found on this research:
1. The approach is seen as unique and interesting. Feedback suggested
that using film as a teaching method were able to capture students‟ interest and help them to learn more effectively.
2. The metaphorical aspect of the approach helps students to learn by
visualizing the subject. Filming visuals were able to inspire schema or mental images which render complex information into simpler
language.
3. For some students, the filmic approach is not appreciated. Some
students felt difficult to interpret the film. It may be that these students
were not visual learners by nature.
F. Basic Assumption
Writing is the process to get ideas then tried to think the way to
express it into good sentences or paragraph so the readers understand the purpose of the writing from the writer himself. To write the student have
successful, the teacher needs better strategy to motivate them learning
English. Teaching writing using video was considered as better media in teaching learning writing procedure. By using video, the students would
have interest in learning. Video could be used as a medium in teaching writing. By using video, the students could watch, listen, understand, and
apply the use of language contextually. So, the students were allowed exploring language in a creative way.
G. Hypothesis
Based on the assumption above, it was concluded a hypothesis that video are able to improve students‟ writing skill in procedure text of the
