THE ANALYSIS OF THE TENSE CHOICES
IN
THE JAKARTA POST
HEADLINES NEWS
ON NOVEMBER 1 - 30, 2007
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree of
Sarjana Sastra
in English Letters
By
SUSTIANI
Student Number: 034214047
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS
FACULTY OF LETTERS
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
THE ANALYSIS OF THE TENSE CHOICES
IN
THE JAKARTA POST
HEADLINES NEWS
ON NOVEMBER 1 - 30, 2007
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree of
Sarjana Sastra
in English Letters
By
SUSTIANI
Student Number: 034214047
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS
FACULTY OF LETTERS
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2008
The Road Not Taken
Two roads diverged in a yellow wood,
And sorry I could not travel both
And be one traveler, long I stood
And looked down one as far as I could
To where it bent in the undergrowth;
Then took the other . . .
--Robert Frost (1961)—
To believe in your own thought, to believe that what is
true for you in your private heart is true for all men
--Ralph Waldo Emerson (1841)--
Th is u n d e r g r a d u a t e t h e s is is d e d ic a t e d t o
M y B e lo v e d P a r e n t s ,
M y B r o t h e r a n d S is t e r s ,
a n d a ls o
Th e o n e w h o I Lo v e a n d Lo v e s m e m o r e
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Alhamdulillah, Ya Allah,Ya Rabbi,
finally I could finish my undergraduate
thesis. My deepest gratitude goes to Allah SWT for the wonderful grace upon my
life and for guiding me in writing my undergraduate thesis.
I would like, to thank Dr. Fr. B. Alip, M. Pd., M.A., my advisor, for his
guidance, incredible patience, suggestions, and the time that he has spent to
correct this thesis. I also would like to thank my co-advisor, Dra. Bernadine Ria
Lestari, M.S., for reading my undergraduate thesis and for the suggestions in order
to make it better.
I dedicate this thesis for my beloved parents. I highly thank them for their
prayers and their patience in supporting my study (
Thanks Mom and Dad, your
strict ways make me learn a lot of things
). I thank my sisters for their prayers,
supports, and helps, and also for my brother who teaches me how to “fight” in my
life. Many thanks also go to all my families, my grandmother, my uncles, my
aunts, my cousins, my nieces and my nephew. I thank them for the happiness,
love and laugh. I am very grateful that I can be the part of the family.
I dedicate special thanks to “Hun”diarto Kurniawan who always supports
me and helps me stand up when I fell down. You are the one who I love and loves
me more, thanks for your love and your patience, you are a good listener who
gives me good advice too.
Lots of gratitude go to Anna Fitrianti, S.S., M.Hum., who has become the
“third advisor” of this thesis writing process. My sincere appreciation is also
expressed to all of lecturers for their guidance and their time to share their
knowledge during my study and to all Sanata Dharma University’s staffs and
librarians, especially
mbak
Ninik in the secretariat of English Letters Department.
I would like to express high appreciations to my best friends Maxi_Boim,
Yerry, Mbendol, Nyit-Nyit, dJatep, SuperBay, Bagor, Tyok, Ryan and also my
Lil_sister Woelan for their helps, their supports, and becoming my real friends
during my happiest and roughest days
(From you all, I know that friends indeed
are friends in need, together in laugh and cry)
. For We Won’t Pay crew, Prita,
Chubby, Wayan, Novi, Widhi, Ella, Dodik, Bhayank, Vallone and Rensi and the
others friends in ’03 class of English Letters, I thank them for giving me such a
beautiful friendship.
Last but not least, I would like to thank Rinta Aribawa for the time that we
shared within last few years, thanks for the prayers and for everything.
Sustiani
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE
... i
APPROVAL PAGE
...
ii
ACCEPTANCE PAGE
... iii
MOTTO PAGE
... iv
DEDICATION PAGE
... v
ACKNOWLEGEMENTS
... vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
...
viii
LIST OF TABLES
...
x
ABSTRACT
... xi
ABSTRAK
...
xii
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION
... 1
A. Background of the Study
...
1
B. Problem Formulation
...
3
C. Objectives of the Study
...
4
D. Benefits of the Study
...
4
E. Definition of Terms
...
5
CHAPTER II: THEORETICAL REVIEW
... 7
A. Review of Related Studies
... 7
B. Review of Related Theories
...
9
1. Theory of Sentence Elements ...
9
a.
Subject
... 9
b.
Verb
... 10
c.
Object
... 11
d.
Complement
... 11
e.
Adverbial
... 12
2. Theory on Sentence Structure ...
12
3. Theory on Tenses, Aspect and Mood ...
17
a.
Present
Tense
... 19
b.
Past
Tense
... 24
4. Theory on News ...
28
a. The News Story Elements ...
28
i.
The
Lead
... 28
ii.
The
Time
Element
... 29
iii.
Specific
Information
... 29
iv.
Sources
... 29
v.
Attribution
... 30
b. The Characteristic of News ...
31
c.
Headline
... 32
d.
Headline
News
... 33
C. Theoretical Framework
...
36
CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY
... 39
A.
Object of the Study
... 39
B.
Method of the Study
...
41
1. Data Collection ... ...
43
2. Data Analysis ... ...
44
a. Identifying the Types of Tense ...
44
b. Identifying the Grammatical Reasons of Choosing the Tense
45
CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS
RESULT
...
46
A.
The Type of Tenses in
The Jakarta Post
Headline News
...
49
1. Simple Present ...
51
2. Present Progressive ...
60
3. Present Perfect ...
62
4. Simple Past ...
65
5. Past Perfect ...
72
6. Past Progressive ...
75
B
.
The Grammatical Reasons of the Tense Choices
...
76
1. Simple Present ...
77
2. Present Progressive ...
89
3. Present Perfect ...
92
4. Simple Past ...
95
5. Past Perfect ...
100
6. Past Progressive ...
102
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION
...
103
BIBLIOGRAPHY
...
107
APPENDIX
...
110
List of Simple Present Tense Clauses in the Headlines ...
110
List of Simple Present Tense Clauses in the Articles ...
110
List of Present Progressive Tense Clauses in the Articles ...
126
List of Present Perfect Tense Clauses in the Articles ... 128
List of Simple Past Tense Clauses in the Headlines ... 132
List of Simple Past Tense Clauses in the Articles ...
132
List of Past Progressive Tense Clauses in the Articles ... 167
List of Past Perfect Tense Clauses in the Articles ...
168
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. The Types of Tense and Their Occurences in the Headlines..
49
Table 2. The Types of Tense and Their Occurences in the Articles
of the Headline News ...
49
Table 3. The Variants of Present Tense and the Distributions
in the Headline ...
50
Table 4. The Variants of Present Tense and the Distributions
in the Articles of Headline News ...
51
Table 5. The Types of Finite Verbs in the Simple Present Tense
Clauses in the Headlines ...
56
Table 6. The Types of Finite Verbs in the Simple Present Tense
Clauses in the Articles ...
57
Table 7. The Variants of Past Tense and the Distributions in the
Articlesof the Headline News ...
65
Table 8. The types of Finite Verbs in the Simple Past Tense Clauses
in the Articles ...
69
Table 9. The Grammatical Reasons of the Choosing Simple Present
Tense in the Clauses of the Whole Samples ...
77
Table 10. The Grammatical Meanings of the Simple Present Tense
In the Present Speech Acts ...
78
Table 11. The Grammatical Meanings of the Simple Present Tense
Which Indicate Past Speech Acts ...
85
Table 12. The Grammatical Meanings of the Present Progressive Tense 90
Table 13. The Grammatical Meanings of the Present Perfect Tense
in the Clauses ...
93
Table 14. The Grammatical Meanings of the Simple Past Tense
in the Clauses ...
96
Table 15. The Grammatical Meanings of the Past Perfect Tense
in the Clauses ...
102
ABSTRACT
SUSTIANI.
The Analysis of the Tense Choices in
The Jakarta Post
Headlines
News on November 1 - 30, 2007.
Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters,
Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma University, 2008.
As the basic knowledge in English language, tenses has an important role
because by learning tenses, we could understand the correspondence between the
form of verb and our concept of time. That is why the choosing of tense in news
writing is also important. Basically there are only two kinds of tense, present and
past, but each tense can be in the simple form or can be combined with either
progressive aspect or perfective aspect. Related with the statements above, the
analysis will be focused on the types of tense and also the grammatical meanings
of the chosen tense in
The Jakarta Post
Headlines News on November 1 – 30,
2007.
In this research, there are two problems which are formulated to guide the
study. The first problem deals with the tense choices that are used in
The Jakarta
Post
Headlines news on November 1 – 30, 2007. And the second problem deals
with the grammatical reasons for choosing those tenses.
This study is a descriptive one, and the method employed in this study
covered two stages. First, the data collections, the writer identified and made a list
of finite clauses and divided them based on the type of tenses then calculated the
distributions. Second, the data analysis, the writer did the analysis in line with the
problems stated in chapter I. Answering the first problem, the writer identified the
types of tense and described them. Answering the second problem, the writer
analyzed the grammatical meanings of the chosen tense.
Through this study, the writer discovers some findings that can be stated
as follow; firstly, the past tense forms are used more frequently with 59.82% of
the occurrence than the present tense with 40.18%. The past tense clauses are
dominated by the simple past form 92.94%, the past perfect form is 5.33% and the
past progressive is 1.74%. While the present tense clauses are also dominated by
the simple present 79.70%, the present perfect is 14.76% and the present
progressive is 5.54%.
The second finding is that these types of tense may indicate some
grammatical reasons. Predominantly, the simple past tense form is used to convey
actions that take place at particular point of time in the past, the past perfect form
is used to convey an action which extends in the past and seen from the past
current relevance and the past progressive tense is used to show the limited
duration of actions in the past. While the present tense form, predominantly, is
used to indicate present actions/ present statements, present perfect form is used to
indicate actions that went over time in the past and that is completed with the
moment of speaking, and the present progressive is used to indicate actions which
are in process/ in progress.
ABSTRAK
SUSTIANI.
The Analysis of the Tense Choices in
The Jakarta Post
Headlines
News on November 1 – 30, 2007.
Yogyakarta: Jurusan Sastra Inggris, Fakultas
Sastra, Universitas Sanata Dharma, 2008.
Dalam bahasa Inggris,
tenses
berperan sangat penting, karena dengan
mempelajari
tenses,
kita dapat mengetahui hubungan antara bentuk kata kerja dan
konsep waktu dari kegiatan tersebut. Oleh karena itu, pemilihan
tenses
(penunjuk
waktu) dalam berita juga sangat penting. Pada dasarnya hanya ada dua
tenses
,
past
(lampau) dan
present
(sekarang), tapi
tenses
tersebut dapat berbentuk
sederhana ataupun dikombinasikan dengan aspek perfektif dan progresif.
Berhubungan dengan pernyataan di atas, analisis ini berfokus pada jenis-jenis
tenses
dan juga arti-arti gramatikal dari
tenses
yang digunakan dalam berita
utama harian
The Jakara Post
di bulan November 2007 dari tanggal 1 sampai
tanggal 30.
Dalam penelitian ini ada dua masalah yang dirumuskan untuk memandu
pembelajaran. Permasalahan pertama berkenaan dengan pemilihan
tenses
di berita
utama harian
The Jakarta Post
di bulan November 2007 dari tanggal 1 sampai
tanggal 30. Permasalahan yang kedua berkenan dengan alasan gramatikal dari
pemilihan
tenses
tersebut.
Penelitian ini adalah penelitian deskriptif. Penulis melakukan dua tahap
dalam penelitian ini. Pertama pengumpulan data, penulis mengidentifikasi dan
membuat daftar klausa-klausa dengan kata kerja
finite
dan membaginya
berdasarkan jenis
tenses
lalu menghitung jumlahnya. Kedua, analisis data, penulis
melakukan analisis sesuai dengan rumusan masalah yang terdapat di bab I. Untuk
menjawab permasalahan pertama, penulis mengidentifikasi jenis dari
tenses
dan
menjelaskannya. Untuk menjawab permasalahan kedua, penulis menganalisa arti
gramatikal dari jenis-jenis
tenses
yang digunakan.
Hasil penelitian menujukan bahwa (1)
past tense
(lampau) lebih banyak
digunakan dengan prosentase 59.82% dari pada
present tense
(sekarang)
40.18%. Bentuk lampau didominasi oleh bentuk
simple (
sederhana) 92.94%,
past
perfect
5.33%, dan
past progressive
1.74%. Sedangkan
present tense
(sekarang)
juga didominasi oleh bentuk
simple
(sederhana) 79.70%,
present perfect
14.76%
dan
present progressive
5.54%. (2) Jenis-jenis
tense
dapat menunjukan beberapa
alasan gramatikal. Secara garis besar, bentuk
simple
past tense
digunakan untuk
mengungkapkan kejadian yang yang berlangsung di satu waktu di masa lalu ,
past
perfect
digunakan untuk mengungkapkan kejadian yang berlangsung pada suatu
periode di masa lalu dan dan dilihat dari saat itu juga, dan
past progressive
digunakan untuk menunjukan kejadian yang berlangsung pada dalam waktu yang
terbatas di masa lalu. Sedangkan bentuk
present tense
secara umum digunakan
untuk mengindikasikan kejadian ataupun pernyataan di masa sekarang,
present
perfect
digunakan untuk mengindikasikan kejadian yang berlangsung dimasa lalu
dan selesai saat waktu pembicaraan, dan
present progressive
digunakan untuk
menunjukan kejadian yang sedang berlangsung.
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. Background of the Study
According to Bloomfield (1962: 3) language plays an important role in our
life because we need language to communicate with other. Language has been
studied in a scientific way since the ancient times by careful and comprehensive
observation. There are many kinds of language that people use in this world. All
of them have their own characteristics which differentiate one from the other. One
of those languages, that become an international language, is English. This
language has commonly used including in Indonesia. Now days, English has
become the second language in Indonesia after Indonesian. People use English not
only for spoken language but also as written language. The using of English as
written language can be seen in the application letters and in mass media such as
magazines and also newspapers.
Both of the English spoken and written languages must follow the rule of
grammar in order to avoid the grammatical mistakes. In constructing and
analyzing a sentence, we should concern about the verb. Based on
Explaining
English Grammar
, the most basic element in an English sentence is the verb
(Yule, 1998: 54). The verb is the word that indicates action, state or condition,
existence, or what is perceived by senses – touch, taste, hearing, seeing, and
smelling (Young, 1958: 29). It generally refers to actions, events, and processes.
The verbs have some different forms. If we want to describe the different
forms of the verb, we need to talk about tense. Tense is a verb form that expresses
actions which occur on certain time in the past, present and future (Curme, 1931:
354). In other words, tense often has to do with the position of a situation in the
relation with the time of the speech. For example, in the sentence,
When I met
him, John had lived in Paris for 10 years
, the past perfect form indicates that the
speech is in the present time but the situation of
When I met him
relevant to a
point in the past.
In English, the using of tenses is very important. As the basic knowledge
in English language, tenses has an important role because by learning tenses, we
could understand the correspondence between the form of verb and our concept of
time (Quirk
et al
, 1985: 40). There were two main tenses in English-present and
past. Each tense can have a simple form: and each can be combined with either
progressive aspect or perfective aspect, or both (Close, 1977: 241). From those
combinations, English has many kinds of tense variants.
The using of tense variants can be seen in the written language such as a
news report. A news report is a right and objective announcement from facts that
have values and have just happened that can attract readers of certain newspapers
(Maulsby as cites in Sam Abede Pareno, 2003: 6). This news report is usually
found in a newspaper and magazines. In a newspaper, the chosen of tenses is also
an important thing because the typical news report is designed to focus on recent
changes and the current situation (Yule, 1998: 71). From the choices of tense we
Many kinds of tense variants are used in writing a news report. Even
though the news commonly happens in the past time, sometimes in a news report,
the report is written in a present tense and not always in past tense. The tense
choices do not always follow the formal English rule. According to Berner R.
Thomas,
The formal rule on sequence of tenses states that when a direct
quotation is paraphrased, verbs are changed one degree that is from
present to past. Journalists live by the paraphrase, and if they were to
follow this rule, they would create inaccurate news stories, for by shifting
tense, the journalist would be changing fact. (1992: 84)
Knowing that the tense choices are very important in a news report, the
writer would like to analyze about the tense choices from
The Jakarta Post
.
The
Jakarta Post
is a daily English-language newspaper in Indonesia. It was first
published in 1983 and becomes the largest English-Language newspaper in
Indonesia. The writer focused in analyzing the headlines news because the
headline news is the most important story of today’s newspaper (Reddick, 1941:
250). And the writer takes the headlines news which were published on November
1 – 30, 2007 as the sample of the data.
B. Problem Formulation
From the background of the study and also the problem limitation above,
the problem of this research can be stated as follows;
1. What tenses are used in
The Jakarta Post
headlines news on November 1
– 30, 2007?
C. Objective of the Study
As the arrangement of the problem formulations, the goal of this research
can be formulated as follows; the first is to find what kinds of tenses that
commonly appear in
The Jakarta Post
headlines news. Basically there are only
two kinds of tense, past and present, but when the tenses are combined with the
progressive aspect or perfective aspect there will be 12 combinations of English
tenses. In here the writer would mention the tense variants which are found in
The
Jakarta Post
headlines news and give the examples which are taken from the
headlines news. The writer also mentions the percentage distribution of each tense
variant which appear in the headlines news.
The second objective is to identify the reason of using those tenses in
referring the meaning of the sentence and also to show the occurrence of each
grammatical meaning. A tense variant conveys a different grammatical meaning
from the others and sometimes a tense variant may refer to 2 or 3 meanings. For
example a simple past tense can be used to give description about a definite single
completed event/action in the past, an event with duration that applied in the past
and no longer applies in the present, habitual or repeated action/ event in the past,
and etc.
D. Benefits of the Study
Some of the benefits of this study are to give knowledge to the readers
about the kinds of tenses. Through the analysis and the examples which are given,
news report and the reader will know what kind of tenses which frequently
appears in the news writing. As the other advantages, the reader can also know
about the grammatical meanings of each tense which are usually used in the news
writing.
E. The Definition Terms
The terms that are used in this research are verbs, tense and news.
1. Verb
Asher and Simpson (1994: 5186) describe a verb as a member of the
word class traditionally defined as a ‘doing’ word, denoting an action or
states, for example
knows
,
give,
and
broke.
There are two classes of verbs
forms. They are finite verb and non-finite verb. A finite verb contains a
finite form of the verb, showing tense distinction between past and
present, and being associated with particular subject (first, second, third
person, singular or plural). A non-finite verb consists non-finite forms of
the verb i.e. the infinitive form (usually with to), the present participle, or
the past participle (Jackson, 1982: 72).
2. Tense
According to Curme tense is a verb form that expresses actions which
occur on certain time in the past, present and future. Each tense can have
a simple form and can be combined with more complex forms. Tenses
express time from the standpoint of the moment in which the speaker is
of the form of a verb that may be used to indicate the time of the action or
stated, expressed by the verb (Hornby, 1995: 1231).
3. News
As cited in
New Survey of Journalism
(Mott, 1969: 49), M. Lyle Spencer
states that news can be defined as any accurate fact or idea that will
interest a large numbers of readers. William S. Maulsby (as cited in Sam
Abede Pareno, 2003: 6) also states that news may be defined as an
accurate, unbiased account of the significant facts of a timely happening
that is of the interest to the readers of the newspaper that prints the
account. And according to Erie C. Hepwood (as cited in Sam Abede
Pareno, 2003: 6) news is the first report of significant events which have
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
In this chapter, the writer takes three studies which are related to the
analysis of this study. There are also some theories that are essential to answer the
problem formulations. The theoretical framework shows the relation among those
related theories that will help the writer to analyze the tense choices in the Jakarta
Post headlines news on November 1 – 30, 2007.
A. Review of Related Studies
There are three studies which are taken as related studies. Three of them
are the undergraduate theses of the students from Sanata Dharma University. The
first related study is
“A Study of –ly Adverb in Washington Post and The Jakarta
Post Articles”
. This study was written by Dionisius Pimarianto in 2005. This
undergraduate thesis focused in analyzing the kinds of –ly adverbs and the
positions of the adverb in a clause. From the analysis we may conclude that there
are 5 kinds of adverb which are used in the articles, and by looking at the
distributions, the adverbs always occur in the middle position and in the final
position. The adverbs never occur in the initial position.
The second study is
“A Study on English Preposition in in Newsweek
Headline News Issued from May 2005 – October 2005”
. Elisa Widyastuti wrote
this undergraduate thesis in 2006. The aim of this study is to know the
construction and the meanings of English preposition
in
in Newsweek headline
news. In here, the most frequent construction which appears in the headline news
as
in + NP
and most of the prepositions
in
show the meaning of denoting spatial
rather than denoting time.
The third study was
“A Study on Grammatical Meanings of Finite Verb
Phrases in The Jakarta Post Headline News Issued in January 2007”
written by
Skolastika Pritania Nirwesti in 2007. Her undergraduate thesis focused on the
finite verb phrases in the headline news. The writer analyzed the finite verb
phrases and found the grammatical meanings to discuss their importance in the
news writing. In her study, she found that the finite verb phrases were more
frequently used than the non-finite ones. Those finite verb phrases indicated some
grammatical meanings such as aspects (terminate, perfective, progressive), moods
(indicative, subjunctive, imperative), voices (active and passive) and tenses (past,
present, future). In here, the aspects were dominated by the terminate aspect, the
moods were dominated by indicative mood. The voices were dominated by
passive voice, while the tenses were dominated by past tense.
The
writer
takes
“A Study of –ly Adverb in Washington Post and The
Jakarta Post Articles”
and
“A Study on English Preposition in in Newsweek
Headline News Issued from May 2005 – October 2005”
as related studies because
both of them take the data from headlines news and also the articles from news
report such as magazine and newspaper. The writer also takes the third study
“A
Study on Grammatical Meanings of Finite Verb Phrases in The Jakarta Post
Headline News Issued in January 2007”
because this undergraduate thesis
analyze the tense choices in the verb phrases. From the studies, the writer knows
that the news report has the terms which are different from the other kinds of
writing. That is why the writer tries to analyze the significance of the tense
choices in the headlines news which are taken from the Jakarta Post issued on
November 1 – 30, 2007.
B. Review of Related Theories
1. Theory of Sentence Elements
Tenses are the characteristics of finite verbs, which are parts of a clause in
a sentence. According to Warriner (1958: 27) a sentence is a group of words
containing a verb and its subject and expressing a completed thought. Quirk
et al
(1972: 34) explain that a sentence generally can be divided into two parts called
subject and predicate. The predicate is divided into four important elements called
as the verb, the complement, the object, and the adverbial.
Each sentence elements will be discussed more detail in the following
paragraphs.
a. Subject
The subject of sentence has a close general relation to ‘what is being
discussed’ (Quirk
et al
, 1972: 34). It consists of noun or a noun equivalent and
characteristically name, places, people, animals, concepts, for example:
(1)
She
reads.
The subject of a sentence is a part which is said (Young, 1958: 29). It
occurs before the verb phrase in declarative clauses and immediately after the
operator in questions. The subject of a sentence has a number and person concord
where applicable with the verb phrase, and the examples are:
(3)
The students
have completed the task.
(4)
Have
the student
completed the task?
b. Verb
Young (1958: 29) states that verb is the word that indicates action, state or
condition, existence, or what is perceived by senses – touch, taste, hearing, seeing,
and smelling. Asher and Simpson (1994: 5186) describe a verb as a member of
the word class traditionally defined as a ‘doing’ word, denoting an action or
states, for example
knows
,
give,
and
broke
. Verbs generally refer to actions,
events and processes.
There are two classes of verb forms. They are finite verb and non-finite
verb. According to Harman (1950: 93) a finite verb is one which asserts or
predicates and it is “limited” by person and number. A finite verb contains a form
of the verb, showing tense distinction between past and present, and being
associated with particular subject (first, second, third person, singular or plural)
(Jackson, 1982: 72), for example:
(5)
The
dog
runs.
(6)
I
drive
my motorcycle.
A non-finite verb is one which lacks the power to assert (Harman, 1950:
93). It is not limited by the person or the number of the subject. According to
Jackson, a non-finite verb consists a form of the verb i.e. the infinitive form
(usually with to), the present participle, or the past participle, for example:
(8)
I
want
to
go
home.
(9)
Going
along the road, we sang
.
(10)
Covered
with confusion, I
left
the room.
The non-fine verbs in sentence (8), (9), and (10) are
go, going,
and
covered.
c. Object
An object is a noun or noun equivalent (e.g. a clause) which is directed by
the actions of the verb, or to which a preposition indicates some relations
(Hornby, 1974: 557). Both Quirk (1973: 13) and Jackson (1982: 84) distinguish
two types of object: direct and indirect object. The indirect object normally refers
to a person, more particularly the person who is the recipient or who benefits from
the action. For example:
(11)
She
gives
me
a book.
The indirect object tends to be done for or received by the direct object.
The direct object is a word or group of words to which the verb carries the action
from the subject. For example in sentence (11), the direct object is
a book
while
the indirect object is
me
.
d. Complement
Mallery indicates complement as a word that completes the meaning of
complement: the subject complement and the object complement. The subject
complement has a straightforward relation to the subjects of their respective
sentences. While the object complement has a similar relation to a direct object.
The examples are:
(12)
Anne
is
the winner.
(13)
Tom
made
her
the winner
.
In
sentence
(12)
the winner
is the subject complement while in sentence
(13) function as the object complement.
e. Adverbial
The adverbial function is filled by an adverb (including adverb phrase),
noun phrase, prepositional phrase, finite verb clause, non-finite verb clause, and
verbless clause (Quirk
et al
, 1972: 420). Leech states that adverbials usually tell
something extra about the action, happening, or state which are described by the
rest of the sentence (1975: 197). Some of the examples are:
(14)
She
hurried
across the field.
(15)
We have to go
before it’s too late
.
2. Theory on Sentence Structure
Tense has an important position in English sentence structure. The term of
tense always influences the form of verb. By knowing the English sentence
structure, we can know the term of tense which is used in a sentence. According
consists of three elements such as a Complementizer Phrase (CP), Inflection
Phrase (IP), and Verb Phrase (VP).
According Dwijatmoko (2002: 55), a complementizer subcategorizes for a
sentence (S) and equals to an Inflection Phrase (IP). The concept of
complementizer is needed to label the presence of
that, whether/if,
and
for
in a
sub-clauses and the absence of those complementizers result ungrammatical
sentences, like in examples below:
(16)
Mr. Hayes suggests that Holy see a doctor.
*Mr. Hayes suggests Holly see a doctor.
The second element is Inflectional Phrase. The term inflection based on
Chomsky (1986b) theory (as cited in Dwijatmoko’s book, 2002: 57), only refers
to an affix which indicates the tense syntactic features, but since the inflection
does not only cover tense affixes {-es} and {-ed} but also participle affixes {-ing}
and {-en}, Dwijatmoko states that the term
tense
(TNS) will be used for the tense
affixes and
Part
will be used for both present participle {-ing} and past participle
{-en} affixes. Present participle {-ing} is used to show the progressive aspect and
past participle {-en} is used to show perfective aspect.
According to Dwijatmoko (2002: 57), besides the tense affixes {-es} and
{-ed}, modal auxiliary verbs like
will, can, must, would
, and
could
also indicate
tense. The present tense is indicated by
will, can
and
must
while
could
and
would
indicate the past tense. Therefore, TNS covers the present tense affix {-es} or
The third element is Verb phrase. As mentioned in the previous theory of
sentence element, a verb phrase (VP) is a phrase which has a verb as the head.
English verbs are usually classified into three classes: full verbs, linking verbs,
and auxiliary verbs. Full verbs comprise the largest number of verbs such as
go,
eat, plan, decide
, and
arrive
. The linking verbs form a small set of verbs, like
be,
become, feel, seem
, and
taste
. While the auxiliary verbs further classified into
modal auxiliary verbs, like
can, may, must
, and
will
, aspectual auxiliary verbs
be
and
have
, Auxiliary verb of voice be, and auxiliary verb of status do/does/did.
Those three classes of verb occupy different position in English sentence structure
Dwijatmoko, 2002: 37).
Before constructing the s-structure, we should know about the elements of
a sentence such as Noun Phrase (NP), Verb Phrase (VP), Adjective Phrase (AP),
Prepositional Phrase (PP), etc. Therefore, there is a theory which is used to
analyze the formation of phrases, called the X-bar theory. The X-bar theory is a
kind of theory in Universal Grammar (UG) and has a universal value
(Dwijatmoko, 2002:5). It means that the X-bar theory applies to all types of
phrases in all human language including English.
In the X-bar theory, any element of a syntactic unit which is not the head
is a phrase. A phrase is the maximal projection of a category. A maximal
projection is the representation in which all elements that occur in a phrase
appear. According to Dwijatmoko (2002: 6), a phrase may contain a head,
complement, attribute, adjunct, and a specifier as its elements. A complement is
can also be said to be a thing or person whom an action or state is directed as in
the example
the news on the Gulf War
.
On the Gulf War
is the complement of the
Noun Phrase. A piece of news always tells about some things and in the Noun
Phrase the news tells about the Gulf War.
The next elements are attribute and adjunct which show the characteristic
of a head. The difference between the attribute and adjunct lies in their positions.
An attribute comes before the head and an adjunct comes after the head, like in
the following examples
very good at the beginning
. The example is a kind of
Adjective Phrase (AP), the head is
good
, the attribute which comes before the
head is
very
, and the adjunct which comes after the head is
at the beginning
.
The following element in construction of a phrase is specifier. A specifier
is the element which a head requires to appear in a larger construction
(Dwijatmoko, 2002: 6). The specifier makes the phrase head more specific. For
example in a noun phrase, the specifier can be an article or genitive pronoun,
he
lost his dictionary
,
his
is the specifier in Noun phrase
his dictionary.
As stated before, a phrase is a maximal projection of a category. It means
that a phrase with a category X or XP as the maximal projection of the category
X. Based on Dwijatmoko (2002: 7), the letter X is used because the X-bar theory
is applicable to all phrase categories. It can stand for N (noun), V (verb), A
(adjective), P (preposition), or any category.
Every elements of a phrase such as a complement, attribute, adjunct, and
specifier have different relations with the head and show different functions, they
an X’. An attribute and an adjunct expand an X’ into another X’, and specifier
expands an X’ bar into an X” or a phrase (XP). The relationships of the elements
in a phrase are often shown in the following diagram.
XP (X”)
Specifier X’
X’ Adjunct
Attribute X’
X Complement
The relation between one element and another in a diagram can be called
daughter or sister. An element is a daughter of another element if it is under the
node of the other element. An element is a sister of another element if the two
elements are under the same node. With the terms daughter and sister the elements
which a head may have in a phrase in a diagram can be defined that a specifier is
the daughter of XP and the sister of X’. An Attribute is the daughter of X’, the
sister of another X’, and comes before the head. An adjunct is the daughter of X’,
the sister of another X’, and comes after the head. And the last, a complement is
Based on Dwijatmoko (2002: 68) in making s-structure, there are some
features that will be used, such as Complementizer phrase (CP), Tense phrase
(TNSP), Verb phrase (VP), Noun phrase (NP), Adjective phrase (AP), or
Preposition Phrase (PP). An English sentence (S’) is equal to a CP. Then C takes
TNSP which is equal to a sentence in zero bar level (S) as its complement, and
TNS takes VP as its complement. V may take another VP, NP, AP, or PP as its
complement. The NP, AP, PP may be fully developed with an NP as its specifier,
and form what are usually called as small clause. The above description can be
represented as in the following example;
(17)
John reads novel.
CP
-s [John read novel].
C’
C TNSP
NP
TNS’
John TNS VP
-s V’
V NP
Read Novels
3. Theory on Tenses, Aspect and Mood
The most basic element in an English sentence is the verb (Yule, 1998:
which often has to do with the location of a situation in time and aspect, which
characterizes the way in which the situation is perceived or experienced.
Tense is a verb form that expresses actions which occur on certain time in
the past, present, and future (Murcia & Freeman, 1983: 62). Basically there are
two main tenses in English: present and past. Each tense can have a simple form
and each can be combined with either progressive aspect or with perfective aspect
or with both (R.A. Close, 1977: 241). In most descriptions, the use of the modal
verb
will
is included, typically as an indication of future reference (Yule, 1998:
54).
Quirk (1985: 40) explains that time is universal, non-linguistic concept
with three divisions: past, present, and future. By tense, we could understand the
correspondence between the form of the verbs and our concept of time. The forms
of English tense are only present and past, but there are three divisions of time. In
order to balancing the divisions of time, the forms of tenses can be combined with
the aspect and mood. The aspect concerns about the manner in which the verbal
action experienced or regarded, while mood relates the verbal action to such
condition as certainty, obligation, necessity, possibility.
Tenses, Aspect and Mood are related one to another. In particular the
expression of time present and past can’t be considered separately from aspects
and the expression of future is closely bound up with moods. The forms of tense
which are combined with aspect and mood will be discussed later in the following
paragraph. Based on Quirk (1985: 41) with this small set of technical terms, the
a. Present Tense
Based on Quirk (1985:41), there are three basic types of present in
English:
i. Timeless
The type of timeless is usually expressed with the simple present form and
used for;
a.
Expressing
habitual
action
(18) I
(always)
write
with a special pen (when I sign my name).
b. Expressing universal statements/ general timeless truth, e.g. physical laws
or
customs.
(19) The
sun
sets
in the west
ii. Limited
The forms of the limited type are usually expressed by using the present
progressive. It is used for;
a. Indicating that the action is in process
(20) I
am writing
(on this occasion) with a special pen (since I have
mislaid
my
ordinary
one).
b. Indicating that the action is in limited duration/ called as temporary
activity (action will end and therefore lacks of permanence of the simple
present
tense)
(21) Normally
he
lives
in London, but at present he
is living
in Boston.
c. Indicating incompleteness (e.g. in a verb like
stop
whose action cannot in
(22) The
bus
is stopping
.
d. Indicating a habitual action and conveying an emotional coloring such as
irritation
(usually
with
an adverb of high frequency)
(23)
He’
s
always
writing
with a special pen – just because he likes to
be
different.
According to Quirk (1985:48) present progressive can also refer to a future
happening which is anticipated in the present. The basic meaning of it is fixed
arrangement, plan, or program’.
(24) He
is moving
to London
.
iii. Instantaneous
The instantaneous type is usually expressed with either the simple or
progressive forms.
(25)
Watch carefully now: first, I
write
with my ordinary pen; now, I
write
with a special pen.
(26)
As you see, I
am dropping
the stone into the water.
The using of simple present is regularly used in subordinate clauses that
are conditional (introduced by
if,
unless,
etc) or temporal (introduced by
as soon
as
,
before
,
when
, etc). The used of simple present in main clause may be said to
represent a marked future aspect of unusual certainty. In the other words, the
simple present tense can be used for;
a. Referring to a sequential habit in subordinate clause with the main verb is
in future time.
b. Referring to a conditional in a future time especially in the subordinate
clause.
(28)
What will you say if I
marry
my boss?
According to Murcia & Freeman (1983: 63), a simple present tense can
also be used for:
a. Describing about a present event/ action or speech act
(29)
I
resign
from the commission.
b. Describing a past events in narration (in conversation)
(30) “So
she
stands
up in the boat and
waves
his arms to catch our
attention.”
The other aspect in English language is perfective aspect. It can be
combined with present tense as well progressive aspect. Based on Murcia &
freeman (1983: 64), the using of present perfect form can be used for;
a. Referring to a situation that began in the past and that continuous into the
present.
(31) I
have been
a teacher since 1972.
b. Referring to a past experience with current relevance
(32) I
have already seen
that movie.
c. Referring to a very recently completed action
(33) Mort
has just finished
his homework.
d. Referring to an action that went on over time in the past and that is
completed with the moment of speaking
e. Referring to a conditional time in the subordinate clauses
(35) If
you
have done
your homework, you can watch TV.
A present tense can also be combined with the combination of progressive
aspect and also a perfective aspect. According to Murcia & freeman (1983: 65, the
form of present perfect progressive is used for;
a. Describing a situation or habit that began in the past (recent or distant)
and that continues up to present.
(36) I
have been living
in Seattle for 7 years
.
b. Describing the incompleteness of an action in progress
(37)
I
have been reading
a book.
According to Quirk (1985: 47), there is no obvious future tense in English
corresponding to the time/ tense relation for present and past. The expression of
the future is closely bound up with mood. Instead there are several possibilities for
denoting future time. It is rendered by means of modal auxiliaries or
semi-auxiliaries, or by simple present forms or progressive forms.
Quirk (1985:47) also mentioned that the patterns of simple future (will and
shall) is used to:
a. Refer to an action which takes place at some definite future time
(38) He
will walk
to school tomorrow
.
b. Refer to a future habitual action or future state
(39) Joel
will take
the bus to work next year.
c. Refer to a situation that may obtain in the present and will obtain in the
(40) Nora
will live
in Caracas until she finishes school.
d. Refer to the main clause in the future conditional sentence
(41)
If you go, you’
ll
be
sorry.
The form of progressive aspect can also be used to indicate the future time
in present tense. The term of future progressive indicates:
a. An action that will be in progress at a specific time in the near future
(42)
He
will be walking
to school at 9 a.m. tomorrow.
b. Duration of some specific future action
(43) Mavis
will be working
on her thesis for the next ten years.
The perfective aspect can also be combined to describe a future time. The
form of future perfect is giving information about:
a. A future action that will be completed prior to a specific future time
(44) I
will have finished
all this typing by 5 p.m.
b. A state or action that will be completed in the future prior to some other
future time or event (near or distant)
(45) He
will have walked
to school before you finish your breakfast.
Both of the perfective and progressive aspects can also be combined in the
same time to denote the future meaning. This pattern can be used for referring a
durative or a habitual action that is taking place in the present and that will
continue into the future up until or through a specific future time.
(46)
On Christmas Eve our family
will have been living
in Chicago for
b. Past Tense
Past tense has a simple form which can express a habitual activity
(sentence (47)) and also can be used to convey an action which takes place at a
particular point of time in the past (Quirk, 1985: 42), like in the sentence (48),
(47) He
always
wrote
with a special pen.
(48) I
wrote
my letter of 16 June 1972 with a special pen.
Past tense form can also indicate an action which takes place over a period of
time. And later the period may be seen as extending up to the present (sentence
(49)) or relating only to the past which can be viewed as having been completed
(sentence (50)) or as not having been completed (sentence (51)).
(49) I
have written
with a special pen since 1972.
(50) I
wrote with
a special pen from 1969 to 1972.
(51) I
was writing
poetry with a special pen.
Like present tense, past tense can also be combined with progressive
aspect or perfective aspect. The choice of perfective aspect is associated with
time-orientation and consequently also with various time-indicators such as
lately
,
since
,
so far
, etc. In here, the point of current relevance to which the past perfect
extends is a point in the past. Like in the following example,
(52) When I met him, John
had lived
in Paris for ten years.
According to Murcia & Freeman (1983:65), the form of past perfect can also be
used to explain a past conditional of imaginative events in the subordinate clause
The combination of past tense and the progressive aspect specifies the
limited duration of an action like in the present. It can be seen in the sentence (43)
(54) I
was writing
with a special pen for a period last night but my hand
grew
tired.
In consequence, past progressive can also indicate a past action which is
simultaneous with some other event.
(55) While
I
was writing
, the phone rang.
The progressive aspect can also express incomplete action by contrasting pair like
in the illustrated examples
(56) He read a book that evening (implies that he finished it)
(57)
He was reading a book that evening (implies that he did not finish
it)
According to Quirk (1985: 46) habitual activity may be expressed by the
progressive aspect but it entails that the habit is temporary like in sentence (47),
but the past progressive may also refer to pejorative habits like in sentence (48)
(58) At
that
time,
we
were bathing
every day.
(59) My
brother
was
always
losing
his keys.
The past perfect progressive tense is a combination of the perfective and
also progressive aspect with the past tense. Based on Murcia & Freeman
(1983:65), it has functions to:
a. Describe an action or habit which is taking place over a period of time in
(60) Carol
had been working
very hard, so her doctor told her to take a
vacation.
b. Describe a past action that is in progress but interrupted by another past
action.
(61) We
had been planning
to vacation in Nevada but changed our
minds when so much it got badly flooded.
Some of the future construction can be used in the past tense to express
time which is in the future when seen from a view point in the past (Quirk, 1985:
50). Some terms in past tense which indicate the future are:
a. Auxiliary verb construction with would
(62) The time was not far off when he
would regret
this decision.
b. Be going to-infinitive (often with the sense of unfulfilled intention)
(63) You
were going to give
me your address.
c.
Past
progressive
(64)
I
was meeting
him in Bordeaux in the next day.
d. Be + to-infinitive
(65) The
meeting
was to be held
the following week
e. Be about to-infinitive
(66)
He
was about to hit
me.
Besides the using of verb, there is also modal auxiliary in English
sentences. According to Halliday (1994: 75), modal auxiliaries are the speakers
judgments of the probability or the obligation involved in what he is saying.
may, shall
and
will
have special past forms
could, might, should
and
would
respectively. Furthermore the modal auxiliaries have close relations with English
moods. As stated by Curme (1966:235), there is a tendency to use the modal s in
expressing the mood because they have more shades of meanings and are more
effective in expressing moods.
According to Quirk
et al
(1985: 52-57), modal auxiliaries contain different
meanings.
Can
expresses ability (
be able to, be capable of, know how to
),
permission (
be allowed to, be permitted to
) and possibility (
it is possible that/to
),
while
could
expresses past ability, present or future permission, present
possibility, and contingent possibility or ability in unreal condition. Both of
may
and
might
shows permission and possibility (factual and theoretical). Quirk
et al
note that
shall
and
will
are used to show willingness, intention of the part of the
speaker (only for the first person) like in the
I shan’t be long,
insistence like in the
You do as I say,
and legal and quasi legal like in the
The vendor shall maintain the
equipment in good repair. Will
may also show predictions (specific prediction like
in
The game will be finished by now,
timeless prediction like in
oil will float in the
water,
and habitual predictions like in
he’ll (always) talk for hours if you give him
the chance
).
Modal auxiliary
would
is also used to show willingness, insistence,
characteristic activity in the past, contingent use in the main clause of a
conditional sentence and probability.
Should
is used to indicate the obligation and
logical necessity (
You should do as he says
), “putative” use after certain
clause with a conditional sub clause. Finally, both
must
and
ought to
can be used
to show obligation or compulsion and logical necessity.
Must
is usually used to
indicate the obligation or compulsion in the present tense, except in reported
speech (replaced by
had to
).
4. Theory on News
The news writing has different style of language from any other literature.
To differentiate the style of language in news writing, it is essential to review
some theories about what news is and the characteristic of news.
a. The News Story Elements
The typical news story is designed to convey news quickly, clearly and
unambiguously. According to Berner (1992: 29) a news story usually comprises
the element such as the lead, a time element, specific rather than general
information, sources, attribution in direct and indirect quotations, and sentences
and paragraphs.
i. The Lead
In the typical news story, the lead is in the first paragraph and usually no
more than one sentence. The lead concisely tells the reader or listener what the
story is about. The example of a lead as cited in United Press International:
ii. The Time Element
The time element tells when the news happened. Usually it is confined to a
day or a period in a day. In typical news story, tense is very relevant. By tense, we
could convey the time element. Most of the verbs are past tense (Berner,
1992:30).
A journalist can choose from a variety of tenses, all the variations of present, past
and future. But since by definition news is something that happened, past tense is
the appropriate tense for most news story. In the following lead, the time element
and past tense verbs are shown italic:
WASHINGTON (UPI)—Retired Chief Justice Warren Burger,
saying the law profession should “hang its head in shame,”
criticized
by
lawyers
Friday
and
urged
an attorneys group to determine whether
regulation is needed.
iii. Specific Information
Specific information allows the reader and listener to know exactly what
the story is about. The specific information includes names, ages, addresses, titles,
number of votes (Berner, 1992: 31). Here are the first two paragraphs from a story
on AIDS, the specific information is shown in italics:
GENEVA (UPI)—Global AIDS cases reported to the World
Health Organization rose by
8,973
or
3.5 percent
, in May to a
total of
263,051
, the U.N. agency said Friday.
The United States accounted for most of the increase with
6,309
cases
for
a total 132,436
, or
50.4 percent
of the world figure as May 31.
iv. Sources
The expert and the other people providing information in a story are called
The sources of a story should have names although sometimes sources have to be
anonymous. Sources can also be documents and other publications, and when a
journalist observes something and reports it, the journalist becomes a source. In
the previous story, the World Health Organization is the source. The other
example will be shown in italics:
ERROL, N.H. (UPI)—Observers watching the first pair of bald
eagles to nest in New Hampshire in more then 40 years report sighting at
least one eaglet,
a wildlife biologist
said Thursday.
Christ Martin, wildlife programs manager for the New Hampshire
Audubon Society
, said it is possible that chicks are in the nest. He said
observers, who check the nest near Umbaygog Lake several times a week,
probably will be able to determine the exact number of eaglets by
sometime next week.
v. Attribution
When a source is cited in a story, information is attributed to that source.
An attribution lets the reader or listener know where information came from. It is
clearly marked for the reader or listener by an attribution tag. The typical
attribution tag which commonly used in news story are “(person’s name) said” or
“according to (person’s name or document)” (Berner, 1992: 32). Attributed
information appears as either a direct quotation or an indirect quotation. This is
the example of a direct quotation with attribution tag.
“They beat them with their fist,”
a duty nurse said
of the Soviet
soldiers who broke into the hospital. She refused to give her name. “I was
afraid they will shoot me too.”
As in indirect quotation, the nurse’s exact words would be paraphrased, and where
the first-person pronoun appears, the paraphrased statement would be shifted to a
A duty nurse said
Soviet soldiers broke into a hospital and beat the
patients with their fists.
The nurse, who refused to give her name, said
she
was afraid the soldiers would also shoot her.
b. The Characteristic of News
There are eight indicators or characteristics of the news as noted by Pareno
(2003: 6-19, my translation). Firstly, the news is containing reports. The reports
are delivered by the reporters or journalists based on what has been said, seen or
done by from informants. Secondly, the news is informative. The information can
be the form of fact gained by reporters that is delivered to the public. Then, the
news must be new. A report that is made by the reporters or journalists must be
new, or currently, news that is out of date has been known by the public. Next, the
news which is reported must be true. In journalistic, it is important to
tell true not
truth
, it means that the reporters or journalists must tell the true story based on
statements of one or some figures that are admitted as related persons and have
some credible references. The story must be true in the form of fact whether in the
existence or the delivery of the fact.
The other characteristic is that the news must be neutral. In order to be
neutral, a reporter or a journalist must be justified. Then the report must be
factual. Further more, news must contain the news value. Some of the events that
have the news value are often related to the public interest or necessity. Lastly,
news must be attractive to the public.
Moreover about the characteristic of news, Miller (1969: 48-48) states that
the language of newspaper must be easy to understand, because it is read by
comfortable and supporting conditions. It is also read more hurried than any other
medium of communication. According to Miller (1969: 52), good news writing is
the one that has reporting sentences that go straight to the points.
c. Headline
As cited in www.wikipedia.org, a headline is text at the top of newspaper
article, indicating the nature of the article below it. According to Reddick (1941:
250), there are four purposes of the headlines. One purpose of the use of the
headlines is to provide a more pleasing appearance by offering a contrast between
headline type and body type. The second purpose is to classify news stories rank
of importance. In the front page of the newspaper, the more important stories have
the large headlines while the unimportant stories have small headlines. The third
purpose of the headlines is to present in skeleton form the most important facts of
the story. In here, the headlines must summary the important facts of the stories.
The last purpose according to Reddick is to advertise the news. A headline is used
to attract our intention, arouse our interest and lead us to read the story.
Reddick (1941: 256) also mentions that there are three important rules that
must be followed in writing the headlines. The firs rule is to use the historical
present tense instead of the past tense. The using of present tense gives the
impression of action which is taking place now. It emphasizes the element of
timeliness. In indicating the future action, the writer should use either the future
tense or and infinitive. For example,
“Roosevelt Will Speak in Chicago”
or
“Roosevelt to Speak in Chicago”
. The second rule is every deck of the headline
active voice in preference to the passive. The active voice lends vigor and life to a
headline. The exception of this rule should be made only when the person or thing
acted is more important than the agent of the action.
Reddick (1941: 260) states that the contents of the headlines should tell the
news as specifically and as definitely as possible, and tell as many important facts
as can be jammed into the space without making the headline appears crowded.
The journalists should not editorialize in the headlines and they should write
positive instead of negatives heads. And Reddick also states that the journalists
should not repeat the important words.
In
the
Journalism and the School Paper
, Reddick also describes that the
choice of words in the headlines are also important. In the headlines, the
