My thanks to Professor Mordecai Lee for helpful comments on an earlier draft.
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Notes
1. For a discussion of the suitability of the terms “Hebrew Bible” and “Old Testament,” see Robert Alter, “Introduction to the Old Testament,” in The Literary Guide to the Bible, by R. Alter and F. Kermode (Cambridge, Mass.:
Harvard University Press, 1987); and Burton L. Visotzky, Reading the Book:
Making the Bible a Timeless Text (New York: Anchor Books, 1991), chap. 2.
2. My thanks to Professor Mordecai Lee for helping me clarify this point, as well as other points in this chapter. See his “Bureaucracy in the Hebrew Bible: A Neglected Source of Public Administration History,” Public Voices 5, no. 1-2 (2002): 79–88.
3. Joseph Blenkinsopp, Gibeon and Israel: The Role of Gibeon and the Gibeo- nites in the Political and Religious History of Early Israel (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1972), 20.
4. See the introductions in the multivolume The Bible with Commentaries (in Hebrew) (Jerusalem: Mossad Harav Kook, 1971 –).
5. Robert B. Coote and Mary P. Coote, Power, Politics, and the Making of the Bible: An Introduction (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1990); Richard Elliott Friedman, Who Wrote the Bible? (New York: Harper and Row, 1987);
Norman K. Gottwald, The Tribes of Yahweh: A Sociology of the Religion of Liberated Israel, 1250–1050 B.C.E. (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1979);
Norman K. Gottwald, The Hebrew Bible: A Socio-Literary Introduction (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985); Aaron Wildavsky, The Nursing Father:
Moses as a Political Leader (University of Alabama Press, 1984); and Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman, The Bible Unearthed: Archeology’s New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts (New York:
Free Press, 2001).
6. Meir Sternberg, The Poetics of Biblical Narrative: Ideological Literature and the Drama of Reading (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), 64, 67.
7. This chapter employs the Jewish notation of B.C.E. (before the common era) and C.E. (common era), equivalent to the Christian B.C. and A.D. 8. For an introduction to some of the arguments relevant to whether certain
books should or should not be included in the biblical canon, see John H. Hayes, An Introduction to Old Testament Study (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1979), chap. 1.
9. Baruch Halpern, The Emergence of Israel in Canaan (Chico, Calif.: Scholars Press, 1983), 239.
10. Thomas L. Thompson and Dorothy Irvin, “The Joseph and Moses Narra- tives,” in Israelite and Judaean History, Eds. John H. Hayes and J. Maxwell Miller (London: SCM Press, 1977), 149–212.
11. Albrecht Alt, “The Settlement of the Israelites in Palestine,” in Essays on Old Testament History and Religion, trans. R. A. Wilson (Garden City, N.Y.:
Doubleday, 1967).
12. Siegfried Herrmann, Israel in Egypt (London: SCM Press, 1973).
13. Baruch Halpern, The First Historians: The Hebrew Bible and History (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1988), 5, 61.
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14. Joel Rosenberg, King and Kin: Political Allegory in the Hebrew Bible (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986), 102. For a skeptical view of the history that can be found in the Bible, see Northrop Frye, The Great Code: The Bible and Literature (San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1983), 42.
15. Martin Buber, “The Man of Today and the Jewish Bible” and “The Faith of Judaism,” in Israel and the World: Essays in a Time of Crisis (New York:
Schocken Books, 1963); Gershom Scholem, Sabbatei Sevi: The Mystical Messiah, trans. R. J. Zwi Werblowsky (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1973), 117.
16. H. Mark Roelofs, “Hebraic-Biblical Political Thinking,” Polity 20, no. 4 (summer 1988): 572–97; and Mark Roelofs, “Liberation Theology: The Recovery of Biblical Radicalism,” American Political Science Review 82, no.
2 (June 1988): 549–66.
17. Paul D. Hanson, Old Testament Apocalyptic (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1987).
18. John Goldingay, “The Stories in Daniel: A Narrative Politics,” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 37 (February 1987): 99–116.
19. Hugh J. Schonfield, The Passover Plot (London: Corgi Books, 1967), 74.
Schonfield’s book is not innocent of serious scholarship, although its main argument ought to be viewed as fanciful speculation.
20. Edwin M. Good, Irony in the Old Testament (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1965).
21. Josh. 23:9–13; Judg. 2:20–21. See T.E. Fretheim, Deuteronomic History (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1983); and J. Maxwell Miller, “The Israelite Occupation of Canaan,” in Israelite and Judaean History, Eds. John H.
Hayes and J. Maxwell Miller (London: SCM Press, 1977), 213–84.
22. E. W. Heaton, The Hebrew Kingdoms (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1968), 21.
23. 1 Sam. 15:3.
24. E. W. Heaton, The Hebrew Kingdoms (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1968), 217.
25. Cardinal John Henry Newman as quoted in Aaron Wildavsky, The Nursing Father: Moses as a Political Leader (University: University of Alabama Press, 1984), 11.
26. Robert M. Grant with David Tracy, A Short History of the Interpretation of the Bible (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1984), 28.
27. For a view that the book was composed by Isaiah and his students or listeners, see Amos Chacham, The Book of Isaiah (in Hebrew) (Jerusalem:
Mossad Harav Kook, 1984).
28. Amos Chacham, The Book of Isaiah (in Hebrew) (Jerusalem: Mossad Harav Kook, 1984), 13–17.
29. Edwin M. Good, Irony in the Old Testament (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1965), chap. 5.
30. Herman C. Waetjen, A Reordering of Power: A Sociopolitical Reading of Mark’s Gospel (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1989), 20.
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31. John Dart, The Jesus of Heresy and History: The Discovery and Meaning of the Nag Hammadi Gnostic Library (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1988), 102.
32. Robert Davidson, The Courage To Doubt: Exploring an Old Testament Theme (London: SCM Press, 1983), 13; Roger Tomes, “The Psalms,” in Creating the Old Testament: The Emergence of the Hebrew Bible, Ed.
Stephen Bigger (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1989), 251–67; James A. Sanders,
“Isaiah in Luke,” in Interpreting the Prophets, Eds. James Luther Mays and Paul J. Achtemeier (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1987), 75–85; Thomas M.
Raitt, “Jeremiah in the Lectionary,” in Interpreting the Prophets, Eds. James Luther Mays and Paul J. Achtemeier (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1987), 143–56. Passages about the suffering servant in the Book of Isaiah, for example, offered answers for Christians concerned to explain the Jews’
rejection of Jesus.
33. “Book of Moses,” in The Pearl of Great Price (Salt Lake City: Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, 1982).
34. Stephen Bigger, “A Muslim Perspective” and “Moses,” in Creating the Old Testament: The Emergence of the Hebrew Bible, Ed. Stephen Bigger (Oxford:
Basil Blackwell, 1989), 37–43, 117–34.
35. On the weakness of Israel and its implication for the character of the Bible, see Susan Niditch, Underdogs and Tricksters: A Prelude to Biblical Folklore (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1987).
36. This section relies on the author’s work: Ira Sharkansky, Ancient and Modern Israel: An Exploration of Political Parallels (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1991).
37. For more complete development of the themes described here, see the author’s work: Ira Sharkansky, Israel and Its Bible: A Political Analysis (New York: Garland Publishing, 1996).
38. Charles H. McIlwain, Constitutionalism, Ancient and Modern (Ithaca, N.Y.:
Cornell University Press, 1947); J. Ronald Pennock and John W. Chapman, Eds., Constitutionalism (New York: New York University Press, 1977); John Patrick Kirscht, Dimensions of Authoritarianism: A Review of Research and Theory (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1967); Amos Perlmutter, Modern Authoritarianism: A Comparative Institutional Analysis (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981).
39. See, for example, Joachim Jeremias, Jerusalem in the Time of Jesus: An Investigation into Economic and Social Conditions during the New Testa- ment Period (London: SCM Press, 1969); and Leon Epsztein, Social Justice in the Ancient Near East and the People of the Bible (London: SCM Press, 1986). The Bible itself alludes to problems of implementing norms of justice, including: oppressive government (Eccles. 5:8), priests who were scoundrels (1 Sam. 2:12–17), and corrupt judges (Prov. 24:23–25).
40. Deut. 17:14–17.
41. 1 Sam. 8:11–18.
42. 1 Sam. 16.
43. 1 Sam. 24–26.
44. 1 Sam. 24:4.
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45. 1 Sam. 26:12.
46. 1 Sam. 13:5–7.
47. 1 Sam. 13:5–14 48. 1 Sam. 15.
49. Adin Steinsaltz, Biblical Images: Men and Women of the Book (New York:
Basic Books, 1984).
50. Exod. 32:24.
51. Exod. 20:2–4.
52. David M. Gunn, The Fate of King Saul: An Interpretation of a Biblical Story (Sheffield, U.K.: Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series, 14, 1984); Meir Shalev, The Bible Now (in Hebrew) (Jerusalem:
Schocken, 1985), 65–73; John A. Sanford, King Saul, The Tragic Hero: A Study in Individuation (New York: Paulist Press, 1985); and Adin Steinsaltz, Biblical Images: Men and Women of the Book (New York: Basic Books, 1984), chap. 16.
53. 1 Sam. 22:2; 23:13.
54. 1 Sam. 25:2–44.
55. 1 Sam. 27:6.
56. 1 Sam. 28:1–2.
57. 1 Sam. 29:1–5.
58. 1 Sam. 29:8.
59. 1 Sam. 29:10–11.
60. 2 Sam. 3.
61. 2 Sam. 3:26–33.
62. 2 Sam. 12:28.
63. 2 Sam. 2–4.
64. 2 Sam. 18:14.
65. For a description of this as a coup d’état, see Tryggve N. D. Mettinger, Solomonic State Officials: A Study of the Civil Government Officials of the Israelite Monarchy (Lund, Sweden: CWK Gleerup, 1971), 121.
66. 1 Kings 1:4.
67. Walter Brueggemann, David’s Truth: In Israel’s Imagination and Memory (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985), 15–16.
68. 2 Sam. 23:1–7.
69. 1 Kings 2:6.
70. Exod. 5:1.
71. Exod. 6:2–8.
72. Exod. 7:3–6.
73. Exod. 20:16.
74. Exod. 13:17.
75. 2 Sam. 12:7.
76. 2 Sam. 12.
77. 1 Kings 1; and Tryggve N. D. Mettinger, Solomonic State Officials: A Study of the Civil Government Officials of the Israelite Monarchy (Lund, Sweden:
CWK Gleerup, 1971).
78. The story is repeated in 2 Chron. 18.
79. 1 Kings 22:6.
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80. 1 Kings 22:8.
81. 1 Kings 22:17.
82. 1 Kings 22:27.
83. 1 Kings 22:28.
84. John Bright, Jeremiah: The Anchor Bible (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1965), xlvi.
85. Jer. 7:25–27.
86. Jer. 19:8–9.
87. Jer. 20:4–5.
88. Jer. 29:26–27.
89. Bright, Jeremiah, introduction.
90. Jer. 26:20–24.
91. Jer. 28, 29.
92. Jer. 37:11–16.
93. Jer. 38:2–4.
94. Jer. 38:14–28.
95. Robert Gordis, Koheleth: The Man and His Work: A Study of Ecclesiastes (New York: Schocken Books, 1968), 123. For a political commentary on Job, see William Safire, The First Dissident: The Book of Job in Today’s Politics (New York: Random House, 1992).
96. Isa. 3:10–11 97. Ps. 37:25.
98. See, in particular, Job 2:3.
99. On the theological problematics inherent in the characters of God and Satan as portrayed in Job, see David Penchansky, The Betrayal of God:
Ideological Conflict in Job (Louisville, Ky.: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1990).
100. Job 38–41.
101. Job 40:4–5.
102. Moshe Greenberg, “Job,” in The Literary Guide to the Bible, Eds. Robert Alter and Frank Kermode (London: Fontana Press, 1987), 283–304.
103. Edwin M. Good, In Turns of Tempest: A Reading of Job (Stanford, Calif.:
Stanford University Press, 1990).
104. Eccles. 3:1–8.
105. Eccles. 2:13; 3:12; 4:6; 7:11–17.
106. Eccles. 5:8. See Robert Davidson, The Courage to Doubt: Exploring an Old Testament Theme (London: SCM Press, 1983), 191–2.
107. Eccles. 6:11. The Hebrew of this passage employs a word that can be rendered as “thing” or “word.” The King James translation is, “Seeing there be many things that increase vanity, what is man the better?” The New English Bible translation is, “The more words one uses the greater is the emptiness of it all; and where is the advantage to a man?”
108. Eccles. 12:12.
109. Eccles. 3:11.
110. Eccles. 1:4.
111. Eccles. 8:13.
112. Eccles. 12:13–14.
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113. Eccles. 7:16–17; 8:14–17; 9:2–6.
114. Eccles. 10:4.
115. Eccles. 11:9–10.
116. Eccles. 7:15.
117. Eccles. 8:5.
118. Daniel J. Elazar and Stuart A. Cohen, p. 9.
119. Lionel Kochan, Jews, Idols and Messiahs: The Challenge from History (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1990), 15.
120. See, for example, Exod. 19:7–19; Josh. 24:16, 22.
121. Deut. 8:2; 9:5–6.
122. Deut. 30:15; Josh. 24:20.
123. See, for example, Lev. 26:40–45; Josh. 24:19.
124. Abba Hillel Silver, Where Judaism Differs: An Inquiry into the Distinctive- ness of Judaism (New York: Collier Books, 1989), chap. 2.
125. J. Maxwell Miller and John H. Hayes, A History of Ancient Israel and Judah (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1986), 474.
126. Ezra 10:44. For another reading of the biblical episode, see John Bright, A History of Israel (London: SCM Press, 1980), 388.
127. Judg. 21:25.
128. 1 Kings 5:5.
129. Matt. 3:7.
130. Matt. 15:14.
131. Matt. 23:1.
132. Luke 23.
133. Matt. 28:11.
134. Acts 14.
135. Acts 24–25.
136. Amos 5:22–24.
137. Luke 6:21–22.
138. John 8:8.
139. Exod. 23:2. See Joel Roth, The Halakhic Process: A Systemic Analysis (New York: Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 1986), chaps. 5–7.
140. Exod. 21:24.
141. Isa. 11:4.
142. Matt. 5:7–10.
143. Isa. 2:11.
144. Sanhedrin 37a, Bava Batra 11a.
145. An English translation by C.R. Joy has been published as: Albert Schweitzer, The Psychiatric Study of Jesus: Exposition and Criticism (Boston: Beacon Press, 1968).
146. Haim Cohen, The Trial and Death of Jesus (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1972).
147. Holger Kersten and Elmar R. Gruber, The Jesus Conspiracy: The Turin Shroud and the Truth about the Resurrection (Shaftesbury, Dorset, U.K.:
Element, 1992).
Au: Facts of publication?
(This is the only citation of this work, so the short- ened form is not appropri- ate.)
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148. John Dart, The Jesus of Heresy and History: The Discovery and Meaning of the Nag Hammadi Gnostic Library (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1988), chap. 18.
149. John Dominic Crossan, Jesus: A Revolutionary Biography (San Francisco:
HarperCollins, 1994).
150. Ha’aretz (in Hebrew), 11 November 1997, p. 8.
151. Leonard Dinnerstein, Anti-Semitism in America (New York: Oxford Uni- versity Press, 1994).
152. For example, see Norman Golb, Who Wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls? The Search for the Secret of Qumran (New York: Scribner’s, 1995).
153. Matt. 26–27.
154. 1 Kings 22.
155. Amos 7:14.
156. Jer. 23:14; 28:16–17; 29:21–23.
157. 1 Kings 22:28.
158. Amos 7:10–17.
159. Jer. 26:20–23.
160. Ephraim E. Urbach, The Sages: Their Concepts and Belief, trans. Israel Abrahams (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1987), 559.
161. 1 Kings, 18, 19.
162. Ephraim E Urbach, The Sages: Their Concepts and Belief, trans. Israel Abrahams (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1987), 564 ff.
163. David C. Leege and Lyman A. Kellstedt, Eds., Rediscovering the Religious Factor in American Politics (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E Sharpe, 1993); Kenneth D. Wald, Religion and Politics in the United States (Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 1992); Stephen D. Johnson and Joseph B. Tamney, Eds., The Political Role of Religion in the United States (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1986);
Robert Wuthnow, The Restructuring of American Religion (Princeton, N.J.:
Princeton University Press, 1988); R. Laurence Moore, Selling God: Amer- ican Religion in the Marketplace of Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994); and Michael J. Lacey, Ed., Religion and Twentieth-Century American Intellectual Life (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989).
164. Time, 6 February 1995, 48; and Kenneth D. Wald, Religion and Politics in the United States (Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 1992), 12.
165. Harold Bloom, The American Religion: The Emergence of the Post-Christian Nation (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992).
166. Linda Feldmann, “Campaigning for President … or for Preacher?: Public’s Concern over Values Leads Candidates to Wear Their Religion on Their Sleeves,” Christian Science Monitor, 8 June 1999; http//www.csmoni- tor.com.
167. Daniel J. Harrington, “The Jewishness of Jesus: Facing Some Problems,”
Catholic Biblical Quarterly 49, no. 1 (January 1987): 1–13.
168. Leslie Houlden, Ed., Judaism and Christianity (London: Routledge, 1988), 2.
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