the Committee in one or another of the d r a f t stages which preceded the final preparation of the report. The list includes those who supplied written reviews and those who participated in the meeting at Colorado Springs, mentioned in the Preface. The help of all is most gratefully appreciated.
Bibliographic entries are selectively annotated and in many cases accompanied by a citation to the review of the book or article in Computing Reviews. This is of the form "CR volume, number (year) review number."
UA8. Systems Concepts and Implications (3-0-3)
Gerald St. AmandLloyd J. Buckwell William K. Daugherty Harold J: Highland Hugh R. Howson P. Jin
Boulton B. Miller Andy S. Phillippakis Ralph Sprague
William M. Taggart Jr.
Norman Taylor Gerald Wagner Lawrence Wergin Theodore C. Willoughby Howard Wilson William Windham Philip Wolitzer Leon Youssef References
1. Teichroew, D. (Ed.) Education related to the use of computers in organizations (Position Paper—ACM Curriculum Committee on Computer Education for Management). Comm. ACM 14, 9 (Sept. 1971), 573-588. Reprinted in 1AGJ. 4 (1971), 220-252.
2. Ashenhurst, R.L. (Ed.) Curriculum recommendations for graduate professional programs in information systems. Comm.
ACM 15, 5 (May 1972), 365-398.
3. Hammond, J.O. Planning data processing education to meet job requirements. Proc. AFIPS 1972 SJCC, Vol. 40, AFIPS Press, Montvale, N.J., pp. 59-67. CR 23, 10(71)874.
4. Tomorrow's manpower needs. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Bull.
1606, U.S. Dep. of Labor, Feb.1969, Vol. 1, App. A.
5. Occupational manpower and training needs. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Bull. 1701, U.S. Dep. of Labor, 1971.
6. Hamblen, J .W. Production and utilization of computer manpower in U.S. higher education. Proc. AFIPS 1972 SJCC, Vol.
40, AFIPS Press, Montvale, N.J., pp. 637-632.
7. Gilchrist, B., and Weber, R.W. Sources of trained computer personnel—A quantitative survey. Proc. AFIPS 1972 SJCC, Vol.
40, AFIPS Press, Montvale, N.J., pp. 633-647.
8. McKenney, J.L., and Tonge, F.M. The state of computer oriented curricula in business schools 1970. Comm. ACM 14, 7 (July 1971), 443-448.
9. Couger, J.D. Updating the survey on computer uses and computer curriculum. Computing Newsletter for Schools of Business, Colorado Springs, Colo., Oct. 1970, p. 1.
10. Brightman, R.W. (Ed.) The Computer and the Junior College:
Curriculum, American Association of Junior Colleges. One Dupont Circle, N.W., Washington, DC 20036, 1970.
11. Couger, J.D. Guide to audio/visual instruction in data processing. Computing Newsletter for Schools of Business, Colorado Springs, Colo. (May issues, 1971, 1972, 1973).
training. Impact on industrial occupations, clerical occupations and on managerial occupations.
7. Effects on organizational practice (5%)
Centralization versus decentralization. Patterns of obtaining and providing services. Legal requirements. Possibilities for in- dividualization. Effect on capacity to and rate of change.
8. Privacy and the quality of life (15%)
Public and private data banks, Rights of privacy. Relation of the individual to organizational data systems. Consumer protection.
Influence on the educational process. Influence on the political process. Systems for administering justice, welfare, health care.
References: N o single text is available for this course, but there are extensive references from varied sources.
1. The systems concept: Ackoff (1970); AckofT (1971); Cleland and King (1968); F.E. Emery (1969); J.C. Emery (1969); For- rester (1961); Schoderbek (1967); Simon (1969).
2. Defining a system: Blumenthal (1969); Churchman et al.
(1957); Cleland and King (1968).
3. System analysis: Churchman et al. (1957); Churchman (1968);
J.C. Emery (1969); Forrester (1961).
4. Management systems: Ackoff (1967); AckofiF (1970); Blu- menthal (1969); Churchman et al. (1957); Schoderbek (1967);
Starr (1971).
5. Management information systems: Ackoff (1967); Benjamin (1971); Blumenthal (1969); Dearden (1972); J.C. Emery (1969);
Krauss (1970).
6. Historical perspective of the computer industry: K e l s o n e t a l . (1967); Martin and Norman (1970); Rosenberg (1971); Sharpe (1969); Taviss (1970); Viavant (1971); Westin (1971).
7. Effects on organizational practice: Leavitt and Whistler (1958);
Martin and Norman (1970); Pylyshyn (1970); Withington (1970).
8. Privacy and the quality of life: Greenberger (1971); Hoffman (1969); Martin and Norman (1970); Miller (1971); Pylyshyn (1970); Taviss (1970).
Bibliography: The references are to the combined bibliography given at the end of Course Groups UA and U D .
UD8. Information Systems Analysis (3-1-3)
Prerequisites: UA8, U C 2 or UC8.Approach: This is the first course in the sequence of two that covers systems development. The course begins with a study of the decision-making process and levels of decision making to provide a framework for the information system. This course emphasizes the information analysis and the logical design of the system, while course U D 9 covers the physical design. Emphasis should be placed on the iterative nature of the analysis and design process.
Exercises and case studies (from the Intercollegiate Case Clearing House) are used to give students proficiency in informa- tion analysis techniques; however, the next course, UD9, provides practical application in system development and implementation.
Of particular relevance are cases relying upon the analysis of the material, with interactive time-shared models to improve the student's understanding of the manager/computer interaction.
Field trips to organizations with sophisticated information systems are useful in reinforcing concepts.
Content:
1. Nature of the decision-making process ( 2 5 % )
Informal and formal channels of communication. Defining decisions. Decision criteria. Traditional decision making. Pro- grammed decision making. Management-by-exception. External versus internal information sources and constraints. Manager/
computer interactive systems: technical and behavioral considera- tions. System outputs: printed, audio, graphic.
2. Operational, tactical and strategic level systems ( 1 0 % ) Providing for information needs of operating level super- visors and their employees; middle management; of executive level management. Effect of centralized versus decentralized or- ganization structure. Planning and control models. Management information systems. Integrating systems.
3. System life cycle management ( 1 0 % )
Overview of the phases of system development and their in- terrelationships. Conception, information analysis, system design, programming, documentation, installation, reevaluation.
Project control for system development. Levels of sophistica- tion in system design. Responsibilities of system analysts, system
108
designers, programmers, operators, and data processing manage- ment.
4. Basic analysis tools ( 2 5 % )
Steps in analysis: preliminary investigation, general feasibility study, general system proposal, detailed analysis. Techniques for analysis, such as: event-oriented organizational flowcharts, de- cision tables, precedence network analysis.
5. Defining logical system requirements ( 1 5 % )
Format of the system requirements statement. Distinction of logical design (of system) from physical design (of files, programs, and procedures). System output requirements: specification of output methods and formats. System documentation require- ments. System specification techniques: manual techniques; semi- automated techniques.
6. Determining economics of alternative systems (15%)
Manual versus automated parts of systems. Determining ele- ments for common data bases. Data management alternatives.
Response needs versus economic hardware/software and organi- zational constraints. Cost and value of information. Identifying and quantifying costs of system: personnel costs, equipment costs, conversion costs, installation costs. Identifying, quantifying, and measuring system advantages: direct and indirect benefits. Ana- lyzing the improved quality of information. Allocation of costs and pricing of computer services.
References:
1. Nature of the decision making process: A c k o f f ( 1 9 7 0 ) ; B l u m e n - thal (1969); Canning (1970d); Forrester (1961); LeBreton (1969);
Miller and Starr (1967); Morton (1971).
2. Operational, tactical and strategic level systems: A c k o f f ( 1 9 7 0 ) ; Blumenthal (1969); Canning (1968b); Schrieber (1970).
3. System life cycle management: B e n j a m i n ( 1 9 7 1 ) ; G l a n s e t a l . (1968); Hartman et al. (1968).
4. Basic analysis tools: Chapin (1971); Couger (1973); H a r t m a n et al. (1968); Pollack et al. (1971).
5. Defining logical system requirements: C l i f t o n ( 1 9 7 0 ) ; C o u g e r (1973); Gray (1969); Glans et al. (1968); Hartman et al. (1968);
Teichroew (1971).
6. Determining economics of alternative systems: C o u g e r ( 1 9 7 3 ) ; Emery (1971); Joslin (1971); Martin (1965); Martin (1969); Olle (1970); Rubin (1970c); Sharpe (1969).
UD9. System Design and Implementation (3-1-3)
Prerequisites: U D 8 and UC9 or UC3.Approach: This course is the second covering the system life cycle, thus continuing the thrust of course U D 8 . The lectures focus on underlying principles of system design as well as on techniques.
The techniques are utilized in the project. A theme to be carried throughout the course is the iterative nature of the analysis and design process. Implementation and conversion problems are also considered.
Case studies should be used as appropriate. Laboratory exer- cises should include the use of computer-assisted methods for system design.
Students are assigned a small project on a module of a large system development project. The projects involve the complete system development cycle: analysis, design, programming, and implementation. Students work in teams to acquire practical ex- perience in such projects, especially regarding the behavioral considerations in systems development. They work with users to define system requirements and to prepare implementation plans and procedures.
Content:
1. Basic design tools and objectives ( 1 0 % )
Review of the system life cycle. Documentation of various levels of design. Objectives: performance, internal control. Types of system design: batch, interactive. Budgeting and project man- agement.
2. Hardware/software selection and evaluation ( 5 % )
Equipment selection —evaluation of hardware and software requirements. Automated evaluation techniques -simulation, analytical models/Cost analyses. Competitive bidding.
3. Design and engineering of software ( 2 0 % )
Design modularity. Design of user interfaces with automated procedures. Standardization of subsystem designs—data collection
editing, processing, and retrieval. D a t a and production controls.
Audit trails. Internal and external accounting within the system.
Conversion subsystems. H u m a n engineering.
4. Data base development {15%)
D a t a base construction—creation, structure, maintenance, and_
interrogation of data bases. Integrity of the data base. Review and use of C 3 course material on data base management systems.
5. System implementation (10%)
Levels of testing and debugging: planning and executing con- version; management of programming, testing, and installation.
Coordination of manual and automated procedures. Techniques for cutover (parallel operation, etc.); implementation schedules.
6. Post implementation analyses (5%)
Auditing system performance: costing of system development effort and system performance.
7. Long-range system planning (5%)
Trends in information system design. Integrating several sys- tems into a corporate MIS. Long-range forecasting of information requirements.
8. System development projects (30%)
Under supervision of the systems analysis staff, students could develop a subsystem for one of the major modules of a computer- based management information system of a local firm. Students might also work as members of established client companies' teams, or under the supervision of the university administrative data processing unit, students could develop a system which would provide them experience and at the same time benefit the university.
Examples are: alumni record and follow-up system, bookstore ordering/accounting, classroom scheduling system. O r students could develop a system for a hypothetical application.
As an example, a case (SRA) currently available provides students with experience in each phase of system development for a hypothetical electronics firm. The material is organized into 13 assignments: orientation, documentation, written procedure, system flowcharts, gathering information, classification and coding, printed output source documents and punched cards, records design, data controls, run controls, audit trails, and file organiza- tion.
References: In addition to the references below, the references listed for courses U C 3 and U C 4 are particularly relevant for topics 2, 3, and 4.
1. Basic design tools and objectives: Benjamin (1971) Sec. 4;
Hartman et al. (1968).
2. Hardware/software selection and evaluation: Couger (1973);
Gregory and Van H o r n (1963); Head (1971); Joslin (1971); Martin (1965); Martin (1967); Martin (1969); Sharpe (1969) Sec. 4;
Sutherland (1971).
3. Designing and engineering software: Martin (1965); Martin (1967) Sec. 6; Matthews (1971) Ch. 5 - 7 ; Pollack et al. (1971);
Rosen (1967); Rubin (1970c); Teichroew a n d - S a y a n i (1971).
4. Data base development: C O D A S Y L (1971); Flores (1970);
G U I D E / S H A R E (1970); Gildersleeve (1971); Lyon (1971);
Martin (1967) Ch. 22.
5. System implementation: Benjamin (1971); H a r t m a n et al.
(1968); Martin (1965); Matthews (1971) Ch. 13.
6. Post implementation analyses: Benjamin (1971); H a r t m a n et al.
(1968); Matthews (1971) Ch. 11.
7. Long-range system planning: Blumenthal (1969).
8. Development of a system for a local firm: Blumenthal (1969) Ch. 3, 4; Development of a system for a university/college: Johnson and Katzenmeyer (1969) Pt. 3. Development of a system for a hy- pothetical application: Science Research Associates (1970).
Combined Bibliography—Courses U A - U D
Ackoff, R.L. (1967) Management misinformation systems. Manage- ment Science 14, 4, B- 147-56.
A paper outlining the systems concept and the problems result- ing when the systems approach is ignored in the development of information systems.
Ackoff, R . L . (1970) A Concept of Corporate Planning. Wiley, New York.
N o t e especially C h . 6, " C o n t r o l , " in which Ackoff argues that the Management Information System is but a subsystem of the Management System.
Ackoff, R. L. (1971) Towards a system of systems concepts. Man- agement Science 17, 11, 661-71.
An exposition of the concepts and terms "used to talk a b o u t systems," with particular attention given to organizations.
Ansoff, H.I. (1965) Corporate Strategy. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Benjamin, R.I. (1971). Control of the Information System Develop- ment Cycle. Wiley, New York.
Introduction to the system life cycle and its possible evolutions.
Blumenthal, S.C. (1969) Management Information Systems: A Framework for Planning and Development. Prentice-Hall.
Englewood ClifTs, N.J., CR10, 10(69) 17,647.
A highly individual and idiosyncratic attempt to apply " t h e systems planning" approach to the development of manage- ment information systems. N o t e especially Ch. 3 " T h e Systems T a x o n o m y of an Industrial C o r p o r a t i o n . "
Brandon, R. (1963) Management Standards for Data Processing.
Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. CR 5, 5(64)6162.
Canning, R . G . (1968b) Systematic methods for business planning.
EDP Analyzer 6, 3.
Canning, R . G . (1970d) Progressive fast response systems. EDP Analyzer 8, 8.
Chapin, N. (1971) Flowcharts. Auerbach, Princeton, N.J. CR 12, 12(71)22, 295.
Covers program flowcharts, system flowcharts, computer- produced flowcharts, ANSI Standard flowcharts.
Churchman, C.W., Ackoff, R.L., and Arnoff, E.L. (1957) Introduc- tion to Operations Research. Wiley, New York.
N o t e especially Ch. 2 " A n Operations Research Study of a System as a Whole" and Ch. 7 "Construction and Solution of the Models."
Churchman, C.W. (1968) The Systems Approach. Dell Books, New York.
N o t e especially. "Supplement I I " in which C h u r c h m a n sug- gests additional readings and comments on the history of the systems approach, beginning with the statement that " P l a t o ' s Republic is a famous systems-science b o o k . "
Cleland, D.I., and King, W.R. (1968) Systems Analysis and Project Management. McGraw-Hill, New York. CR 10, 4 (69)16, 532.
N o t e especially Ch. 6 "Planning-Programming-Budgeting a n d Systems Analysis."
Clifton, D . H . (1970) Systems Analysis for Business Data Processing.
Auerbach, Princeton, N.J. CR 12, 4(71) 20, 952.
An introductory book on system analysis and design.
C O D A S Y L Systems Committee (1971) Feature Analysis of General- ized Data Base Management Systems. Technical report, avail- able from A C M , New York.
See annotation in bibliography for Course G r o u p C.
Couger, J.D. (1973) System Analysis Techniques. Wiley, New York.
A collection of articles on system analysis techniques, describing approaches which concentrate on concepts and principles of system analysis and cost/effectiveness analysis.
Davis, G . (1968) Auditing and E.D.P. Wiley, New York.
Dearden, J. (1972) MIS is a mirage. Harvard Bus. Rev. ( J a n . - F e b . ) , 90-99.
An attack on the concept of " T h e Management I n f o r m a t i o n System," arguing that a single, integrated information system cannot be devised.
Emery, F. E. (Ed.) (1969) Systems Thinking: Selected Readings.
Penguin Books, New York.
Emphasizes systems thinking as developed f r o m theorizing about biological systems to social systems rather than that which came f r o m the design of complex engineering systems.
Concentrates on " o p e n systems" (open to exchange with an environment) and adaptive behavior.
Emery, J.C. (1969) Organizational Planning and Control Systems:
Theory and Technology. Crowell Collier a n d Macmillan, N e w York.
An analysis of multilevel planning and control and the develop- ment of a supporting information system. N o t e especially Ch. 1
" T h e Systems Concept," Ch. 2 " T h e Organization as a Sys- t e m , " and Ch. 3 " T h e Technology of Information Systems."
Emery, J.C. (1971) Cost/Benefit Analysis of Information Systems- The Society for Management Information Systems, Chicago- Flores, I. (1970) Data Structure and Management. Prentice-Hall.
Englewood Cliffs, N . J . CR 12, 4(71)20,916.
Forrester, J. W. (1961) Industrial Dynamics. M I T Press, C a m - bridge, Mass.
Gildersleeve, T . R . (1971) Design of Sequential File Systems Wiley, New York.
Covers the design of files and strategies for sequential storage media.
Glans, T.B., G r a d , B., Holstein, D., Meyers, W.E., and Schmidt, F.N. (1968) Management Systems. Holt, Rinehart and Win- ston. New York.
A detailed treatment of the initial stages of the system life cycle—analysis and design of the system. Includes concepts first published by IBM entitled "Study Organization Plan."
G r a y , M., and London, K . R . (1969) Documentation Standards.
Brandon/Systems Press, Princeton, N . J . CR 10, 9(68)17,373.
The first book developed exclusively for this subject: covers all the salient facts concerning documentation.
Greenberger, M. (Ed.) (1971) Computers. Communications and the Public Interest. Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, Md. CR 12,
11(71)22, 096.
A series of lectures by knowledgeable and thoughtful people on the relations between computers and society.
Gregory, R.H., and Van Horn, R.L. Automatic Data Processing Systems. Wadsworth Pub. Co., San Francisco, 1963.
G U I D E / S H A R E . (1970) Guide/Share Data Base Management System Requirements. Technical report.
A well-written statement of requirements, emphasizing the importance and functions of the people in the system.
H a r t m a n , W., Matthes, H., and Proeme, A. (1968) Management Information Systems Handbook. McGraw-Hill, New York.
A comprehensive coverage of the steps in system development, developed by the Netherlands-based Philips Corporation.
Head, R. V. (1971) A Guide to Packaged Systems. Wiley, New York.
H o f f m a n , L. (1969) Computers and privacy: a survey. Computing Surveys 1, 2, 85-103.
A survey of technical literature and a discussion of what the technology can d o to assist in maintaining privacy of infor- mation.
Intercollegiate Bibliography (1972) Collected Bibliography of Cases, Vol. 14, Intercollegiate Case Clearing House, Harvard U , Soldiers Field, Boston, MA 02163.
Johnson, C.B. and Katzenmeyer, W.G. (Eds.) (1969) Management Information Systems in Higher Education: The State of the Art.
Duke U. Press, D u r h a m , N . C .
Joslin, E. (Ed.) (1971) Analysis, Design and Selection of Computer Systems. College Reading Inc., Arlington, Va.
A book of readings, f r o m earlier published articles.
Kelson, R . R . , Peck, J., and Kalacheck, E. (1967) Technology, Economic Growth, and Public Policy. Brookings Institute, Washington, D.C.
Krauss, L.I. (1970) Computer-Based Management Information Sys- tems. American Management Assoc., N e w York.
An exposition of the basic ideas of " M I S . "
Leavitt, H.J., and Whisler, T.L. (1958) Management in the 1980 s.
Harvard Bus. Rev. (Nov.-Dec.), 41-48. CR 9, 4(68)13,985.
LeBreton, P.P. (1969) Administrative Intelligence-Information Sys- tems. Houghton-Mifflin, Boston.
Lyon, J.K. (1971) An Introduction to Data Base Design. Wiley, New York.
Concentrates on techniques in the design of online files.
Martin, J. (1965) Programming Real-Time Computer Systems.
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
Concentrates more on system design than programming aspects of online systems.
Martin, J. (1967) Design of Real-Time Computer Systems. Prentice- Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J. CR 9, 2(68)13,607.
Continuation of his prior book, listed above. See also annota- tion in bibliography for Course G r o u p C.
Martin, J. (1969) Telecommunications and the Computer. Prentice- Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J. CR 11, 8(70) 19,602, 19,603.
Technical aspects of the design of communication networks.
Martin, J., and N o r m a n , A. (1970) The Computerized Society.
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
The first part of the book titled " E u p h o r i a " is very interesting.
Later sections deal more with the technology.
Matthews, D.Q. (1971) The Design of the Management Information System. Auerbach, Princeton, N . J . CR 12, 8(71)21,668.
An introductory book on the MIS approach.
McDaniel, H. (1970b) Decision Table Software—A Handbook.
Brandon/Systems Press, Princeton, N.J. CR 12, 2(71)20,613.
Examples of the use of decision tables at the introductory level.
Miller, A. (1971) The Assault on Privacy: Computers, Data Banks, and Dossiers. U . of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, Mich. CR 12, 8(71)21,631.
A valuable compendium of the legal and ethical problems at- tendant to the growing use and sharing of data banks.
Miller, P.W., and Starr, M.K. (1967) The Structure of Human De- cisions. Prentice-Hall, Englewood, Cliffs, N.J.
Morton, M.S.S. (1971) Management Decision Systems. G r a d u a t e School of Business Administration, Harvard U., Boston. CR 12, 6(71)20,367.
See annotation in bibliography for Course G r o u p A2.
National Cash Register C o m p a n y . (1967) Accurately Defined Systems. Dayton, Ohio.
The system analysis and design approach advocated by N C R . Olle, T.W. (1970) MIS: data bases. Datamation (Nov.).
An excellent classification and characterization of file manage- ment systems, and how they fit into the world of management information systems.
Orlicky, J. (1969) The Successful Computer System: Its Planning, Development and Management in a Business Enterprise. Mc- Graw-Hill, New York. CR 10, 11(69)17,820.
Introduction to planning for the MIS.
Pollack, S.L., Hicks, H.T. Jr., and Harrison, W.J. (1971) Decision Tables: Theory and Practice. Wiley, New York.
The theory and theorems of the decision table technique. I n - cludes examples.
Pylyshyn, Z.W. (Ed.) (1970) Perspectives on the Computer Revolu- tion. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J. CR 12, 6(71)21,297.
Especially good on the educational and intellectual uses of computers, and the effects of such uses.
Rosen, S. (Ed.) (1967) Programming Languages and Systems.
McGraw-Hill, New York. CJ? 10, 1(69)15,975.
Readings which provide valuable historical perspective in the area of systems programming a n d the design of large scale operating systems.
Rosenberg, N . (Ed.) (1971) The Economics of Technological Change.
Penguin Books, New York.
Rubin, M. (1970a) Introduction to the System Life Cycle, (Vol. 1).
Auerbach, Princeton, N.J.
Provides introductory level description of eight steps in the system life cycle.
Rubin, M. (1970b) System Life Cycle Standards, (Vol. 2). Auer- bach, Princeton, N.J.
Provides standards, procedures and forms for system develop- ment.
Rubin, M. (1970c) Advanced Technology: Input and Output.
Auerbach, Princeton, N.J.
A reference for I / O approaches and design considerations.
Rubin, M. (1970d) Advanced Technology: Systems Concepts.
Auerbach, Princeton, N.J.
Introduction to systems analysis concepts.
Schoderbek, P.P. (1967) Management Systems. Wiley, N e w York.
A book of readings intended to be used as a textbook in management courses to help in the "understanding of the total systems concept as well as developing insight into some of the problems besetting management." N o t e especially the criticism of the total system concept by W . M . A . Brooker,
" T h e Total System M y t h . "
Schrieber, A. (1970) Corporate Simulation Models. U . of Washing- ton, Pullman, Wash.
Science Research Associates (1970) Case Study on Business Systems Design. College Division, Palo Alto, Calif.
A laboratory manual providing thirteen assignments in de- veloping an E D P system for a hypothetical electronics firm.
Sharpe, W.F. (1969). The Economics of Computers. Columbia U . Press, N e w York.
Especially interesting are the sections on vendor behavior a n d selection of equipment.
Shaw, J.C., and Atkins, W. (1970) Managing Computer Systems Projects McGraw-Hill. New York. CR 12, 9(71)21,832.
Simon, H . A . (1965) The Shape of Automation for Men and Manage- ment. Harper & Row, New York. CR 7, 1(66)8773.
Simon, H.A. (1969) The Sciences of the Artificial. M I T Press, Cambridge, Mass. CR 11, 1(70)18,222.
T h e entire work is recommended but note especially C h . 4
" T h e Architecture of Complexity."