UNIT 3 COGNITIVISM LEARNING THEORY
D. Application of Cognitive Theory in Learning
6. Webteaching.
Webteaching proposed by Norman, is a procedure for arranging the order of the contents of the field of study developed by showing the importance of the role of the knowledge structure that a person has, and the structure of the content of the field of study to be studied. New knowledge that will be learned gradually must be integrated with the existing knowledge structure.
7. Elaboration Theory.
Elaboration theory integrates a number of existing knowledge of lesson content structuring strategies, to create a comprehensive model of how to organize teaching at the macro level. This theory describes how to organize the content of the field of study by following a general to detailed sequence, starting with presenting the epitome (the structure of the content of the field of study being studied), then elaborating the parts contained in the epitome in more detail.
D. Application of Cognitive Theory in Learning Activities
The essence of learning according to cognitive theory is explained as a learning activity related to the arrangement of information, perceptual reorganization, and internal processes.
Learning activities based on cognitive learning theory have been widely used. In formulating learning objectives, developing strategies and learning objectives, it is no longer mechanistic as is done in the behavioristic approach. The freedom and active involvement of students in the learning process is taken into account, so that learning is more meaningful for students. Meanwhile, the learning activities follow the following principles:
1. Students are not as young adults in their thinking process. They experience cognitive development through certain stages.
2. Preschool and early elementary school age children will be able to learn well, especially if they use concrete objects.
3. Active student involvement in learning is very important, because only by activating students can the process of assimilation and accommodation of knowledge and experience occur properly.
4. To attract interest and increase learning retention, it is necessary to link new experiences or information with the cognitive structure that the learner already has.
5. Understanding and retention will increase if the subject matter is arranged using certain patterns or logic, from simple to complex.
6. Learning to understand will be more meaningful than learning to memorize. To be meaningful, new information must be adapted and related to the knowledge that students already have. The teacher's job is to show the relationship between what is being learned and what students already know.
7. The existence of individual differences in students themselves needs to be considered, because this factor greatly affects student learning success. The differences are for example in
motivation, perception, thinking ability, prior knowledge, and so on.
As explained in the previous section, the learning process according to Piaget occurs through the stages of assimilation, accommodation and equilibration. Example (www.nblognlife.com) a student who has understood the principle of subtraction, when the student learns the principle of division, there is a process of integrating the principle of subtraction that he has mastered with the principle of division (new information). This is called the process of assimilation. If the student is given division problems, then this situation is called accommodation. This means that the student is able to apply or use the principles of division in new and specific situations.
In learning and teaching information (www.funderstanding.com), it is explained that Piaget sees developmental transitions occurring at about 18 months, 7 years and 11 or 12 years. This could mean that before this age children are not able (however intelligent they are) to understand things in certain ways.
For students who are in the preoperational developmental range, to apply Piaget's theory of development in classroom learning, the University of Arkansas recommends six stages that need to be considered in the development of pre-operational structures. The six stages:
1. Use supporting examples and visual tools whenever possible.
2. Make learning instructions that are not too long, use more examples than words.
3. Don't expect students to see the world from another's point of view, because students have their own point of view.
4. Be sensitive to the possibility that students may have different understandings of the same word or the same understanding of different words. Students also often expect adults to understand the words they say.
5. Provide hands-on exercises to students that serve to help students build more complex understandings such as reading comprehension.
6. Provide a variety of experiences to build a foundation for more complex learning.
The three figures of the cognitive flow above generally have the same view that is concerned with the active involvement of students in learning. According to Piaget, only by activating students optimally can the process of assimilation and accommodation of knowledge and experience occur properly. Meanwhile, Bruner gives more freedom to students to learn on their own through discovery activities. This method will lead students to a form of inductive learning, which requires a lot of repetition. This is reflected in the spiral curriculum model he put forward. Unlike Bruner, Ausubel is more concerned with the structure of disciplines. In the learning process, more emphasis is placed on deductive thinking. This can be seen from his conception of the Advance Organizer as a conceptual framework about the content of the lessons that students will learn.
The application of cognitive theory is for example in independent learning, where students can learn according to their own level of development and at their own pace. As stated by Piaget (Collin, et al:
2012) in his theory that the main goal in the learning process is to produce humans who have the ability to do something new. In addition to the independent learning model, the discussion model by focusing on the development of students and teachers as facilitators to help students develop according to their cognitive structures is also an example of the application of cognitive theory.12
12 Pujirinyanto & Deni Hardianto, Pengembangan Profesi Guru: PPG dalam Jabatan, Kementerian Riset, Teknologi dan Pendidikan Tinggi 2018.
UNIT 4
CONSTRUCTIVISM LEARNING THEORY
A. Characteristics of Expected Future Human
Efforts to build human resources are determined by the characteristics of humans and the desired future society. The desired future human characteristics are humans who have sensitivity, independence, responsibility for risk in making decisions, developing all aspects of potential through a continuous learning process to find oneself and become oneself, which is a process … (to) learn to be.
Human are able to collaborate in solving broad and complex problems for the preservation and glory of the nation (Raka Joni, 1990).
Sensitivity, means sharpness both in terms of the ability to think, as well as the ease of being touched by conscience in seeing and feeling everything, from the interests of others to the preservation of the environment which is the creation of the Creator. Independence means the ability to assess the process and results of one's own thinking and to the thinking processes and results of others, as well as the courage to act according to what one considers right and necessary. Responsibility means the willingness to accept all the consequences of one's own decisions and actions. Collaboration means that in addition to being able to do the best for themselves, individuals with the above characteristics are also able to work together with other individuals in improving the quality of life together.
A strategic step for the realization of the above objectives is the existence of expert services effective and highly efficient education.
Student active learning or the approach of active student learning in the management of teaching and learning activities that recognizes the centrality of the student's role in the learning process is a solid foundation for the formation of expected future human beings. This choice departs from critical and empirical studies in addition to people's choices (Raka Joni, 1990).
The application of the teachings of “tut wuri handayani” is a tangible manifestation that is meaningful for today's humans in order to pick up the future. To do this, it requires handling that pays attention to the strategic aspects of the right approach when individuals learn. In other words, education is challenged to focus on the formation of future humans who have the characteristics above.
The study of constructivist learning theory in learning and learning activities allows for this goal.