UNIT 3 COGNITIVISM LEARNING THEORY
D. Knowledge Construction by Lev Vygotsky
uses goal-free evaluation, which is a construction to overcome the weaknesses of evaluation on specific goals. The evaluation will be more objective if the evaluator is not informed about the next goal. If the learning objectives are known before the learning process begins, the learning process and evaluation will be one-sided. The provision of criteria for evaluation resulted in the setting of learning. Learning objectives direct the learning which will also control student learning activities.
Learning and evaluation using criteria is an objective/
behavioristic prototype, which is not suitable for constructivist theory. Constructivist learning outcomes are more accurately assessed by the goal-free evaluation method, namely evaluation that used to assess constructivist learning outcomes, requiring cognitive experiential processes for constructivist goals.
Constructivistic evaluation forms can be directed at authentic tasks, constructing knowledge that describes higher thinking processes such as the level of "discovery" in Merrill's taxonomy, or
"cognitive strategy" from Gagne, and "synthesis" in Bloom's taxonomy. It also constructs student experience, and directs evaluation in a broad context with multiple perspectives.
acquisition occurs first through interpersonal (interaction with the social environment) intrapersonal (internalization that occurs within oneself).
Vygotsky argues that using thinking tools will lead to cognitive development in a person. Yuliani (2005: 44) specifically concludes that the usefulness of thinking tools according to Vygotsky are:
1. Help solve the problem. Thinking tools are able to make someone to solve the problem. It is the frame of mind that is formed that is able to determine the decisions taken by a person to solve the problems of his life.
2. Make it easier to take action. Vygotsky argues that thinking tools are able to make a person able to choose actions or actions that are as effective and efficient as possible to achieve goals.
3. Expanding capabilities. Through thinking tools, each individual is able to broaden his thinking horizons with various activities to seek and find knowledge around him.
4. Doing something according to his natural capacity. The more stimulus that is obtained, the more intense a person will use his thinking tools and he will be able to do something according to his capacity.
The essence of this constructivistic learning theory is the use of one's thinking tools that cannot be separated from the influence of the socio-cultural environment. The socio-cultural environment will lead to the increasingly complex abilities possessed by each individual.
Guruvalah argues that theories which state that "students themselves must personally find and apply complex information, checking new information against old rules and correcting those rules when they no longer fit". This constructivistic learning theory emphasizes that cognitive change only occurs if the conceptions that have been understood are processed through an imbalance process in an effort to use new information.
Constructivistic learning theory includes three main concepts, namely:
1. Genetic Laws of Development
According to Vygotsky, development cannot only be seen from facts or skills, but more than that, a person's development passes through two levels: Social level (inter-psychological and inter-mental) and psychological level (intra-psychological). The social level is seen from the place where a person's social environment is formed and the psychological level is from within the person concerned.
Constructivistic theory places the inter-mental or social environment as a primary and constitutive factor in the formation of knowledge and one's cognitive development. The higher mental functions of a person are believed to arise from his social life.
Meanwhile, intra-mental in this case is seen as a derivation or derivative that is formed through mastery and internalization of these social processes, this happens because children will only understand the meaning of social activities if there has been an internalization process. Therefore, learning and developing is a decisive unit in one's cognitive development. As quoted by Yuliani (2005: 44) Vygotsky believes that maturity is a prerequisite for perfect thinking.
Specifically, however, he is not sure that the maturity that occurs as a whole will determine the next maturity.
2. Zone of Proximal Development
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) is the main and most fundamental concept of Vygotsky's constructivistic learning theory.
In Luis C. Moll (1993: 156-157), Vygotsky argues that each child in a domain has an 'actual level of development' which can be assessed by individually examining the closest potential for development in that domain. Vygotsky termed this difference between the two levels of the Zone of Proximal Development; Vygotsky defined the Zone of Proximal Development as the distance between the actual level of
development as determined for individual problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers. Clearly Vygotsky provides a mature view of the concept as quoted by Luis C. Moll (1993: 157): The Zone of Proximal Development defines those functions that have not yet matured, but are in the process of maturation. These functions will mature in the embryonic situation at that time. These functions can be termed as the "bud" or "flower" of development as opposed to the "fruit" of development.
Yuliani (2005: 45) defines "Zone of Proximal Development as immature functions or abilities that are still in the process of maturation". Because of these immature functions, children need other people to help with the maturation process. Meanwhile, I Gusti Putu Suharta in his paper argues that Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) is the distance between the actual level of development which is defined as the ability to solve problems independently and the level of potential development which is defined as the ability to solve problems under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers.
The Proximal Zone of Proximal Development is the idea that students learn a concept best when it is in their closest developmental zone (Guruvalah). While Marysia (2003) in her paper states that
"ZPD is an area of activities where individuals can drive with peers, adults, or more skilled people who have more abilities". Vygotsky's views on peer interaction and modeling are important ways to facilitate individual cognitive development and knowledge acquisition.
In another paper, Julia argues that "ZPD is the level of development that is reached when children participate in social behavior". This can be interpreted that the full development of ZPD depends on full social interaction, where expertise can be obtained
with adult guidance or collaboration between peers or people who understand more than what is understood.
In Yuliani (2005: 45) Vygotsky suggests that there are four stages of ZPD that occur in development and learning, namely:
Stage 1: The child's actions are still influenced or assisted by others.
A child who is still being helped put on clothes, shoes and socks when going to school is very dependent on his parents and caregivers, but he likes to pay attention to the way adults work.
Stage 2: The child's actions are based on his own initiative.
Children begin to want to try to wear their own clothes, shoes and socks but still often mistakenly wears shoes between the left and right. Even wearing clothes still takes a long time because of wrongly pairing buttons.
Stage 3: The child's actions develop spontaneously and are internalized.
Children begin to do things without any orders from adults.
Every morning before leaving, he has begun to understand what he has to do, such as wearing clothes then socks and shoes.
Stage 4: The child's spontaneous actions will continue to be repeated until the child is ready to think abstractly.
The realization of automatic behavior, children will soon be able to do something without an example but based on their knowledge in remembering the sequence of an activity. He can even retell what he did when he was about to go to school.
At these four stages it can be concluded that. A person will be able to do something that previously he could not do with the help provided by adults and peers who are more competent in it.
3. Mediation
Mediation is signs or symbols used by a person to understand something beyond his understanding. There are two types of mediation that can affect learning, namely, (1) the theme of semiotic mediation in which the signs or symbols used by a person to understand something beyond his understanding are obtained from things that do not yet exist around us, then made by people who are more understanding to help construct our thinking and finally we come to understand what is meant; (2) scaffolding in which the signs or symbols used by a person to understand something beyond his understanding are obtained from things that already exist in an environment, then people who have a better understanding of these signs or symbols will help explain to people who do not understand so that they understand what is meant.
The main key to understanding the social psychological process is the signs or symbols that function as mediators. These signs or symbols are actually a product of the sociocultural environment in which a person is located. To understand these mediation tools, children are assisted by teachers, adults and more understanding peers. Wertsch in Yuliana (2005: 45-46) argues that:
The mechanism of the relationship between the sociocultural approach and mental functions is based on the theme of semiotic mediation. This means that the sign or symbol along with the meaning contained in it serves as a liaison between sociocultural (inter-mental) rationality and the individual as a place for mental processes to take place.
Based on the theory of Vygotsky Yuliani (2005: 46) concluded several things that need to be considered in the learning process, namely:
1) In learning activities, children should have broad opportunities to develop their zone of proximal development or potential through learning and development.
2) Learning needs to be linked to the level of potential development rather than actual development.
3) Learning is more directed at using strategies to develop their inter-mental abilities rather than their intra-mental abilities.
4) Children are given broad opportunities to integrate the declarative knowledge they have learned with procedural knowledge to perform tasks and solve problems.
5) The process of learning and instruction is not only transfer but rather a construction.
In this constructivistic learning theory, the knowledge that a person has comes from social sources that are outside him. To construct knowledge, an active role is needed from the person.
Knowledge and abilities do not come by themselves, but must be cultivated and influenced by others. The main principles of constructivistic learning theory that are widely used in education according to Guruvalah:
a. Knowledge is actively built by students
b. The pressure of the teaching and learning process lies on the students
c. Teaching is helping students learn
d. The pressure in the learning process is more on the process and not on the learning outcomes
e. The curriculum emphasizes student participation f. The teacher is a facilitator
It can be concluded that in constructivistic learning theory, the learning process cannot be separated from action (activity) and interaction, because perception and activity go hand in hand dialogically. Learning is a process of creating meaning as a result of individual thinking through interaction in a social context. In this case, there is no embodiment of a reality that can be considered better or true. Vygotsky believed that various manifestations of reality were used for various purposes in different contexts. Knowledge cannot be separated from the activities in which knowledge is
constructed, and where meaning is created, and from the cultural community in which knowledge is disseminated and applied.
Through activity, social interaction, the creation of meaning occurs.
E. Comparison of Behavioristic Learning and Constructivistic