CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
K. Assessing Speaking
Before speaking assessment will be designed, it begin to what kind of speaking that we need to asses in a specific assessment context based on social and situational needs59. Then we should know if speaking about interactive, because it shows how interactively happen with other speaker.
One thing to be the aim for assessment where it provides the basis for construct validity. Therefore, the person who develop the assessment must understand well in what speaking is like and also define the kind of speaking that they want to test in specific context, develop the task, inform the examines about the test, and ensure that the test and rating process are follow the procedure or the stated plans.
The criteria for speaking task with the purpose to maximize speaking opportunity and chance for the learner who will experience in autonomous language use as follow by six conditions. They are productivity,purposefulness, interactivity, challenge, safety and authenticity.60
1) Productivity, where the speaking activity to be maximally language productive in purposing to provide the best for autonomous language use.
2) Purposefulness, where if the language productivity is can be improved by ensure that speaking activity can be realistic, it same if the students require to work together to achieve a common purpose. From here
59 Sari Luoma, Assessing speaking (Cambridge:CUP,2009), 23-28.
60 Scott Thornbury, How to Teach Speaking, (UK: Pearson Education Ltd, 2005 ),90-91.
such in discussion, where the aim is encourage in participating all members to reach an agreed discussion to drive discussion through more point.
3) Interactivity, where this activities requires learners take into which is effected for their audience. Because if it did not effect the audience, it could make them a quiet difficult to have a good preparation for the real-life language use. As example, in presentation at least to perform of interaction it can take from audience present, utterance their interest idea, understanding, ask questions or even provide some comment such suggestion, advice, critic.
4) Challenge, where the task should extend to learners and it make them must be available on their communicative resources in case to achieve the result. It can help in their experiencing the sense of achievement.
As teacher, they should be sensitive as difficulty rate of a task presents individual learners and adjust the task accordingly.
5) Safety, where the learners should be challenged, they also need their confident in meeting this challenge and attempt themself too avoid much risk. As the classroom should provide the good circumstance that supporting experimentation, supportive classroom dynamic and also no-judgmental on error part of teacher and also need to secure their knowledge.
6) Authentically, where speaking task should be related to real-life language use, but if it not so it is a poor preparation for autonomous.
Because if it related to, like the classroom activities involved in drills or some language games are raising the awareness or even the appropriation as the needs that they served. Otherwise, become autonomous, they need a quality of communication as their experience in the classroom where hoping it essential with the same communication that happen outside the classroom. From here it means they need always perform in processing such spontaneously, unassisted, and also that kind of topics, genres and situations that selecting in speaking tasks carry out for some learner’s perceived and interest that related to.
In planning and assessing speaking, Thornbury mentioned that there are five points to be awareness such it begin with the integrating speaking into curriculum, organizing the speaking syllabus, classroom talk, assessing speaking and also assessing criteria.61 the first point in integrating speaking in curriculum, weighting as the learners in studying an EFL context where learning English as foreign language might it is not urgent thing even though we know speaking being priority in the long term. Such learners who focus in academic, they more focus in written than its spoken, then learners who learning English as the international language so basically they communicating primarily, more likely to prioritize the intelligibility of their accuracy is over and speaking skill for business if in differ formed that based on
61 Scott Thornbury, How to Teach Speaking, (UK: Pearson Education Ltd, 2005 ),112
what is needed by the tourist. So the conclusion is the person who forming those should be competent in varies of genres. Then analysis learner’s needs is needed, also the placement the test where to be used for initial assessment for speaking skill and will applies to learner who needs for the specific and those needs are only abstractedly formulated, balancing the accuracy and fluency.
The second point by organizing the speaking syllabus, where in other way to organize the content of it including by follows the first is spoken grammar, including heads, tails, ellipsis, discourses, makers.
The second is pronounce features, including stress, intonation, rhythm, chucking. The third is communication strategies, like paraphrasing, appealing for help, formulaic language. The fourth is conversational routines or gambits, such as opening, closing, interrupting, changing topic.
The fifth is conversational rules and structures, such as turn taking, adjacency pairs, and the co-operative principle. The sixth is speech acts, such inviting, requesting, implementing. The seventh is registers, such as the formal and informal language. The eighth is scripts, such as service encounters, greetings, telephone language. The ninth is genres, such telling story, jokes, making a speech, interview.
The tenth is situations, such as at the ticket office, at the bank, in a restaurant. The last is cultural factors, such as politeness, taboo
topics, use of gesture.62 After knowing the ways content is organized, then they can integrated the skills where speaking also can’t stand alone. Like as speaker, they need listener as the partner to know what the context from the speaker’s views. It faced that speaking skill connected with listening skill.
In assessing speaking there are two types of the testing, they are informal and formal where the test can take place the beginning or the end of the teaching learning process. Then the placement of the test can be meant that this will be conduct where the test progress during the teaching learning or can be as the achievement at the end of it. Mostly the types of spoken test can be divided into five types involved in interview, live monologues, record monologues, role- plays, collaborative task and discussions.63 it all are the choice for the spoken test where it reflected to what test-type that proper for the students conditions. Then for the scoring criteria it can be take by two ways , they are holistic and analytic.64
1) Holistic scoring is where it giving the single score in the basis of overall mark out. The advantages of it being quicker and may it sufficient for informal testing progress. The example for the holistic scoring is take place on multiple-choice task.
2) Whereas, analytic scoring is where it giving separate score based on the content of the answer from the task. That is why in analytic
62 Scott Thornbury, How to Teach Speaking, (UK: Pearson Education Ltd, 2005 ),118.
63 Scott Thornbury, How to Teach Speaking, (UK: Pearson Education Ltd, 2005 ),126.
64 Scott Thornbury, How to Teach Speaking, (UK: Pearson Education Ltd, 2005 ),127.
scoring takes longer on it. The example for the analytic scoring is take place on essay task .
2. Think-Pair-Share strategy