Baul sect

A loosely organized sect originating in Ben- gal around the seventh century C.E., the Bauls sought escape from orthodox Hindu thought and ritual practice, which they deemed lifeless, seek- ing ecstasy through music and dancing. They are known for their unconventional manner, as indicated by their name: the Bengali word baul (Hindi: baur) is derived from the SANSKRIT vat- ula, meaning “mad,” or vyakula, meaning “per- plexed.” Bauls are referred to as “madmen drunk with God.” Songs are their unwritten scriptures, yet they do not record either the words or the music.

The original Baul devotees drew inspiration from several religions that flourished at the time

in Bengal. They adopted practices from TANTRISM, the non-dual or ADVAITA conception of the Abso- lute from VEDANTA, YOGA disciplines, elements of Sufi dance and music, and the emphasis on the love in the human heart found in VAISHNAVISM. To these, the Bauls added a tenet that each individual must remain free and individual, and each must become a divinized subtle being.

Central to the spiritual path of Bauls is their reverence for gurus. Each guru writes his own songs from his personal experience, so that most songs remain original and individual. Some songs have become common to the community and are repeated at yearly festivals, or melas, which are held in Bengal, near Shanti Niketan, the university founded by Rabindranath TAGORE (1861–1941). It was Tagore who took the Baul sect out of obscu- rity by collecting the words of many of their songs and many of their simple melodies. He felt that these creations by the Bauls expressed the highest truth in simple language.

Most Bauls are illiterate members of the poorer classes. Others are learned Brahmins who have been rejected by their caste, Muslims disaffected with orthodoxy, and Sufis who fear persecu- tion from Islamic law. Baul groups are scattered throughout India but remain centered in Bengal.

Recently Baul musicians and dancers have begun to tour Europe and the United States to perform their songs.

Further reading: Charles Capwell, The Music of the Bauls of Bengal (Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1986); Surath Chandra Chakravarti, Bauls: The Spiritual Vikings (Calcutta: Firma KLM, 1980); Lizelle Reymond, To Live Within: The Story of Five Years with a Himalayan Guru (London: George Allen & Unwin. 1971).

Benares

(Varanasi, Kashi)

Benares on the GANGES is the most visited pil- grimage destination in all of India. It is one of the seven primary pilgrimage cities in India, one of the 12 jyotir LINGAM (lingam of light) sites, and Benares 69 J

a SHAKTI PITHA site sacred to the Divine Mother.

It is considered the most desirable place where a Hindu can die and be cremated, as it is understood that liberation from birth and rebirth is conferred upon a person by the holiness of the city. Myth says that the Ganges flows through the topknot of Shiva down to Earth; for many it is understood that those who bathe in it derive special blessings from Shiva.

At Benares any act of devotion whatsoever, be it the smallest offering, act of penance or char- ity, or chant, yields unlimited results. Benares has been known at different times as Varanasi or Kashi (the place of the supreme light). It has been a great center of Shiva worship in particular and has known more than 3,000 years of continuous habitation. Only a few buildings are left from before the 16th century, as Muslim armies from the 12th century destroyed nearly every temple there.

The city’s primary Shiva shrine, the Vishwanath Temple, dates only from 1776, when it was rebuilt across the road from its original ancient location.

The jnana vapi, or Well of Wisdom, is adjacent to the site of the original temple and is the ritual cen- ter of Benares. The well is said to have been dug by Shiva himself, and its waters carry the liquid form of JNANA, the light of insight.

Benares contains so many hundreds of shrines and temples that it is said a pilgrim would need all the years of his or her life to visit them all.

Some of these temples are named after the great pilgrimage centers, in other parts of India:

RAMESHVARAM, DVARAKA, Puri, and KANCHIPURAM. In this way, visiting Benares is tantamount to vis- iting all the major shrines and temples of India.

Most pilgrims make only short visits of days or weeks to Benares, but there are also many thou- sands who see it as the last port of call of their earthly existence. There are nearly 100 cremation spots in the six-mile expanse of the Ganges at Benares.

A well-worn 50-mile pilgrimage path encircles the holy city; pilgrims generally take five days to

complete the walk, visiting 108 shrines along the way. A second important Benares pilgrimage route takes two days to complete and has 72 shrines.

Bustling, dusty Benares was once an area of sylvan wilderness. Sages and saints such as BUD-

DHA, MAHAVIRA, and TULSIDAS all at one time or another prayed and meditated here. For centuries Benares may have been the most often-visited sacred place on the planet. In any case, for Hindus there is no holier city on Earth.

Further reading: Winand Callewaert and Rober Schil- der, Banaras: Vision of a Living Ancient Tradition (New Delhi: Hemkunt Publishers, 2000); Diana Eck, Banaras:

City of Light (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999).

Bernard, Pierre Arnold

(1875–1955) Western tantric teacher

Born Peter Coons in Leon, Iowa, Pierre Bernard created the Tantrik Order in America, in New York City, in 1909, perhaps the first Hindu group in the United States founded by a Westerner.

As a young man, Bernard moved from Iowa to California, where he held odd jobs. At age 30 he met Mortimer Hargis, with whom he formed the Bacchante Academy in San Francisco to teach hyp- notism and “soul charming,” a term that referred to sexual practices. The earthquake of 1906 lev- eled the academy and Bernard moved east.

In 1909 Bernard founded the Tantrik Order in America and gave himself the name Oom the Omnipotent. He taught YOGA and tantric Hin- duism, a branch of the religion that focuses on sexual energies and consciousness. In 1910 he was arrested on charges filed by two women in his group that he was conducting sexual orgies and was keeping women against their will. He was allowed to continue operating his institute but was kept under the eye of the local police. He became legal guardian of his half sister, Ora Ray Baker, later to become the wife of Hazrat Inayat Khan, founder of the Sufi Order.

K 70 Bernard, Pierre Arnold

Using the name Dr. Pierre Arnold Bernard, he created the New York Sanskrit College and opened a physiological institute. Around 1918, he married Blanche DeVries, a woman of some means in New York society and a cousin of Mary Baker Eddy, founder of the Church of Jesus Christ, Scientist. His wife provided an entrée for him into society circles, and some wealthy socialites, Ann Vanderbilt among them, became disciples.

In 1924, Bernard founded a center and an Ori- ental-Occult Library on his estate in Nyack, New York. His 70-acre property included a mansion that served as his headquarters and an adjacent Inner Circle Theatre, which contained a library of thousands of books on Eastern religion and the occult. Here he hosted gurus and other visit- ing teachers of religious and occult subjects. He became a prominent citizen, offering his estate to refugees from Nazi Germany. His nephew, Theos Bernard, lived at the Nyack estate and later attended Columbia University, where in 1944 he wrote a thesis on HATHAYOGA that has become a classic text.

A colorful and intriguing character, Bernard interpreted tantric practices in a manner uniquely his own. His claims of having attained a teaching degree in Hinduism in India are unsubstantiated.

His frequent name changes and questionable credentials made him the object of ridicule in journalistic reports of the day, but he did gain an expertise in Hindu thought and practice that made him an important figure in the growth of interest in Hinduism in the United States, in part through his connections with spiritual leaders and occultists of his day.

Bernard died quietly after a brief illness on September 27, 1955, in Nyack, New York.

Further reading: Pierre Bernard, “In Re Fifth Veda.”

International Journal of the Tantrik Order American Edition (New York: Tantrik Press, 1990); Charles Boswell, “The Great Fume and Fuss Over the Omnipo- tent Oom,” True (January 1965): 31–33, 86–91; Leslie

Shepard, Encyclopedia of Occultism and Parapsychol- ogy, 2d ed., 3 vols. (Detroit: Gale Research, 1984–85).

Besant, Annie Wood

(1847–1933) English socialist and president of the Theosophical Society Annie Besant was an English socialist reformer who converted to THEOSOPHY after reading the works of H. P. BLAVATSKY. She became an influen- tial figure in the growth of Theosophy as a world- wide movement and helped spread appreciation of Hinduism in the West.

Annie Wood was born in London to a middle- class Irish couple on October 1, 1847. She was raised after her father’s death by her mother in a very religious environment. She followed conven- tion by marrying a minister and schoolmaster, Frank Besant, in 1867. They had two children, but she left the marriage in 1893 and took the chil- dren with her in order to realize the ideals of her emerging progressivism. The couple was legally separated five years later.

Besant had begun to write while still with her husband; once separated she started to air her skeptical views in essays. She joined the National Secular Society and lectured on feminist issues.

She joined forces with Charles Bradlaugh, the atheist freethinker, to found the Free-thought Publishing Company. In 1877, with Bradlaugh, she was arrested for selling birth control pam- phlets in London’s slums. They were convicted, but the verdict was overturned and the trial helped to liberalize public attitudes. In 1888 she coordinated a strike of unskilled young women laborers at a match factory, which shed light on cruel and unsafe labor practices. She soon estab- lished a reputation as an orator, skeptic, and advo- cate for women’s rights.

During the 1880s, Besant became a friend of George Bernard Shaw, who considered her Britain’s and perhaps Europe’s greatest orator;

developing an interest in socialism she joined the Fabian Society.

Besant, Annie Wood 71 J

In 1888, she read Blavatsky’s Secret Doctrine, an event that changed her life. She later said that she found in the revelations of Theosophy answers to questions that she had not found in socialism, free thought, or Christianity. She resigned from the National Secular Society, renounced socialism, and became an ardent spokesperson for Theosophy.

After Blavatsky’s death in 1891, Besant became the powerful head of the Esoteric section of the Theosophical Society. After a tour of the United States, where she addressed the World Parlia- ment of Religions in Chicago, she moved to India, which became her home and headquarters until her death. She succeeded H. S. Olcott as president of the Theosophical Society in 1907 and retained the office until her death in 1933; she presided over a time of rapid expansion of the society, after a period of stagnation.

In 1909 Besant organized the Order of the Star in the East, in order to prepare for Theosophy’s predicted appearance of a world teacher, who would help all of humanity evolve to higher con- sciousness. When a young South Indian BRAHMIN

boy was found near the Theosophy compound at Adyar, outside Madras (Chennai), she became convinced that he, J. KRISHNAMURTI, would be the instrument for the coming world teacher. After receiving considerable grooming for the role of Lord Maitreya, Krishnamurti abdicated the title and suspended the Order of the Star in the East.

He continued to call Besant “mother,” but he refused to accept the role of “world teacher” that she felt he embodied.

Although she had abandoned her socialist affiliations, Besant carried her social reform values wherever she went. In India, the Theosophical Society founded many schools in India, including some of the first in the country for women. Politi- cally, she fought for Indian independence from British rule, and she was elected president of the Indian National Congress in 1917.

To Blavatsky’s emphasis on Buddhism, Besant added an emphasis on Hinduism to the Theo- sophical corpus. She wrote with C. W. Leadbeater,

a Theosophist who was also an Anglican priest and later bishop of the Liberal Catholic Church, about the gifts of Hinduism and the East to eso- teric wisdom in the West. Besant died on Septem- ber 21, 1933, at the Theosophy compound.

Further reading: O. Bennett, Annie Besant (London:

Hamish Hamilton, In Her Own Time Series, 1988); A.

W. Besant, The Ancient Wisdom (London: Theosophi- cal Publishing House, 1910); ———, Autobiography (Adyar, India: Theosophical Publishing House, 1939);

———, The Bhagavad Gita or the Lord’s Song. Translated by Annie Besant (Madras: Theosophical Publishing House, 1953); ———, Esoteric Christianity (New York:

J. Lane, 1902); ———, Theosophical Lectures (Chicago:

Theosophical Society, 1907); A. H. Nethercot, The First Five Lives of Annie Besant (London: RupertHart- Davis, 1960); Catherine L. Wessinger, Annie Besant and Progressive Messianism (1847–1933) (Lewiston, N.Y.:

Edwin Mellen Press, 1988).

Bhadrabahu

(c. 300 B.C.E.) early Jain leader Bhadrabahu is revered by both DIGAMBARA and SHVETAMBARA Jains (see JAINISM). Both sects regard him as the last of the persons who knew all the early sacred texts of the Jain tradition.

Bhadrabahu was born in Pundravardhan in what is now Bangladesh, during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya, the great Indian king.

According to the Digambara tradition he led a large group of his adherents from North India to Karnataka and thus introduced Jain tradition to South India. That tradition further recounts that on his return to Pataliputra (Patna) in the north, he found that there had been an official recension of the Jain scriptures; he and his monk followers refused to accept this “new” Jain canon. He also found that the northern monks had taken up unacceptable practices, especially the wearing of clothing, which is forbidden to Digambara (sky-clad) monks. Bhadrabahu and his adherents declared themselves to be the only true Jains.

K 72 Bhadrabahu

Another Bhadrabahu (c. sixth century) was the author of the Shvetambara work KALPA SUTRA. Further reading: Paul Dundas, The Jains (New York:

Routledge, 1992); P. S. Jaini, Jaina Path of Purification (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1973).