for her “Whiteness” and also about what it meant to have a younger American Indian woman therapist.
White counselors facing an ethnic minority client often struggle with whether to ask, “How do you feel working with a White helping
professional?” This situation is also faced by counselors of color working with White clients. When differences between therapist and client are apparent (e.g., ethnicity, gender, ability, age) or revealed (e.g., religion, sexual orientation), acknowledging them is important (Zane & Ku, 2014). Culturally responsive counselors are encouraged to broach the topic of race, ethnicity, and culture during therapy (Day‐Vines et al., 2007). Broaching these issues can strengthen the working relationship. Both African American and White American students revealed a preference for openness and self‐disclosure when asked to imagine a counselor of a different ethnicity (Cashwell,
Shcherbakova, & Cashwell, 2003). Self‐disclosure, or the
acknowledgment of differences, may increase feelings of similarity between therapist and client and reduce concerns about differences.
The same applies when both therapist and client are persons of color but are from different racial or ethnic groups (Sanchez, del Prado, &
Davis, 2010).
Challenges Associated with Counselor of Color and
interracial and interethnic specific challenges may also make their appearance in the counseling dyad.
Situation 1: Overidentifying with the Client
Overidentification with clients of color, whether with in‐group or out‐group dyadic counseling racial relationships, is often manifested through countertransference.
Although it is accepted that the transference of symbolic feelings, thoughts, and experiences of the client of color can occur in relation to the counselor, an equally powerful countertransference can occur from therapist to client, especially in interracial and interethnic dyadic combinations.
Sometimes when I had Black clients, I identified with them and invested in them so much that I might not have pushed them in the way they needed to be pushed. Or I might not have helped them develop something they may have needed to develop.
Because I was so busy caring about … being helpful (Black male therapist with Black clients).
(Goode‐Cross & Grim, 2016, p. 42)
In reflecting on his early clinical experiences, this therapist noted that his overidentification with clients may have actually hindered the therapy process. Thus, while there may be potential rewards in working with someone with a similar racial or ethnic background, especially if they also share another social identity such as gender or sexual orientation, there are also pitfalls, which sometimes remain outside of one's awareness. This speaks to the importance of having culturally responsive supervisors working with beginning trainees.
It is said that people of color share a sense of peoplehood in that, despite cultural differences, they know what it is like to live and deal with a monocultural society. They have firsthand experience with prejudice, discrimination, stereotyping, and oppression. It is a constant reality in their lives. They know what it is like to be “the only one,” to have their thoughts and feelings invalidated, to have their sons and daughters teased because of their differences, to be constantly seen as inferior or lesser human beings, and to be denied
equal access and opportunity (Sue, 2010a). For these reasons,
countertransference among counselors of color working with clients of color is a real possibility. Thus, although therapists of color must work hard not to dismiss the stated experiences of their clients, they must work equally hard to separate out their own experiences from those of their clients.
Situation 2: Encountering Clashes in Cultural Values
As we have mentioned earlier, cultural differences can impact the way we perceive events. This was clearly seen in a study involving Chinese American and White American psychiatrists (Li‐Repac, 1980). Both groups of therapists viewed and rated recorded interviews with Chinese and White patients. When rating White patients, White therapists were more likely to use terms such as affectionate, adventurous, and capable, whereas Chinese therapists used terms such as active, aggressive, and rebellious to describe the same patients. Similarly, White psychiatrists described Chinese patients as anxious, awkward, nervous, and quiet, whereas Chinese psychiatrists were more likely to use the terms adaptable, alert, dependable, and friendly. It is clear that both majority and minority therapists are influenced by their ethnocentric beliefs and values.
Many cultural value differences between groups of color are as great and prone to misinterpretation and conflict as are those among groups of color and White Americans. In the previous study, it was clear that both the Chinese and the White psychiatrists made such evaluations based upon a number of cultural values. Chinese
psychiatrists saw the more active and direct expressions of feeling as aggressive, hostile, and rebellious and the more controlled, sedate, and indirect expressions of emotion as indicative of dependable and healthy responding. A prime example of how different cultural
dictates affect interpersonal behavior and interpretation is seen in the ways that emotions are expressed among Asian, Latinx, and Black Americans. Restraint of strong feelings is considered a sign of maturity, wisdom, and control among many Asian cultures. The wise and mature “man” is considered able to control feelings (both
positive and negative). Thus, Asian Americans may avoid overtly displaying emotions and even discussing them with others (Kim &
Park, 2013). This is in marked contrast to African Americans, who
often operate from a cultural context in which the expression of affect and passion in interpersonal interactions is a sign of sincerity, authenticity, and humanness (Parham et al., 2011). Likewise, many Latinx Americans value emotional and physical closeness when communicating with each other (Guzman & Carrasco, 2011).
Therapists of color who operate from their own worldview without awareness of the different worldviews held by other clients of color may be guilty of cultural oppression, imposing their values and standards upon culturally diverse clients. The outcome can be quite devastating and harmful to clients of color. Let us use the example of a potential misunderstanding likely to occur between a Latina
counselor and an Asian American client (both holding the values described earlier). As the Latina counselor encounters the Asian American client who values restraint of strong feelings, several potential culture‐clash scenarios are likely to occur in a situation where the expression of feelings seems called for: First, the Asian American client's reluctance to express feelings in an emotional situation (loss of a job, death of a loved one, etc.) might be perceived as denial, or as emotionally inappropriate or unfeeling. Second, in a situation where the feelings are being discussed and the client does not desire to, or appears unable to, express them, the counselor may potentially interpret the client as resistant, unable to access
emotions, repressed, or inhibited. These potentially negative
misinterpretations have major consequences for the client, who may be misdiagnosed and treated inappropriately. It is clear that
counselors of color, when working with clients of color, must be aware of their own worldviews and those of their diverse clients.
Situation 3: Experiencing Clashes in Communication and Counseling Styles
One area of a possible clash in communication styles is in how groups use personal space when speaking to one another. African Americans and Latinos, as a rule, have a much closer conversing distance than either White Americans or Asian Americans (Jensen, 1985; Nydell, 1996). How culture dictates conversation distances is well defined, and varies according to many sociodemographic
differences, including race, ethnicity, and gender. Whereas an Asian
American therapist may value distance to an African American client in therapy (e.g., sitting further away and leaning back in a chair), the latter may feel quite uncomfortable and find such conversing
distances to be aloof. Worse yet, the client may interpret the
counselor as rude, disrespectful, or racially insensitive. The Asian American therapist, on the other hand, may view the African
American client as overly emotional. Further, major differences may be exaggerated by the manner of communication. Blacks tend to be more direct in their communication styles (thoughts and feelings), whereas Asian Americans tend to be more indirect and subtle in
communication; an African American client may not feel comfortable with or trust an Asian American therapist who expresses him‐ or herself in such an indirect manner.
Therapy is a context in which communication is paramount, and there are many ways that these differences in communication styles across races and cultures manifest in the therapeutic relationship.
First, because Asian Americans, Latinx Americans, and American Indians may be indirect in their communication styles and may avoid eye contact when listening and speaking, they are often
pathologized as being resistant to therapy (Sue, 2010a). At the same time, because Black Americans are stereotyped as being quick to anger and prone to violence and crime, they are often viewed as threatening and can trigger fear in people (Sue, 2010b). The
combination of these two contrary types of communication can lead to various tensions in a therapeutic relationship. Again, counselors of color must (a) understand their communication and therapeutic styles and the potential impact they have on other clients of color, (b) be aware of and knowledgeable about the communication styles of other groups of color, and (c) be willing to modify their intervention styles to be consistent with the cultural values and life experiences of their culturally diverse clients.
Situation 4: Receiving and Expressing Racial Animosity A counselor of color may be the object of racial animosity from clients of color simply because he or she is associated with the mental health system. Many people of color have viewed mental health practice and therapy as a White middle‐class activity with
values that are often antagonistic to the ones held by groups of color.
African Americans, for example, may have a negative view of
therapy, often holding a “historical hostility” response because of the history of oppression of Blacks in the United States (Ridley, 2005).
Therapy is highly stigmatizing among many in the Asian American community, who often view it as a source of shame and disgrace (Kim & Park, 2013). Latinx Americans may react similarly, believing not only that therapy is stigmatizing but that “talk therapies” are less appropriate and helpful than concrete advice and suggestions (de las Fuentes, 2006). American Indians may vary in their views of
therapy, depending on their level of assimilation; traditional
American Indians may view Westernized institutions and practices as not trustworthy or as ineffective in comparison to spiritual healing or indigenous practices (Duran, 2006).
Given these different views of therapy and mental health practices, there are several dynamics that can occur between racial groups.
Black American clients may view therapy as a symbol of political oppression and may perceive a Latinx American therapist or even a Black counselor as a sellout to the broader society. Or, because traditional forms of therapy oftentimes emphasize insight through the medium of verbal self‐exploration, many Asian and Latinx clients may view the process as inappropriate and question the
qualifications of the therapist. American Indian clients who value nontraditional counseling or spiritual healing may not seek or continue therapy, especially if a counselor of any race does not recognize alternatives to Western practices. All of these factors may influence the dynamics in a counseling relationship in which the therapist of color is responded to as a symbol of oppression and as someone who cannot relate to the client's problems. The therapist's credibility and trustworthiness are suspect, and will be frequently tested in the session. These tests may vary from overt hostility to other forms of resistance.
We have already spent considerable time discussing the racial animosity that has historically existed between racial groups and how it may continue to affect the race relations between groups of color. Like Situations 3 and 5 for therapists of color working with White clients, similar dynamics can occur between racial/ethnic
minority individuals in the therapy sessions. Therapists of color may be either targets or perpetrators of racial animosity in therapy
sessions. This is often exaggerated by differences in cultural values and communication styles that trigger stereotypes that affect their attitudes toward one another. Counselors of color may transfer their animosity toward minority clients; or, as with hostility from White clients, they may receive racial animosity from clients of color. Our clinical analysis and suggestions in those situations would be similar for counselors of color working with clients of color.
Situation 5: Dealing with the Racial Identity Status of Counselors and Clients
We have already stressed the importance of considering the racial and ethnic identity status of both therapists of color and clients of color. How it affects within‐group and between‐group racial and ethnic minority counseling is extremely important for cultural competence. The following quote from a qualitative study on Black therapists working with Black clients succinctly captures potential difficulties in this area.
I found, particularly with the first African American client I worked with … I was so pumped. And I was like, “Ooo, a Black woman!” And I had all these thoughts in mind of what working with her would be like. And she was more Pre‐Encounter
[assimilationist views] in terms of her racial identity. So it was more challenging than I thought, and actually I was her positive encounter with Blackness that helped her to shift. And I didn't realize that until after the fact. So I think early on I had
expectations, and because that was my first experience, it helped me to shift and see, “Okay, we might look alike but there's some very different dynamics that can take place, just identity‐wise.”
(Goode‐Cross & Grim, 2016, pp. 42–43)
As illustrated in this example, the degree of
assimilation/acculturation and racial identity of both the counselor and the client of color can result in dyadic combinations that create major conflicts. We explore this issue in detail in Chapter 11, “Racial,
Ethnic, Cultural (REC) Identity Attitudes in People of Color:
Counseling Implications.”
REFLECTION AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. What are some of the therapeutic issues that face counselors of color working with members of their own group or with another minority group member?
2. Which minority group member do you anticipate would be most difficult to work with in counseling? Why?
3. If you were a client of color and had to choose the race of the counselor, whom would you choose? Why?
4. As a White person, would working with a minority group counselor bother you? What reactions or thoughts do you have about this question?
5. For each of the challenges noted in this chapter, can you provide suggestions of how best to handle these situations?
What are the pros and cons of your advice?
It is clear that cultural competence goals do not apply only to White helping professionals. All therapists and counselors, regardless of race, culture, gender, and sexual orientation, need to (a) become aware of their own worldviews and their biases, values, and
assumptions about human behavior; (b) understand the worldviews of their culturally diverse clients; and (c) develop culturally
appropriate intervention strategies in working with culturally diverse clients.
IMPLICATIONS FOR CLINICAL PRACTICE
1. Working toward cultural competence and cultural humility are functions of everyone, regardless of race, gender, sexual orientation, religious preference, and so on.
2. Marginalized group members are not immune from having biases and prejudices toward majority group members and one another.
3. Because all oppression is damaging and serves to separate rather than unify, playing the “who's more oppressed?” game is destructive to group unity and counterproductive to
combating racism.
4. In order to improve interracial and interethnic counseling relationships, we must face the fact that there is also much misunderstanding and bias among and between groups of color.
5. Be aware that not all bad things that happen to people of color are the results of racism. Although we need to trust our intuitive or experiential reality, it is equally important that we do not externalize everything.
6. Despite sharing similar experiences of oppression, cultural differences may infect the therapeutic process and render your attempts to help the client ineffective.
7. Realize how your communication style (direct versus subtle, passionate versus controlled) and nonverbal differences may impact the client.
8. Therapists must evaluate their own and the client's racial and ethnic identity status and determine how these factors might impact work with clients of the same or different ethnicity.
9. Addressing or broaching racial, ethnic, or other differences between the therapist and the client can be useful in
facilitating a helping relationship.
10. Counselors of color should be aware of and prepared to deal with the many therapeutic challenges they are likely to
encounter when working with White clients and clients of color.
Video 3.5 Impact of Attitudes
Our conscious and unconscious beliefs influence the counseling session as well as the client/therapist relationship.
SUMMARY
Persons of color have major hesitations and concerns about publicly airing interracial/interethnic conflicts, differences, and
misunderstandings because of the possible political ramifications for group unity. But it appears that cultural competency and cultural humility objectives are applicable both to therapists of color and to other clinicians from marginalized groups. In addition to historical relationships and sociopolitical factors that have created possible animosity between groups, differences in cultural values,
communication styles, and racial and ethnic identity also contribute to misunderstanding and conflict. Little actual research has been conducted on the challenges and difficulties that counselors of color face when working with other culturally diverse groups. Less yet has been done on the subject of cultural competence as it relates to
therapists of color.
In working with White clients, however, people of color might (a) be unable to contain their anger and rage toward their clients, as they view them as oppressors, (b) have difficulty understanding the
worldview of their clients, (c) be hindered in their ability to establish rapport, (d) have difficulty empathizing with their clients, and (e) be guilty of imposing their racial realities upon their clients. The five challenges counselors of color are likely to encounter are (a)
questioning their competence, (b) desiring to prove their
competence, (c) controlling racial animosity toward White clients, (d) being viewed as super minorities, and (e) dealing with client expressions of racism.
Many of the challenges facing therapists of color working with White clients can also make their appearance in counseling dyads where both are from marginalized groups. Like their White counterparts, people of color are socialized into the dominant values and beliefs of the larger society. As a result, they may inherit the perceptions and beliefs of other racial/ethnic minority groups as well. In this case, the biases and stereotypes held for other groups of color may not be all that different from those of White Americans. Other interracial‐ and interethnic‐specific challenges may also make their appearance in the counseling dyad, including overidentifying with the client, encountering clashes in cultural values, experiencing clashes in communication and therapeutic styles, receiving and expressing racial animosity, and dealing with the stage of racial identity of counselors and clients.
GLOSSARY TERMS
Broaching
Communication styles Cultural values
Historical stereotypes
Interracial/interethnic bias Interracial/interethnic conflict
Interracial/interethnic discrimination Interracial/interethnic group relations Model minority myth
Multicultural counseling Racial/Ethnic identity
Socially marginalized groups
“Who's more oppressed?” game Video 3.6 Counseling Session Analysis