COMMENCEMENT OF THE FOUR SEASONS

D. n. M.

Spring, M.arcli 20 3 45m

Summer,Juno 21 23m

Autumn, September 2i 2 32c Winter, December.-. 21 S 31m

VENUS( )willbeour EvenlnigStar until thoISthdayof July, thenMorningStaruntil theeudof the year.

Entered accordingtoActofCongress,inthoyear18.'i9,byT.D.E.vo.tlandR.H.Stltis- Ttn,intheClorlL'e UfllceofthoDistrictofIowa.

Rilii\l()(»isiii)imyisRilkArts (/lonliiuitor attheNeiijcisc) StateCouncilontheArts.

SheamclticteclfieldworkintheDelaware BayRegion fortheMationalEncloirnienlfor the Arts/yeujerse)'StateCouncilonthe Arts FolkArtistsinliilucationProgram.

Suggested reading

FederalVC'ritcrs'Project.Storiesof\'ewJersey:

ItsSignificantPlaces.People,and.Actiiities

New

^'ork;M.BarrowN andConipaii), 1938.

Rolfs,DonaldH. lender.Sail:Vx' Dredgehoats ofDelawareHay.Mill\-illc:TlieVtlicatonHis- toricalAssociation, 1971.

Schmidt, Hubert

C

.AgricultureinSewjer-

se)':.\nree-Hundred)earHist<»y.

New

Bains-vvick,NewJersey;RutgersI'niversit}' Press, 19'73.

W

e\gandt,(.ornelius DincnJersey:Folk'sand

TI.H'irJobs.PineBairens..Salt.MarshandSea Islands New'^'orkand London:D.Appleton Centur)Co.,1940.

Adepictionofthezodiacfromthe 19thcenturj- tarmer's;ilmanac.Thepliasesofthemoonas wellasthe

moons

placeinthezodiacha\e lon,t;beenu.sed as aguidelorplantinii crops.

PtiotoCourtesyof19lhcentury Farmer'sAlmanac

We

French/

French-American Prngram has been made

possible throni^h the assistance

of

AirFrance,tonuirkits

50th

afiniversaiy.

and

the

generous

support

of

^the

Goieniment of

^France.

Traditional Dance

in France

by John ^Wright

A

strikingimpression

on anyone

tra\cliing inFrance istheinfinitevariety,'of landscape, climatic conditions,vegetation

and

architectureconcentratedinto a relati\elysmall area. HiecultureofFrance'speoplere\ealsasimilarvariety- despitealongtraditionofhighly centralized

go\ernment

administration.

StandardFrench,althoughtheotticial languagesince the I6tlicentun,,

was spoken

as a

mother tongue

b) lessthan halfof thepopulationuntilthe beginning ofthiscentun'.IntheNorth,

communities

,spoke Flemi.sh, inthe North-Fast, Alsatian-_a

German

dialect-

and

intheWest,Hreton -aCeltic languagerelatedto\\elsh

and Old

Cornish - while almostthe entireSouthern halfof the

countn

spoke Occitan(

Langued'Oc).

Additionally,inthe

l'}rennees,

Basque and

(Catalan

were

spoken,

and

inCorsicadialectsofItalian

and

Sarde.Despite the \igorouseffortsof public educatorstoeradicatetheir usein France,theselanguages remain\italto thisda)

and

contributegreatlyto thecultural di\ersityof the countn-.

A

^stud)'of

some

French

dances and

their

music

canpro\ ide usefulinsight intothisdi\er,sit)',foritbrings into^reliefpatternsofrelationshipwithinthe Frenchsociet)',aswellasthesociet)''sreaction tooutsideinfluences.

A good

pictureofthelattercanbe gained throughpublicationsintlancehistor).for France

was

alw a)sin the forefrontofthisHeld.

A

large

number

of

dance

collections

and dance

tutorsha\e

been

publi.shedsincethe 16thcentun'

which

provide adequate informationfor

comparison between

distinct folk culturesinFrance.

24

Probabh

the

most

ancient

dance form

inFranceisthe

bmnle. which

dates

back

atleasttothe Medie\'al period.It isa

group dance

in

which

peoplelink

hands

or

arms

to

form

eitheraringorachain,

mcning

inagradual progression totheleft.Although musical instrumentsareu.sed(e.g.,billion[bagpipe]

and

hoiiihditle[double-reeded.sha\Mn| in Brittany;saloiibet[pipe|

and

taniboiiriii

Itabor]in

Proxence

),the

most

important musicalregulatorforthesedances arethe

unaccompanied

\'oices,

most

ofteninresponsorial-singing,

where

the lead-singerintonesa line

which

the

crowd

then repeats. Tliislengthensthe duration ofasongsufficientlytopro\ idea

good

long dance.

Such dances

have sur\i\ed

mosth

inthe

West

andare usualhassociated\\\\hBrittany,although braillesarealscjfoundin

Normandy,

the

\endeen Maniis

orFenlands,

Gascony,

Beam and

Provence. Traces ofthe bniiile arealso

found

inBerq'

and

theMassifCentral.

Various musicalformsareusedforthe bmiiles.

The

tunesareoften quite

narrow

inrange,

sometimes no more

thanafourthora^fifth

and

rarel)'

exceeding

anoctaxe,but an

ama/ing number

ofrichforms can

be constmcted from

four,fi\eore\'enthree-note melodies.Wlierethedance-stepsare

more complex,

thetunestendtofo!lo\\ therlnlhmicpatternofthedance, but simplesteps are often compen.satet!for b) intricatepolyrh\thmsresulting

from

themelodies,suchastourorsixbeatsbeing

danced

totunesbased

on

unitsof fne or se\enbeats.

Another dance form

^^hichalso reflectsthecultural diversityofFranceisthe bouiree. Tliroughoutthe

mountains

of theMa.ssifCentral(Auvergne, Limousin, Velay,

Rcnergne

)

and

^theCentral Prtn incesof

Bern, Bourbonnais and

Marche, thebouireestillreignssupreme.Scholars disagreeastothe antiquityofthis dance,but inany eventitisquiteold. Initsbasicform,rs\'o

men

"size-up"each other\\biledisplacingsuppleness

and

in\ention. Ilie

bouiree

isaLso

some-

times

danced

withalarger

number

^ofjiarticipantsformingaring,

more

often than notwithout

hand

or

body

contact.

A

longtraditionof regionalct)stumed folk-dance

groups

hasresultedinman>- ofthesebouirees

becoming somewhat

codified

and

stilted,but olderdancersstillsh(m'

tremendous

imention,espe- ciaih in their

footwork and

use ofa\ailabiespace. InAu\ergne,theboiinveis alwaysin3 ^ time,its

tempo

about thespeed ofafastwaltz,butitsperform- ance with

much more

^lifttoit. Melodicallyitusualh consistsof

two

repeated phrases,whilethe

number

of barsin aphrase\aries.(lliree

and

four arethe

most common

toda\,

though

fi\eorsix-barphrasesareoftenplaced

by

older musicians.)In the(Central Pnninces, bouireesareoftenin2 4time

and

consi.st almostexclusi\elyof four-bar phrases.

At

one

timefolkdances

were

often ledbyasinger\\

ho

did nottake partin the

dance

proper,asthere

were no

responses. In.stead,

he

^stt)()d to

one

side and

marked

timeby

pounding

astaft

On

the

ground

(iiieiieruu

baton

^). But

t()da\

more

sophisticatedmusicalinstruments

accompam-

thedance. In Aii\ergne,forinstance,thecabrettehdgpipeisthefa\'orite

instmment

torthe bouiree.but there arealso.stneral other\arietiesofbagpipeintheCentral Pnninces.( Hiereareprobably

more

difterentt\pesofbagpipeinI-rancethan any othercountry, exceptperhapsi^jJantl.)

Bern and Bourbonnais

fa\i)rthe viellea^o/zt'(hurdy-gurdy)for

accompaniment, where Northern Au\ergne and

Correze usethefiddle.

More modern

instmments, suchasthe

melodeon and

chromaticaccordions, playan important partin keepingthesedancesalive as well. Inregular Saturday nightdancesthebouireestillhasitsplace

among

tangos.

paso

c/obles. inaiebes.ludthelike.

A\er\

important urbaninfluencethroughout theFrench countryside

was

thatofthecoiitrec/anse.equi\alent to the Fnglish countn,-

dance

inthe l^th centuPi

and adopted

bytheFrenchatthebeginningof the 18th

centun

^. In this

dance

the

emphasis

is

on

the relatiw positions of thedancersandthecon- stanth changingfigures the\ form.()riginallythere

were

a

number

ofbasic figuresorsets,but

where

theFnglishe\entually

adopted

^thelongsetsalmost exclusi\'ely,the French preferredthesquaresets. Tliese

became

theancestors ofthesc|uaredances of

America

and

Quebec.

Ibwardsthe

end

of the 18thcentur)'tiie French eontie(lansehee:ime

more and more

apUi)-

between

theoppositesidesofthe square,

which

eventually ga\erisetotheqiiadiille. Tliislatter

form

consistedof

sequences

ofset figures.

MiLximin Rumbaiid, a French fiddler from the province of Poitou, pla\',sniiusicforc|uadrille,s

andC(mtredan.se.s.Photocourtesy ofCatherinePerner and JohnWright.

JohnVi'iightcametoPnris in¹'Xi~where heworkedforfire years in theDepartmentof Etbnomiisic<}log}'oftl}eMiiseecleiHomme andpublisheda catalogneontheJewshaip collectioninthe

museum

Hehascollected French folknnisictiithhisii-ifeCatherine Penier.andpiil)lishedseteral recordings.

Ctorently heisresearching pre-¹'Jthcentiir\' fiolinmaking.

.Suggestedreading

Arbeau.Tlioinot Orchesography.trans

Man

Stewart Evans.Ncvv'ii)rk:0(i\crl^ihlications.

Inc., 196^

Guilc'licr.Ican-.Michcl laTraditionPopulaire deDanseen BasseHrettigne.Paris:Moiiton,

1963.

Guilchcr, JcanMiLiicl.LaContredanseet les RenouivlletnentsdeUiDanseFran<;aise.Paris;

Mouton,1969.

Lancelot, Francinc."HcritiircdclaDansc:l.c

Sy.stemcFciiillet,"l-thnologiePrainaise.

Rewic(JcsATPno. 1,

Un

.Suggesteilrecorditigs

"Folk .Musicof France^"In 77)c('oluml)ia Worldliltraiyof^PolkandI'limitiie.Music CBS91A()20()3.

.\Iiisic/uesTraditionnellesdesPays de Prance Clhantdu.Mondel.OX~^S16.

1ioloneuxetChanteursTradilionnelsen Auveigne(Canlal) (li.intduMondel.[)\

74516.

Vielleii.x(IIIBoiirlionnais lIcN.igone,S,S3<I3<I

FMehorePn.-IranilaBaptist(,anaud!i:il.()2

KanHaDiskanen PaysVannetais. Vol I,

Artolk

TH

"(>4,Vol ll.ArtolkSB3~8 FreresPennec Blniiiu.BomhardeAl.d566 Che:.Uaximin.\ioloneu.\ ri'(.(M)P()2(l

each ofwhicli

had

adistinct

name and

tunc -eii-ciimitdeux,lapoiile,balance, fialop

and

others.

These

forms spreadalloverthe countr)-

and

stillsur\ivein

the

Western Pnninces

⁽Poitou, Anjou,

Normandy and

Eastern Brittany)

and

in the.South,especialh Saxoy

and

Corsica.Inthese areas the

newer

dances replacedtheolderrepertoires,butin theregions

w

herethehoiinve reigned people adaptednian\ of the

amtrcdanse

figuresto thatdance. Itisinteresting that inthe VCesternProvinces

one

figure,the aiaut-deiix,has

become

detached

from

thecjiiadn'/k'to

become

adistinctdance,similarstsiisticallyto .someofthe2-4 hoiitrecs.

(Another

late 18thcentur\ influence

was

the/;r/i"

(i'ete.a^.sortofmilitar\'\irtuosohornpipe introducedinto

many

of the

Western

\illagesh\retired

army

dancingmasters.Tliismilitary'infiuenceisalso\'er\'

stronginthe

Basque

dances.

)

Tlie ISSOs witnessed\etanotherbig

change

in

dance

fashions - thecouple- dances of mostly

German

orPolishorigins.Tliefirstof thesetoreachtheniral areas

were

polkas,schottisches,

mazurkas and

waltzes.

The

waltz,historically the oldestofthese,

seems

tohavearrivedlate

and

isassociated

more

with 20th centun, repertoiresof

jains marches and

Latin

American

dances. Sheet

music

editedb\ theDupcnratfirm⁽

founded

in 18^4)

among

others contributedto .spreadingthe.serepertoiresthroughoutthe

countn

^,asthe

music was

sought

by

^brassbands,ballroomorchestras and,atthe

end

ofthe chain,localmusi- cians

who

usuallylearnedthemelodies

by

ear.Tlie earliertunes

were

easily assimilated b\ musicians

accustomed

totheolder

modal

scales,but theLatin

American and

popular tunesof the 1930s

were

\er\'difterentand

few

ofthe oldfiddlers,forinstance,

were

abletoassimilate

them

intotheirrepertoires.At the

same

time,thechromatic accordion,

which demands

a ver)- different musicalmentality

from

fiddling,hascompletely taken o\erforpopular dancing.

Inanygeneral pictureofdances

and

their

music

inFrance,

one

factstands out:thepenetrationofoutsideinfluences intodifferent social

groups

operates inaninfinite

number

ofwa\'s.

Some

groups almost totallyrejectoutside infiuences.

w

hileothers accept them.

Where Lower

Brittanyconserved very archaicformsuntil\en,'recent times, the

Western

Provincescompletely

adopted

19thcentur\'dances

and

instrumentalmusic,asdid the

North and

Wallonie,

who were

always

ven

up-to-datewith ailthelatestParisian

developments.Nevertheless,

Lower

Breton musicians

were

alwavsreceptive to

new good

tunes

and

adaptedaconsiderable

amount

ofurbanmaterialto their

own

^idiom,

and

inthe

Western

Provincesfiddlersstillpla\ the

more

recent repertoirebut useaven^archaic-sounding

drone

technique. Moreover,^inall theseareas,the

melodic

traditionofsongs not intendedfordancing remains largelymodal. But

between

the

two

extremes,

one

finds ahostofnuances,tor

example

thecoexistanceincertainpartsof

Upper

Brittanyof

sung

braillesand 19thi:t:ntur\ c/iuKln'llcs

and

couple-dances.

26

French-American

Traditional Culture:

An Overview by Kathy James

Between Maine and

Californiacan

be

found o\er 3,000

French

placenames, testimon)' tothezeal

and dynamic

spiritof theearh'

North American

French.

Tlieirfirst

permanent

settlement

was

at

Quebec

in 1608,ayearfollowing the

first

permanent

Fnglishsettlementat

Jamestown,

N'irginia.

Some were

habitants(subsistencefarmers),Catholicpriests,

and

miners,butfully a third of

them were

full-oratle;ustpart-timefur-traders, lliis

commerce dominated

Frenchinterests in

North America

for 1

SO

years.WliiletheBritishcolonists

were

still

enchned

at the Atlantic Coast,thesearchfor fursdispersed the Frenchasfarasthe Rock)'

Mountains and

beyond, theprofitsto

be made

inthe furtradeinducingthe Frenchtode\'elopgreat.skillsinhidian

diplomacy and

to seek

good

relations\\ithdistantNative

American

tribes.

Among

the importantIndianalliesof theFrenchfur-traders

and

the

voyageiirs\^hocarried the pelts

back

to

Quebec were

the

Cree and

(;hippewa people,

whom

theFrench

encountered

duringtheirinitialexplorationsof the GreatLakes, Intermarriagesof

Frenchmen and women

ofthese tribes resulted inthe creation ofapeople

who

todaycontinuetraditions,language,

and

arts pas.sed

down from

Indian

and

Frenchforebears..Such a

group

arethe Id,

000

MitchifIndians, halfof

whom

live

upon

the small Turtle

Mountain

Reser\ation in

North

D:ikota.(In

Canada

theyare

commonly

calledMetis[mixed],)Mitchif fiddlersplayinthe

Quebec manner,

beatinga

rhvlhm

withtheirfeet,while dancerssuchastherespectedMitchif patriarch,Alex Morin,beautifulh fluent inFrench,

perform

^the

"Red

Ri\erJig," a

dance

that

combines

the

European

jig

form

withIndian

dance

steps

and

rhythmic cadences,

Tlie British

and

French colonies

were drawn

intoaseriesof

wars and

disputesinthe

New

^>X'orldthat lasted fortv\'ocenturies.

These wars

leftan

MinatLire kimbena(.k.s with traditional tools car\edby Rodne\ Richard, awoodcarxerand kimberjackot.\cadiandescent tioniRangcley Likes,Maine.Photoby AllenCarroll.

Alphonse"Bois Sec" Ardoin,aCreolemusician fromDiiraldc".LouisianaPhotobyRobertYellin.

FrenchSpeaking¹loumalixli.uipiilnietK)wea\ er from1)Lilac,Louisiana.PhotobyMacjoneHunt.

Kcil/)ryii/diiicsiscm.\iiicriaiii(i/Frciuh clesceiilfiDni CMkirtoivii.Cif(>rt>ui.Afieldcol- lectin- iiiulslmlcnlIiflnKlilitnullciilliin'sshe hasi»iiii)ii:ctlluilinniiliimliiiUTihiliiiiuil toursoftnuliliiiiuilAnicricaii/JCiJiiniiiii)^

tirtists.

Siiggt'stedreeuling

Barkan.ElliottRobert "French(Canadians In Hiimirilhiunln/K'diciiijAiiu'iiaiiilitlniic Giiiii/is.pp ^{.iS.S 4()1} (Cambridge,Ma.ssacliu- settsand London.Fngland; HieBelknapPress ofllanardL iiiversit) Prcs.s,19S()

Hendrickson,0)4:6.Quiet Presence Fortl.ind, .Maine: Ciu\danncttRiblishingCo^. 1980 Tliomas,RosenianHyde /Is(,onil toTell You:TrenchTolklcilesfromMissoini.

d

)ltim- bia..Missouriand London,Fngland;I'niversity of.MissouriPress. 1981

Sui^esleclreci>rtlin}is

LouisBeiiiuloiii. PhiloRecords 2000.(The Barn,NorthFerrisburg.\TOS4~3)

Louis"Pitoii"liiniilreiiult.Iioloiieu.x:Mil- sicjiieetDuiiseTraililioiiiwtle iluSagtieutiy- Uic-Stiintjecm I.eTanianoir2~018 (Alta.

93"^rue .Meaux.SaintLeonard. (^)uebec )

Music ofTrench America.RounderRecords

(id111 ( 18(1Willow .\\eiiue..Somenille..Mass.

11211I I

\\

«

indelible-imprint not only

upon

the gcograph)-ofthecontinent butalso

upon

the directionot

go\ernmcnt and

culture in

North

America, hithe

1713

^Treaty' ofLitrecht, Irantjc

ceded

to Britain

No\a

Scotia (Acadia),

Newfoundland and

thevast

Hudson

Ba\ region.

W ^hen

^theFrenchresidents ofAcadia

were

reluctant to

swear

allegiance to the British

crown,

^theBritish

began

drastic

measures

thatculminatedinthe

nSS

expulsionof the Acadians. After great hardships,

man\

of theserefugees

from Canada

settledthe plains

and

prairiesof southwesternLouisiana

and

easternTexas\\here they

now

ha\eatleast

900.()()()descendants,

man\

of

whom

^stillspc;ikFrench.

Both

Britain

and

France\'iewedtheircoloniesassources of

raw

materials

and

amarketforfinishedgoods,butFrenchcontrol

was much

greater.Tlie locationofmineral resources,e\enatsitesfar

remoxed

frompotential

North American

markets,created

companies

charged withextracting thematerial.

A

smallpocket ofFrenchculturestillextantinsoutheastern Missouriresulted

from

sucha

mining

venture. VCIienI'oycigeiirsnoticedsurface leaddeposits

on

thewest

bank

ofthe Mississippi, inflatedstoriesaboutthe richnes> ofthe.se depositsreachedFrance. In 1" 19I.eSieur Renault,.scionofasmeltingfamily, leftFrancewitha

mining

expedition ofat least

200 members.

In 1"'23.he recei\'edtheearliest

documented

land grantin

upper

Louisiana.

By 1742

his

mining had

ended, but

some Frenchmen

continuedtoli\einthearea. Intime, theirdescendants

became

minersof the harite deposits⁽

known

locally astiff)

found

w

iththelead.

Some 400

French-speakingfamiliesstillli\ein\\ashington County,Missouri,

most

of

them

near theareapopularlycalled

"Old

Mines."

French

government

formally

ended

in

North America

withthe Louisiana Purchase. Still,

main

thousands ofFrench-.speakingpeople remained,sur-

rounded

byProtestantsand

go\erned

b\'systemsmo.stditl notunderstand. In

Quebec

the French-spe;ikingpeople suddenly

became

aminorit\ intheir

own

countr}-. Feeling

more abandoned

thandefeated,the\'turned

inward

tothe

two

institutionsleft-_{the family}

and

thechurch. In familiesandsmall

communities

theycreatedarich

body

oforal literature

and

a variety offolkmusics.\\hile their farm.stendedtobepoor,

due

totheconditionsof thesoil

and

climate, their craftsnourished.

Tlie

opening

of themill

towns

of

New

England

drew many

thousands of

Quebecois

south,'lliegreat majorityoftoday's

French-American New

EnglanderstracetheirancestPi to(,)uebccProvincethroughtho.se

w ho came

tot;ikeentry-leveljobsin

New

^{Englandmills.}

A

'Little

Canada

^" canbe foundin

most

of theoldermilltowns,aplace

where poor Quebec workers

Ii\ed. llie lateLouisBeaudoin.a brilliant

French-American

fiddlerandman\-timesa participantintheFesti\alof

American

Folklife.

was

a thirdgeneration Ameri- can

born

inthe 'LittleC;anada" of Lowell, Massachusetts.

TlieFrench

Americans

ha\e

been

partnersinthecultural,

economic and

political

de\elopment

of

North America from

the beginning.Tlie}'ha\eleftthis country acultural legacyrich inmusic,language, song, material culture,

foodways and

celebrations. Fortunately,thedi\ersityof transplantedFrench cultureisbeginningto

be

appreciatedforitscontributiontothemosaic(jfthe

New

^World.

28

Living by ^{the Music:}

Cohesive Influences in tlie Song

Repertoire of French -American

New Englanders

by Deborah Waldman

Ithasalways

been

a traditionalattitude

among

French-Canadianfolksingers that "le

bonheur

vient

en

chantant"(happiness

comes

withsinging).Tlie tratcrnalculturalorganization La Societe Richelieuexpressesthis socialphilos-

ophy

in asimilarway: "chanter,c'estfraterniser"(to singisto

be

togetherin

brotherhood

^).

French-Canadianfolk

song

representsanoralheritage

which

originally pkiyedacrucialroleinthee\er\daylifeof theruralQuebecois.Sociallifein

Quebec

before

World War

11centered

around

theactivitiesoftheparish,family

and

neighbors.

Communally

shared musicalgatherings,

known

asreil/ees.

were

nearlyuni\ersal, forpublicconcerts

and

other entertainments^^•ererarein a small\illage,ifthey

occurred

at^all. Ilieveilleeser\edbothas areunionforold friends

and

rclati\cs,

and

asanopportunityfor

young

peopletosur\ e\ and acti\eh'courtpotentialmates.Heldinthelargekitchen of

some

farm house, theveilleeincluded dancing,clogging,

pkuing

offiddles,accordions

and

spoons,singing,eatinganddrinking.

Some

familieshadpianos,

and

anevening offamilysingingat

home

\\'asa

common and

popular pastimefor

mam

^of

toda\'solderFrench

New

^Englanders

who were

raisedinthe\illages

and

countPisideof

Quebec.

TraditionalFrench-Canadian

music

addressesinterpersonalthemes.

Hie two most

jircxalent

npes

ofsongsarein factstRicturcdin

performance

to

demand human

interaction:the li\ely

chanson a

repoiidre featuresaleader\\hosingsa fe\\ linesandis

answered

musicallywitharefrain

sung

b\ agroup.

The chanson a deux

isanoften

humorous

dialoguebetsveentw(;people.

Tliematically,itisnotsurprisingthat traditionalsongs ofthisheritage portra) thetopics, attitudes

and

multiple roles\\hich characterized the e\er\daylifeof the French-Canadian habitant(iiirnn^r),hou.sewifc,sailor,kner, voyagetir

(tra\eler),coiirein-cliihois(lumberjack),

and members

oftheclerg}'.

Althoughthe

American-born

descendants of French-Clanadiansaretheoff-

spring ofpeople

whose

lives

were

naturalh tailoredto a rural

and

agrarian traditicjn,the) are actuallythechildrenofIndustrialAmerica.Tliey

were

rai.sed

Alinwa/illminaturc-can.ed by^tlielaie b;iliad singer.Romt'OBeitliiaume ofWcxiasiKket,Rlicxie IsLduI, The Biayea lina traditional Quebec

larni tool u.sed to break the hu.sk of the tl;L\

pkuit,i.sapotent.s\niboltor tlieFrench-Ginaduui hiilvldnl.or smalltiirnier Photoby Carol Pendleton,