CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW
B. Some Pertinent Ideas
2. Concept of Reading Comprehension
Harris and Sipay (1980) state that reading comprehension as the result interaction between the perception of graphic symbols that present language skills and knowledge of the world.
According to Tierney (1980) comprehension is the process of simultaneously extracting and constructing meaning through interaction and involvement with written language.
Based on the definition above, we may conclude that reading comprehension is such a kind of language between an author and a reader in which the written language become the medium that cause the dialogue happen when the two persons communicative through the medium print.
From Kristin and Leah (2010) explanation, we know that reading comprehension can be achieved when a reader has a capability to get some information from the written text. Reading comprehension is a dynamic competency according to the purpose for reading and the text that is involved.
Reading comprehension also needs the reader’s background of knowledge and both cognitive and metacognitive strategies.
Guthrie (2008) also gives explanation about reading comprehension.
He explains that to comprehend the text, we have to connect the knowledge we have to the topic presented in the passage. Guthrie states, reading comprehension is a process of connecting the text and the student’s prior knowledge about the topic of the text.
So reading comprehension can be seen as one of reading goals. It can be defines as the readers understand what the text tell about, knowing the main idea of the text, and the details of the text, then combine it with their knowledge about the topic discussed. Some also see reading comprehension as a very complex activity.
In addition, there are also some hints to get reading comprehension,
“the reader’s knowledge of the world,’ or the prior knowledge the reader has of the topic, interacts with the text-based and language-based cues to produce efficient reading.
The comprehension also can be divided into three levels. The levels of understanding are reading the lines which refer to the literal meaning of the text, reading between the lines that are getting the inferred meaning of the text, and reading beyond the lines are criticizing and evaluating the text.
In summing up, the researcher saw that reading comprehension become the main goal whatever the readers’ goals in doing reading. Although reading comprehension could be achieved through a very complex process, readers’ knowledge about the topic read and ability to understand text structure and meaning will obviously help them to achieve reading comprehension.
b. Factors Affecting Reading Comprehension
There are many factors which affect reading comprehension. The first factor is described in Understanding Reading Problem that good readers are gaining an abundance of information about the world and a wealth of
vocabulary. This knowledge and this vocabulary are the tools readers use to comprehend: as the schema theory of comprehension predicts, we need to know a little bit about the topic we can learn something new about it.
Readers who read a lot are going to know a little bit about a lot more topics and will be better readers because of it.
Also Sharon and King (2000) propose a reason of the lack of comprehension. They stated, “The lack of comprehension maybe the result of many factors. They are the reading material maybe too difficult, the reading material may be dull or uninteresting, and students not having necessary background or schema for reading a selection.”
From the explanation above, we can point out that knowing the global and general knowledge was the key to get better comprehension. The vocabulary owned by people also affects the comprehension. In the other hand, Sharon and King propose the reasons that affect the comprehension obstacle. It could be inappropriate and interesting of reading material.
Guthrie (2008) proposes the knowledge of the material is really important. He stated, “Reading comprehension improves when depth of understanding is facilitated, students need to deeply grasp one historical event or one scientific principle through multiple readings, applications, discussions, and connections to other areas. Therefore, organizing facts into principles, concepts into main ideas, and ideas into major themes within the content domains is vitally important.
Moreover, Boer and Dallmann (1964) also stated that some of the conditions needed by people to make maximum progress in reading are physical health, mental health, sight and hearing, intelligence, background of experience, knowledge of language, desire to read, purposes for reading, interest in reading, and reading skills.
So, many factors involved in reading process. What a reader has to did to maximize those factors in order to achieve the maximum understanding on the materials read.
c. The Level of Reading Comprehension
The level of reading comprehension involves more of an active role on the part of the reader (Heilman 1988:246).
1) Literal comprehension.
This level of comprehension represents the minimum of involvement on the part of the reader. It is the simple understanding of the words and ideas of author. The author’s massage is received but not examined, evaluated, or utilized in any way.
2) Interpretive comprehension.
At this level the reader not only knows what the author said but goes beyond that simple knowledge. It involves an effort to grasp relationship, compare facts with personal experiences, understand sequences .see cause and effect relationship, and generally interpret the massage. It requires a more active participation on the part of the reader.
3) Applied comprehension.
At this level reader does more than merely receiving and interpreting the massage. The reader evaluates the author’s ideas, either accepting or rejecting them or applying then to some new situation.
4) Critical comprehension.
At this level reader analyzing, evaluating, and personally reacting to information presented in a passage.
Generally the emphasis at this level of comprehension is on actively bringing the reader’s general understanding to bear on the ideas and concepts contained in the reading passage. The synthesis is necessary for higher comprehension, especially on difficult material.
3. Concept of Picture
a. The Understanding of Picture
Pictures play an important role as an alternative teaching aid in teaching English. The teacher given a picture, and then ask the students about it. Picture is easy to be found by all people. Through picture the student can practice to develop their idea.
Picture can be seen as many things such place, objects, and people. In Picture for Language Learning, Wright (1989) proposes,
“pictures are not just an aspect of method but through their representation of places, objects, and people. They are an essential part of overall experiences.”
Teachers have always used picture or graphics, whether drawn
taken from books, newspaper and magazines or photograph, to facilitate in learning, picture can be in the form of flashcard, large wall picture, cue cards, photograph or illustration.
Picture is defined as a drawing, a painting, or photograph, an image of someone or something. The meaning of picture can motivate presenting a sequent of even, story and thing like the real life, which might be used more effectively to develop and sustain motivation in producing positive attitude toward English and to reach language skill.
The researcher summarizes that illustration picture has a lot of meanings. Picture is defined as a drawing, a painting, or photograph, an image of someone or something. The meaning of picture can motivate presenting a sequent of even, story and thing like the real life, which might be used more effectively to develop and sustain motivation in producing positive attitude toward English and to reach language skills.
Picture is also considered as good resource and media in teaching learning. Murcia and Hilles (1988) state that pictures are versatile and useful resources for teaching. so this resource can facilitate language program.
The researcher concludes that picture is a visual representative of an object such things, humans, animal, etc., which this visual representative gives the information about the real characteristic of the object.
b. The Types of Picture
The picture used as media in teaching vocabulary can be divided into three groups. They are:
1. Individual Pictures
Individual pictures are a single picture of person, subject, or activities.
Individual pictures usually teach vocabulary in order to introduce the words.
2. Pictures Series
Is a number of elated composite pictures which are linked to form a series of sequences. Pictures series usually teach writing subject from the beginning until the end. It is like story presented in chronological order.
3. Composite Picture
Is a picture that described a story or something, these pictures are most appropriate for whole class teaching rather than individualized.
4. Flash Card
a. Word Flashcard, card with printed words on it can help up rapidly, the cards can be used to demonstrate exactly what the teacher wishes.
b. Picture Flashcard is useful for representation of a single concept, such as an object or an action.
c. The Criteria of Good Picture
The teacher should have the ability to convey the good material to the students, when she/he teaches in the class, teachers need some media to make students easier to understanding the material, pictures is one of visual media that teacher used in teaching and learning process.
According to Wright, there are some criteria for selecting good pictures for the students, such as:
1. The aid must be easy to prepare and organize by the teacher.
2. The aid must be interesting for students.
3. The aid must be excellent point of view and sufficient amount of language.
4. The aid must fit in the best principle of education.
Based on the explanation above, the criteria for good picture should be clear and big enough to see, and to choose or select a picture is needed to be appropriated with the knowledge of the students and related to the topic that is being discussed.
d. Picture as a Media in Teaching Learning Process
Picture is one of visual aids that can give a lot of benefits in teaching learning process. According to Wright (1989), pictures are very important in helping students to understand something since they can represent place, object, people, etc. Picture can attract the students’ attention and direct the students to concentrate on the lesson. It means that by looking at the pictures, it helps the students to understand more about the context of the subject, because they will get a lot of information.
According to Shin (2006), there are several ways to English for Young Learners. One of them is by supplementing the activity of learning with media. The media which is used in this research is visual media, in the form of picture to attract the students’ attention in the process of learning.
According to Gerlach (1980) pictures have several advantages and disadvantages:
a) The advantages of pictures
1) Pictures are inexpensive and widely available.
2) Pictures provide common experiences for entire group.
3) The visual detail makes it possible to study subjects which would otherwise be impossible.
4) Pictures can help to prevent and correct misconceptions.
5) Pictures offer a stimulus to further study, reading, and research.
6) Pictures help to focus attention and to develop critical judgement.
7) Pictures are easily manipulated.
b) The disadvantages of pictures
1) Sizes and distances are often distorted.
2) Lack of some color in some pictures limits proper interpretations.
3) Students do not always know how to read picture.
4. Procedure Text
a. The Definition of Procedure Text
Procedure text is a text that is designed to describe how something is achieved through a sequence of actions or step. It explains how people perform different processes in a sequence of steps. This text uses simple
present tense, often imperative sentences. It also uses the temporal conjunction such as first, second, then, next, finally, etc. This text type is commonly called as instruction text. It uses pattern of commend in building the structure. It use the “to infinitive verb” which is omitted the “to”. It is a kind of instruction text which uses full commend verb. Procedure is commonly used to describe how to make something which is close to our daily activity. For example how to make a cup of tea, how to make a good kite, etc. is the best example of the procedure text. It is such word; first boil water, secondly prepare the cup, and so on.
Mark and Cathy also explain the examples of procedure text are recipes, itineraries, instruction manuals, and direction.In their book, Mark and Cathy (2003) stated that, “procedure is a piece of text that gives us instructions for doing something. The purpose of a procedure text type is to explain how something can be done.” Is also stated that a procedure enables people to do things that are new to them or to make sure they do things in the correct order, and include all that needs to be done.
Procedure is a piece of text that gives us instructions for doing something. We use many kinds of text in daily life. Usually we read a text how to operate new things, how to prepare or make something, how to act in some circumstances like school, company, and a community, and how to get to some places. Those kinds of text are called procedure text. The purpose of a procedure text type is to explain how something can be done. Is also stated that a procedure enables people to do things that are new to them or to make
sure they do things in the correct order, and include all that needs to be done.
Then, it can be concluded that procedure text presents steps to do something, making something, or going somewhere. In case of procedure text can be easily experienced in daily life, people ought to know about it.
b. Generic Structure of Procedure Text
There are three element of generic structure in procedure text, those are:
1. Aim or goal: something to achieve (the title /an introductory paragraph.
2. Materials (ingredients, equipment): things needed to achieve the goal.
3. Steps: activities to achieve the goal.
c. Purpose of Procedure Text
An anticipated outcome that is intended or that guides your planned actions. A particular course of action intended to achieve a result. Or To help us do a task or make something. They can be a set of instructions or directions.
d. Language Feature of Procedure Text
There were five the language feature of procedure text according to Mark and Cathy (2003):
Use adverbial of sequence / Use temporal conjunction (first, second, third, the last).
Use command / imperative sentence (put the noodles on the, cut the
onion, wash the tomatoes).
Using adverbials (Adverbs) to express detail the time, place, manner accurate, for example, for five minutes, 2 hours, etc.
Using action verbs (make, take, boil, etc.).
Use simple present tense.
e. Types of Procedure Text
Text in English had some types. There were three types of procedure text:
1. Procedure text explains how something works or how to use manual instructions / opinions. For example, how to use computer, how to record video, how to recorded camera.
2. Procedure text instructing how to do certain activities. For example, how to make a noodle, how to dance, how to play basketball.
3. Procedure text related to human behavior. For example, how to succeed, how to live happily, how to be a good person.
f. Example of Procedure Text
Aim or goal: How to make Chocolate Frappuccino Mocha Latte
Materials:
Syrup (this makes a small cup of syrup, so you can use it maybe 10-15 times again, same recipe)
1/4 cup of cocoa powder
1/2 cup sugar (I used a little less, maybe 3/8)
1 dash salt
1/2 cup water
1 teaspoon vanilla extract
2 teaspoons your choice of ground coffee
1/4 cup of hot water
3/4 cup of hot milk (you can steam this if you have the tools)
Steps:
1. Step 1: Make a syrup
Mix the cocoa and sugar, and put them in a sauce pan. Heat on Medium-High. Leave it in there for a minute or two (any more can actually burn the chocolate leaving a strange smell/taste, but if you want, you can heat the sugar first, making it more caramel-like. Just don't put the chocolate in first then), mixing the dry cocoa and sugar, so the sugar can
heat up, and perhaps burn a little for a more caramel-like taste.
Add the water slowly, thirds at a time, mixing well in between.
Then add a dash of salt (brings out the flavor, but just a tiny bit).
Once mixed completely, the mix will probably be already boiling, so lower the heat to a Medium, let it boil for about 5-8 minutes mixing constantly. Boil until mixture thickens, you will notice that if you move your spoon (or whatever you're mixing with) fast through the mixture, you can see the bottom of the pot for a quick second.
Don't worry if it looks feels or looks too viscous, it will harden once you turn off the heat.
Turn the Heat off, let it cool for a few minutes. I boiled a small jar (to kill bacteria), then poured the syrup in there.
2. Step 2: Milk
Before you make your Coffee, you want to make the milk part first:
Take 3/4 Cup of milk, cover and microwave (or heat) for
two minutes.
If you have a frothing wand, then use that. If you don't, you can stick the milk into the blender and froth for a couple of minutes, or use a hand blender (which is what I did, see pictures) and make it nice and frothy.
3. Step 3: Make a coffee
Now for the coffee, I used a French Press, but you can use your normal coffee machine to make yourself a batch of coffee.
If you're using the French Press: Mix your ground beans and hot water together, wait a minute, extract the coffee, pour into your cup.
4. Step 4: Final step, mix and enjoy
First, pour your coffee into the cup, and then add a teaspoon of your syrup. Mix until the syrup is melted, and combined.
If you've got your milk ready, hot and whipped up, pour it in, do the latte shake (or don't, and be unexciting).
Your coffee is ready to be enjoyed.
C. Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework underlined in this research was given below:
INPUT
Reading Comprehension
PROCESS
Use Picture Media in learning reading process.
Figure 2.1 Conceptual Framework
In the diagram above input, process and output classified briefly in the following. Input was explanation about reading comprehension, in this case reading comprehension in teaching procedure text while process refers to the students’ activity in teaching and learning process by using picture. Output it refers to the students’ literal reading comprehension as their result in learning English Reading by used picture, recognition of main ideas and supporting ideas.
D. Hypothesis
The hypothesis of this research was formulated as follows:
1. Null Hypothesis (H0): There was no an improvement of students’ reading comprehension by using picture at SMP Negeri 18 Makassar.
2. Alternative Hypothesis (H1): There was an improvement of students’ reading comprehension by using picture at SMP Negeri 18 Makassar.
OUTPUT
Improving students’ literal reading comprehension.