CHAPTER II: REVIEW THE RELATED LITERATURE
C. Concept of the Speaking Materials
Utami (2018) Speaking materials must be designed for supporting teaching of speaking skill. Many people state that teaching of speaking skill is often correlated with speaking activity such as interaction, discussion, role play, speech, interview and so on. However, despite the apparent priority accorded to speaking skills by contemporary methodologies, speaking skills have, until relatively recently, been under analysed in English language teaching, with the result that speaking skills syllabuses in English language teaching materials often amount to no more than a list of speaking activities e.g., role play or information gap.
In this sub-chapter, the researcher will explain the definition of speech based on expert theory, the core of speaking skills, speaking material,
factors that support teaching speech, and problems in learning speaking skills. That will be explained as follows:
1. Definition of Speaking
Thonburry in Utami (2018) speaking is interactive and requires the ability to cooperate in the management of speaking turns. It also typically takes place in real time, with little time for detailed planning. Speaking is skill, and as such needs to be developed and practised independently of the grammar curriculum. Speaking is so much a part of daily life that we take it for granted.
He also added that speaking is much more than the oral production of grammar or vocabulary items. Thus, speaking is skill that encourages the students become interactive through the real activity. Interactive activity may come from the interaction between the speaker and interlocutor. Because of interaction between speaker and interlocutor, the activity of speaking can be granted.
Muhammad Zia UlHaq and Firman (2012) Speaking is the performance to process by human being to produce their ideas and thought into spoken form, and it is refer as productive performances. To promote the speaking performance as one of production performances or the interactive performances, a speaker when conveying sentences or utterance should be intelligible and meaningful. He/she speak at an intelligible flow of speech in order to be understood by opposite speaker or the listener.
Therefore he/she should know to differentiate the sounds in English words, rules in constructing English sentences and appropriate selection of
English word in sentences or utterances as the accuracy of English use and accordingly effective communication. At the same time, she should speak out the words smoothly as like the native speakers speaking speed and rhythm in everyday context. Briefly, speaking performance refers to a students’ skill to produce spoken language both accurately and fluently.
Chastain in Rasyida (2015), speaking is a productive skill since it produces ideas, messages, and suggestion and we need to practice it. To increase the skill in communicating in English, it is not enough in the classroom but practice outside of the classroom. It will be influenced our speaking skill.
Cameron in Pratiwi( 2013 ) mentions that “speaking is the active use of language to express meaning, so that other people can make sense of them to speak in the foreign language in order to share understanding with other people requires attention to precise details of the language”. A speaker needs to find the most appropriate words and the correct grammar to convey meaning accurately and precisely and also need to organize the discourse, so that a listener will understand.
2. Speaking Materials
Buechener, CarlW (2007) explain about Speaking is one basic skill that we have to master in learning English, because its skill is purpose for communication. Speaking is like singing. It means we have to go-up and down our intonation voice in different level. A student of music has to combining the voice with the sounds music harmonic as well as speaking. In speaking, we have to combining vocabulary, intonation; pronunciation, grammar and other aspect
for deliver our speaking to the audience. In learning English, speaking is important skill. To master speaking we have to learn about speech of sounds, spelling, pronunciation, vocabulary and any other aspect.18 Another terminology of speaking, speaking is a skill that deserves every bit as much as literary skill, in both of first and second language. There are two basic ways, he adds, which speaking can be seen as skill, they are:
1. Motor perceptive skill, including articulation, perceiving, recalling, in the correct order sounds and the structure of the language.
2. Interaction skill, which cover making decision about communication, such as what to say, how to say it and whether to develop it, in accordance with one’s intention, with maintaining the desire relation with other.
Other expert stated that speaking is the production skill consists of producing systematic verbal utterance to convey the meaning.20Based on the description above, we can conclude that skill that diverse every bit to convey the speaker meaning to the audience. In addition, the researcher adds that some who speak in foreign language have to know the rule of that language, like grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and word-formation. In addition, they have to apply them when they are communicating using that language.
3. Designing of Speaking Materials
Bailey, K. M (2005) Objective of the lesson and for the language lesson books especially English should be more focuses in developing how the student communicate using the language itself. So that here are several rules in designing speaking materials:
1) The English speaking materials should integrate the language skills and the content.
2) The English speaking materials should create the productive, joyful, and without stress learning.
3) The English speaking materials should be able to optimize the students‟
potentials through conscious and unconscious suggestion.
4) The English speaking materials should promote natural, social, and moral realities (good character).
5) The English speaking material should contain linguistic and communicative competence.
4. Good Speaking Criteria
Thornbury Scott, in M. Nur Chaqiqi (2017) In order to maximize speaking opportunities and increase the chances that learners will experience autonomous language use, the following conditions need to be met :
a. Clear Instructions – speaking tasks should have some relation to real-life language use. If not, they are poor preparation for autonomy. But, in order to become autonomous, learners will need to understand the instructions that the teacher give. It also means that the kind of topics, genres, and situations must be well informed during pre-activity in order to smooth the students to act the lesson.
b. Interactivity – activities should require learners to take into account the effect they are having on their audience. If not, they can hardly be said to be good preparation for real-life language use. Even formal, monologic
speaking tasks such as talks and presentations should be performed in situations where there is at least the possibility of interaction, e.g. where there is an audience present, one which can demonstrate interest, understanding, and even ask questions or make comments at the end.
c. Challenge – the task should stretch the learners so that they are forced to draw on their available communicative resources to achieve the outcome.
This will help them experience the sense of achievement, even excitement, that is part of autonomous language use. Of course, if the degree of challenge is too high, this can be counterproductive, inhabiting learners or reducing them to speaking in their L1. The teacher needs to be sensitive to the degree of difficulty a task presents individual learners and to adjust the task accordingly.
d. Analytical – often language productivity can be increased by making sure that the speaking activity has a clear outcome especially one which requires learners to work together to achieve a common purpose. For example, the aim of having to reach a jointly agreed decision can give a discussion more point and encourage the participation of all members. Requiring learners to report to the class on their discussion is also an effective way of ensuring a greater degree of commitment to the task. A competitive elements such as – turning the task into a race – can also help.
So from the whole study, here are several criteria of good speaking materials.
a) Have Clear Instructions in Every Activity
The way how the materials explained is crucial to both successful learning and teaching English. Perhaps the most important point that determines how successfully students will learn is the way instructions are formulated and sometimes it is this point which distinguishes good teachers from bad ones. It is important, therefore, that teachers‟ directions also relating to academic activity and behavior are clear, precise and effective. It goes without saying that the best activity in the world will turn into a disappointing failure if students don’t understand the instructions.
Amazingly, while some students may remain focused on tasks, others may appear to be distracted or confused. That’s why, if directions or instructions are not effectively and clearly formulated, there will be a number of students who will simply not have assimilated what is to be done or have only caught part of the information. Any failure to hear or understand teachers‟
directions will undoubtedly result in many unwanted behavior While there are many factors that can help or hinder learning, the act of giving clear instructions is clearly one of the most crucial. The way that we give instructions can make or break an activity. Without clear instructions, students may become confused, may lose confidence, and may not get the most out of the experience. Without clear instructions, we may find ourselves ending an exercise with a less-than-warm feeling.
b) There are Communicative Activities
Using the communicative activities such as innovative program had a significant impact on improving students' speaking proficiency.
Meaningful situations were established using pair work and group work, both important features of Communicative Language Teaching in the speaking materials. Thus created a positive atmosphere and in the same time, reducing affective barriers to language learning Recommendations have been provided for teachers in arranging the speaking materials as communicative as possible. The Information-gap and the Role-play are highly recommended as an effective method in the improvement of students' speaking proficiency.
c) There are Engaging and Challenging Activities
Including designing and arranging the materials carefully in new and challenging ways, ways which are, nonetheless, compatible with the realities of modern live. Most particularly the teacher must be able to support the learners in their initial endeavors, as they begin to work in very different ways to those they have been used to, within themselves about their own spoken English; in how they work with their friends and classmates;
and, especially, in how they relate and work with their teacher. Encouraging them to get through the challenges this offers by taking the time to consciously reflect on what is going on, was shown to be one way this could be done successfully. That is why the speaking activities has crucial portion to mastering language. Speaking activities should give students a chance to use what they have been studying and really make it „theirs,‟ so they can draw on it when needed in their lives. They provide a variety of ways to
practice structures and vocabulary students have been learning, at first with some guidance, then more and more independently.
Activities that Emphasize Speaking can be formed into Group competitive games such as: Short dialogs, Information gaps, Corners, Talking (or writing about)/finding things in pictures (What’s happening here?), Line up (partner exchange) for short Q & As, Mingles, Dictations (not communicative, but they give more hearing practice as well as being useful for assessment. It’s easier to see what they’ve learned.) , Find someone who (An activity in which Intermediate students ask many classmates questions from a list until they get a positive response and signature for every question possible.), The Question game, Debate, and there are still many more ideas that can be used in speaking materials.
Most of these activities can be adapted to many different lessons.
Several are especially useful as icebreakers (to help classmates get acquainted), warm-ups (start of class review and switching-mind-to English activities, especially useful if not all students arrive on time) and as breaks or extra review when there’s a little time left after the main lesson has been completed. Some activities are quite simple and may not sound like much if you haven’t tried them, but if they are planned considering the levels and interests of your class they can add a lot to a lesson. Enjoy your class, listen to their needs, and feel free to experiment the speaking materials provided.
d) There are Analytical Activities
How do teachers encourage students to think critically must be supported by good source especially in teaching English. Here is why analytical activities should blend into the materials. After all, so much of language learning is rote memorization. Critical thinking can and does fit in the language classroom and see how well they can express their thoughts with the language they are learning. And also critical thinking is particularly important because it will serve them in their futures no matter what language they are speaking. The activities that suitable such as open ended questions, giving a quick answer, encourage argument, make predictions, and soon.
So in conclusion, there are four criteria that indicate the good quality of speaking materials:
1) Has Clear Instructions In Every Activities 2) There Are Communicative Activity
3) There Are Engaging And Challenging Activities 4) There Are Analytical Activities
D. Concept of the Student Needs
Student needs are deficits in specific skills that impede academic, physical, behavioral, and self help activities in daily living or social achievement. Student needs are determined by teachers and/or other professionals (sometimes through formal assessments) and in consultation with
parents/guardians. Student needs can be effectively addressed through appropriate teaching strategies.
Fulfilling the needs of students, in addition to aiming to provide the material of activities as precisely as possible, also subject matter that has been adjusted according to needs, is usually more interesting.
1. Need Analysis
Kim (2013) used need analysis to develop ESP course for engineering students in Korea. Li (2014) stated that the result of need analysis is helpful to set the teaching goals, selecting textbook and teaching methods and as guidance to the course designer into designing English materials. Araminta and Halimi (2015) conducted need analysis to analyze the English needs of undergraduate engineering students at University in Indonesia and the result showed that the needs of students’ English language were not significant. The result of their research recommended the institution should collaborate with the companies to collect information related to language use in the field of work.
AndiTenriAmpa, Muhammad Amin Rasyid, AsfahRahman ,Haryanto, Muhammad Basri D.(2013) In need analysis, the designer identifies the learning problem, the goals and objectives, the audience’s needs, existing knowledge, and any other relevant characteristics of students. Analysis also considers the learning environment, any constraint, the delivery options, and the timeline for the project. During analysis, the designer develops a clear understanding of the
"gaps" between the desired outcomes, and the audience's existing knowledge and skills.
2. Student Needs
Analysis of student needs is very useful for determine the learning goals will later be used for develop materials, activities, and tests. With conducting a needs analysis students, teaching material will be easier adapted, developed, and used. With knowing the need of the students, teachers will be easier to choose, adapt, and develop material teach according to the needs of students so the learning objectives will be easier to fulfill.
Ckky (2015) Individual behavior is an embodiment of the drive to meet their needs. These needs are at the core of human nature. Thus, it can be understood that school activities in principle are also manifestations of fulfilling the needs of the individual. Therefore, a teacher needs to know and understand the level of needs of his students, so that they can help and fulfill their needs through various educational activities, including learning activities. In addition, by getting to know the needs of students, teachers can provide lessons as precisely as possible, according to the needs of their students.
3. Development of Learning Materials Based on Students’ Needs
Allwright (1990) argues that learning materials should teach students to learn, that they should be resource books for ideas and activities for learning, and that they should give teachers rationales for what they do. Learning materials are also used to help transfer information and skills to others. These are used in teaching at places like schools, colleges and universities. These can
include textbooks, films, audios, and more or these can include printed and non- printed materials. The common characteristic of all of them is that they should enhance teaching in a meaningful, interesting way.
Similarly, the other characteristics of learning materials stated by Nash (1999) are practical, relevant to the students’ situation, building upon existing knowledge, problem centered, logical and clear. Similirly, Tomlinson (2003) states that material development refers to anything which is done by writers, teachers or lecturers to provide sources of language input in which maximize the likelihood of intake.
In other words, it also relates to the supplying of information about and or experience of the language in ways designed to promote language learning.
In doing so, materials developers, including teachers or lecturers, may bring pictures or advertisements in the classroom, compose a textbook, design a student worksheet, film, read a poem or an article. Therefore, whatever they do to provide input, they also take into account any related principle to make the learners able to learn the language effectively. Therefore, they should be based on the students’ needs.
4. The Needs of Students Related to Learning Speaking
English language skills like native speakers are everyone's dream.
Unfortunately this requires a hard and unmitigated effort. How to improve speaking skills in English or what can be done so that we can at least communicate well and without feeling nervous. Related to learning to speak,
there are several things needed by students to improve their speaking abilities.
Just as listening then practices. These two things can improve speaking skills in students.
1) Listening
listening is one of the main things students can do to improve their speaking skills. English speaking skills by listening are to express intonation, tone of voice, and pressure on sentences or words. Each language has its own unique tone and tone. Even in English itself, between the United States and British Britain there are significant sound differences.
Therefore it is very important for those of us who want to learn to stick to one dialect or accent during this training period. Hearing a variety of English accents will reduce the effectiveness of learning speaking skills a little.
As for the media that can be used to improve speaking skills in students are film, TV series, music, audiobooks, podcasts that use English all of these are tools that can help improve speaking skills. Movies, TV series and English songs are no stranger, but maybe some of us are unfamiliar with audiobooks and podcasts. Audiobook is an online audio book, which is different from the e-book, we hear the narrator read the contents of the book, and not read online. While podcasts are subscribed to online audio broadcast channels that have a variety of content, from stand-up comedy, daily fashion tips, to the latest world political and economic reviews.
2) Practice