2.4 TR Constraints and Enablers in Challenged Spaces
2.4.2 Constraints to TR in Challenged Spaces
The legacy of colonialism often results in the neglect of indigenous knowledge belief systems in postcolonial countries favouring Euro-Western and Global North knowledge (McLeod, 2010). As a result of the dominance of English and the standard of postcolonial education, low literacy rates are apparent in many postcolonial countries (UNDP, 2018). The teaching of reading is regarded as one of the most troublesome tasks in T&L, prone to poor literacy statistics (Howie et al., 2017; Makhathini & Mgqwashu, 2017). Poor academic literacy is a concern globally and even more so in challenged educational spaces (Makhathini &
Mgqwashu, 2017).Literacy is no longer viewed as a static process acquired via reiteration and memorisation; instead, it is considered a “dynamic process that begins at birth with strong place-based social and community roots” (Flint et al., 2019, p. 3).
Most people in rural Zimbabwean areas have a limited command of English because they only have regular exposure to their mother tongue in their community. The implementation of mother-tongue instruction would greatly benefit learners in rural primary schools in Zimbabwe since they may lack the necessary proficiency in the second language to tackle analytical skills required in the learning discourse (Ndamba et al., 2017). Despite the
advantages of mother tongue education, some stakeholders in education, and African parents, still believe in uninformed language myths that proclaim the best way to learn a foreign language is to have it as a language of instruction (Dalvit et al., 2009). Another predominant reason to keep English as the language for education was the requirement for one to be formally employed and enter higher learning institutions (Ndamba et al., 2017).
In Vietnam, there are many obstacles to launching bilingual schools and moving from a monolingual educational system to a multilingual system that embraces indigenous languages and knowledge. According to Lavoie and Benson (2011), teachers’ suggestions for adapting multilingual educational systems in Vietnam include “promoting local languages and cultures in school” (p. 269), greater access to “human resources and services, to pedagogical material, and to building material to repair deteriorating schools” (p. 279) and “including indigenous knowledge in the curriculum” (p. 282).
According to Blease and Condy, a “one-size-fits-all curriculum” (Blease & Condy, 2014, p. 36) will not solve the challenges that rural multi-grade teachers and learners encounter.
However, there are no PD programmes or curriculum support programmes to support the specific needs of multi-grade teachers. “Similarly, in Iran, the curriculum used in rural multigrade classrooms is the same as for urban monograde classrooms” (Blease & Condy, 2014, p. 39). The issue here is that multi-grade Iranian teachers must comply with the normal writing curriculum set out by their government. The importance of having good writing skills cannot be disputed. Most rural multi-grade teachers and learners want to follow the process and utilise the opportunity to improve their skills and become independent writers. “Learners need to acquire this skill in order to break free from the stigma and stranglehold of poverty and illiteracy” (Blease & Condy, 2014, p. 39). However, writing is a complex skill that requires the assistance of trained professionals; unfortunately, in most situations, multi-grade school teachers are not trained nor capable of providing quality education to their learners utilsing the standard curricula (Aghazadeh, 2010; Blease & Condy, 2014).
Since 1990, access to primary schools has increased dramatically throughout the developing world, but learning outcomes have lagged (World Bank, 2018). The introduction of free primary education in Kenya has had a significant impact on teachers' workload in the classroom, resulting in poor performance in Kenya's public primary schools. Many schools reported inadequate teaching and administration staff and difficulties managing workload because of a disproportional increase in LTRs (Gakure et al., 2013). In India, researchers found that teachers are mostly busy with administrative work, which they reported was one of the biggest hindrances in successfully implementing educational policies aimed at reducing educational inequalities (Patra & Panigrahi, 2018).
Research undertaken in Kenya by Muyaka (2018) investigated the community’s role
became a major hindrance to girls’ access to basic education as the girls’ probability to access and remain in school was readily reduced as they faced both cultural and socio-economic challenges” (Muyaka, 2018, p. 438). The community was very poor. Furthermore, cultural traditions in the communities harmed girls' access to education since early marriages hampered girls' education through the practice of “booking” for marriage as a risk of non- enrolment or dropping out of school. “The other factors reported to keep girls out of school were herding, house chores and participation in traditional rituals” (Muyaka, 2018, p. 438).
An unequal ecology in challenged educational contexts “results in fewer opportunities due to resource constraints, with few services and avenues available to develop human and social capital” (Ebersöhn et al., 2020, p. 2). This lack of capital may be intensified by features of an at-risk social context and a social origin of risk (Ebersöhn, 2016). Social origins of risk manifest in various contexts in insidious ways. In the school context, these risks include high poverty, lack of school-community participation, limited access to welfare, health and transport services, exposure to conflict and crime, and unreasonable workloads. In the kinship system, these risks include high intergenerational poverty, low parental education levels, and subsequent low household incomes (Ebersöhn, 2016).
Ebersöhn’s generative theory (2012) of RRR “expands on the ecological nature of social capital by proposing that social resilience operates collectively. RRR highlights the importance of connection, support-seeking and interpersonal relationships in resilience processes” (Ebersöhn et al., 2020, p. 5). However, various factors can negatively impact the ability of social capital to bond and bridge via relationships. Poor relationship skills can negatively affect the development of RRR. “In some instances ecological variables hindered maintenance of relationships and consequently had a negative impact on promoting resilience. In rural schools…. the demands of resources spread over vast distances and individuals staying in different home bases culminated in limited time to engage with resource partners” (Ebersöhn, 2012, p. 79).
In less equal societies, more resources are available to some than to others, and those with fewer resources experience more risk. Also, “the degree of resource constraints is higher, and scarcity exists on the scale of individual, family, community, and societal level” (Ebersöhn, 2016, p. 3). Severe financial stressors can result in maladaptation due to impaired cognitive functioning, which may disrupt effective resilience processes. Poverty-related stressors capture the attention, which preoccupies thought to the extent that most cognitive resources are used to manage the stress of financial shortage (Mani et al., 2013).
Constraints across teachers’ personal systems include burnout, stress and/or depression, difficulty asking for assistance, family pressure, and being overwhelmed by multiple demands, roles and responsibilities (Ebersöhn, 2014; Mansfield et al., 2018).
Constraints across teacher micro- and mesosystems include limited resources, infrastructure
and teacher aids (Ebersöhn, 2017; Rahim & Chun, 2017). “Teachers, learners and families have to overcome everyday burdens of limited transport, lack of electricity and water, and scarce services to access available educational resources” (Ebersöhn, 2017, p. 1). Additional meso level constraints include an absence of community support, little or no parental involvement, sub-standard PD prospects, deficient salaries, chronic absenteeism of teachers in developing countries due to the need to partake in informal entrepreneurial activities to supplement their insufficient salaries (Castro et al., 2010; Kadzamira, 2006).
The long-term consequences of colonialism and the myriad concerns that the present South African government faces in terms of corruption, infrastructure shortages, and broader societal issues like poverty, unemployment (which leads to crime), and poor public health (Ebersöhn, 2017; Mansfield et al., 2018) create a challenged exo- and macrosystem for South African teachers to navigate. “The health risk associated with HIV/AIDS is a unique and growing challenge in South African schools” (Mansfield et al., 2018, p. 65) that has devastating consequences for academic performance and learning. The burden of these challenges often places teachers in a position where they have to adopt different roles and take on extra responsibilities (Mansfield et al., 2018).
The South African emerging economy invests 6.1% of its gross domestic product (GDP) in public education (OECD, 2014). The post-apartheid political transformation in the country has resulted in many factors challenged the successful development of the education sector. Some of these factors include “inefficient government bureaucracy, corruption, inadequate supply of infrastructure and broader societal issues such as unemployment, poverty, crime and poor public health” (Mansfield et al., 2018, p. 54). Developed economies like Australia only spend 4.6% of GDP on public education; however, the developed infrastructure, teacher training, technology, resources, and access to support staff make efficient education more viable. “[Sixty two per cent] (62%) of South Africa’s public schools are situated in the poorest and most underdeveloped South African rural communities”
(Mansfield et al., 2018, p. 54), making successful education in these contexts difficult to achieve in the face of unemployment, chronic poverty and HIV (Mansfield et al., 2018). Within the exosystem surrounding the teacher, we find the physical infrastructure and resources available in the teaching environment. There are bigger macrosystem elements connected to this, such as a heavy workload and lack of resources (Mansfield et al., 2018). On a policy level, teachers need to keep up to date with continual policy changes to facilitate transformation (Loots et al., 2012). South African policy on teacher roles and competencies needs to adapt traditional roles and responsibilities for teachers working in high-risk contexts in the developing world (Ebersöhn et al., 2015).