2.5 Defining SC and the Relevance for TR
2.5.2 Defining SC and Related Concepts
The importance of SC is apparent in many branches of psychological research, such as developmental (Erikson, 1959; Olsson et al., 2013;Stavrova & Luhmann, 2016), clinical (Jung, 1933; Lee & Robbins, 1998; Lee et al., 2001) and social psychology (Heath, 1999; Seppala et al., 2013). Despite a vast amount of literature on the subject, there is not yet an agreed-upon definition of SC, nor an agreement on what constructs comprise SC (Hortulanus et al., 2006;
Seppala et al., 2013; Zavaleta et al., 2014, 2017). “The term social connectedness represents one’s subjective sense of connection not only to close others but to the whole social world, which includes close others, strangers, and the community at large” (Seppala et al., 2013, p. 415). For work in resource-constrained Global South settings, SC is defined as a person’s
subjective sense of having meaningful and positive relationships with others in a social context (Seppala et al., 2013; Zavaleta et al., 2014, 2017).
All SC definitions have in common the importance of interpersonal relationships and the degree to which someone is connected to their social context (Seppala et al., 2013).
Psychologists have proved empirically that SC is a key human need, mirroring the beliefs of Abraham Maslow (1943), one of the founding fathers of personality psychology. Abraham Maslow theorised that when “basic physiological and safety requirements are met, a person’s primary psychological need is a sense of affectionate and loving connection to others”
(Seppala et al., 2013, p. 411). Social relationship dynamics influence one’s personal identity, and participation in social groups is essential for human reproduction and survival. Thus, relationships play an essential role in meeting basic needs from birth to old age (Baumeister, 2005; Koltko-Rivera, 2006).
SC is referred to by different terms in different subfields of psychology. For example,
“the subfield of developmental psychology uses the term attachment; clinical psychology and related socio-logical research employ the terms social support and loneliness; and social psychology applies the terms belongingness, social connectedness, and social exclusion”
(Seppala et al., 2013, p. 413). These different research terms all refer to the same overarching concept of SC (Seppala et al., 2013). Even though different terms for SC come from different research fields, “the terms attachment, relatedness, social support, loneliness, belongingness, social connectedness, and social exclusion are similar and differ only slightly— with regard to the breadth of their scope. For example, some terms refer exclusively to social connection with close others (for example, attachment), while others include the larger social community (for example, social connectedness)” (Seppala et al., 2013, p. 416).
“Formulations articulating the upside of the human experience came from clinical (Jung, 1933), developmental (Erikson, 1959), existential (Frankl, 1963), and humanistic (Rogers, 1961) psychology” (Ryff, 2018, p. 242). Their theories define what it means to be mentally well, actively engaged, and self-actualised in various ways. All the above perspectives emphasise interpersonal ties as central to a positive, well‐lived life (Ryff, 2018).
As existential perspectives emphasise, creating meaning and direction in one's life is essential to living genuinely. According to Maslow, self-actualisers feel strong empathy and affection for others and can experience tremendous love and sustain intense relationships. However, Erikson's perspective of adult development indicates that such individuals are stressed in close relationships with others (expressing intimacy) and leading or directing others (generativity) (Ruini & Ryff, 2016).
Clinical psychology research on the benefits of SC invariably confirms that social support reduces psychological distress, including depression and anxiety, and promotes
to have important implications for psychological health and one’s physical health (Cacioppo et al., 2000; Ernst & Cacioppo, 1999; Taylor et al., 2002). Research has linked the following health benefits to social support: less susceptibility to heart attacks, faster recovery from heart disease, better diabetes control, less pain in arthritis patients, and protection against immune- related disorders. Stress increases the risk of unfavourable health consequences by compromising the immune system and creating vulnerability to opportunistic diseases and infections (Corr, 2005; Taylor et al., 2002).
Conversely, it is also acknowledged that the absence of SC denotes social isolation and exclusion (Barry, 1998; Sen, 2000; Zavaleta et al., 2014, 2017). Loneliness is marked by A lack of positive social connections with others invariably leads to loneliness (Heinrich &
Gullone, 2006; Salimi & Bozorgpour, 2012). People have different needs for belongingness and connectedness. People who have difficulty forming and maintaining meaningful connections are more prone to suffer from a sense of deprivation, which appears as symptoms of anger, despair, anxiety, and loneliness (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Cacioppo et al., 2000).
Coleman (1988), one of the principal theorists of social capital, defines it as comprising different networks of individuals engaged in mutual aid based on reciprocity and high levels of trust. Individuals can use these networks as resources, and they can also be used to encourage collective action. Social capital is distinct from social networks and support concepts dependent on personal characteristics. Social capital is a collective characteristic of society and not internal to the individual. Social capital is an ecological attribute of the social framework, not of specific individuals within the social structure (Lochnera et al., 1999).
Whereas physical and human capital is embodied in tangible observable material, social capital is less substantial and is embodied in relations between people (Coleman, 1988).
Social capital is a critical resource for developing resilience, which is developed within the school through interactions with co-workers, leaders/mentors, and outside the school with social networks, family and friends (Le Cornu & Ewing, 2008; Roffey, 2012).
Theories on social capital have advanced the relevance of social connection for economic and sociological analysis. However, these theories do not get to the heart of addressing the social connectivity of a person (Zavaleta et al., 2014). More importantly, one’s own assessment of their social relations needs to be a central component of this evaluation.
Social support has a valuable impact only if it is affectionate and perceived as such, and is therefore highly subjective (Cacioppo et al., 2000; De Jong Gierveld, 2010). One’s past experiences, and the individual’s perceptions, determine a person’s subjective evaluation of the quality of social relations (Zavaleta et al., 2014).
It is important to consider that the mere existence of a social network does not necessarily mean that the individual in that network will be open to social support. Instead, the delivery of effective social support must be acknowledged as support by both the giver and
the receiver. Similarly, as explained by Ebersöhn and Loots (2016, p. 81), “the existence of social capital does necessarily guarantee that social support will be available when needed by people in stressful situations (Nurullah, 2012)”. Kim et al. (2006) propose that the cultural context, gender, reciprocity, provider motivation, and the fitness of a match between the kind of stressors and the type of support provided impact the outcome of receiving and providing support.
In a general sense, “affiliation” refers to a state of being closely associated with or connected to an individual or group (Merriam-Webster, n.d.). SC is a subjective state, based on the perceptions of the individual, similar to states like loneliness and affection. Although it includes a broader scope of connection, it still emphasises affectionate connection to others, even when the relevant community consists of strangers (Seppala et al., 2013). In another sense, affiliation is closely linked to voluntary association with groups such as professional organisations, trade unions, or volunteer groups (Smith, 1994). In this instance, association with a broader community and membership in the group are voluntary so that members can withdraw from the group at any time. Such voluntary connections are effective vehicles for self-expression and identity formation (Stavrova & Luhmann, 2014). Such members experience meaning in life and self-expression through their subjective sense of belonging to the community. Their willingness contributes to the community through their active participation and voluntary association with the group. (Smith, 1994; Stavrova & Luhmann, 2014).
The extent to which people experience social support is dependent on several aspects.
These include: how large one’s support network is, whether the right kind of support comes from the right kind of person and whether the support provided is appropriate for meeting the stressor (Taylor et al., 2002). This links back to OPHI’s conceptualisation of SC involving both QUAN+QUAL aspects and the complex and sometimes indirect interplay between the two (Zavaleta et al., 2014). For example, someone may have a large support network, but the support provided may not be appropriate for meeting the stressor. Furthermore, the experience of social exclusion is dependent on individual characteristics that differ from person to person (Corr, 2005).
A healthy connection to the external world leads to a healthy sense of self, increasing self-esteem and promoting a meaningful and balanced life. Abundant research confirms the established benefits of group living, including the health benefits of social contact and social support, particularly during stressful times (Barry, 1998; Sen, 2000; Zavaleta et al., 2014, 2017). Despite the multiplicity of pathways towards growth, “all traditions conceptualize the highest stage in human development as the dis-identification and transcendence from the individual self, by acknowledging its interconnection with a broader and more complex reality”
connectedness and interdependence are to humans as water is to fish. The well-being of humans cannot be conceptualised without interconnectedness/relatedness as the welling of a fish without water” (Delle Fave & Soosai-Nathan, 2014, p. 36). The South African belief system of “Ubuntu” conceptualises identity as it emerges through relationships. There is little emphasis on the stand-alone individual in an African worldview but rather on a connection with social and emotional ties. These ties form part of every community member's obligations (Ebersöhn et al., 2014).
Similarly, trust has been identified as an important feature in developing social capital (Coleman, 1988; Tomilson, 2020). Trust is also acknowledged as an important measure of internal SC and internal isolation (Zavaleta et al., 2014, 2017). The conceptualisation of characteristics as either internal or external (or subjective/objective) relates to a differentiation between behaviour patterns and personal attitudes (Hawthorne, 2006). Thus, social networks are seen as behavioural, while trust is seen as an attitude (Zavaleta et al., 2014). International TR has highlighted the importance of trusting relationships between teaching co-workers for TR (Le Cornu, 2013). A sense of trust in school leadership has also been indicated in the literature by several scholars as a factor affecting teacher attrition and motivation (Le Cornu, 2013). Ebersöhn (2012, 2013, 2019) has identified trust in community networks as an essential factor affecting TR for South African teachers. As reciprocity and trust have been identified as important facilitating factors for TR, especially in “Ubuntu”-Afrocentric, resource-constrained contexts, this calls for further South African research in this area.
Reciprocity has been identified in the literature as an essential mechanism for the development of social capital (Roffey, 2012). Social capital has increasingly been brought into debates about what enables healthy communities to flourish. From this perspective, people are most likely to be healthy living in communities that cultivate trust, participate in formal and informal support networks, exercise reciprocity, and have positive local identities (Sandefur et al., 2006). Providing and receiving social support is seen as a behavioural expression of SC beliefs and practices synonymous with an Afrocentric cultural worldview (Ebersöhn, 2019).
From a collectivist viewpoint, communities function through communal societies and smart partnerships sharing costs and incomes in financial undertakings (Ebersöhn, 2019).
Social-emotional competence can be defined as “a set of skills including recognising and managing our emotions, developing caring and concern for others, establishing positive relationships, making responsible decisions, and handling challenged situations constructively and ethically” (Zhou & Ee, 2012, p. 28). The documented benefits of social-emotional competence for teachers include reduced stress, reduced risk of burn-out, improved self- efficacy and greater job satisfaction (Anari, 2012; Collie & Perry, 2019; Gu & Day, 2013;
Mansfield et al., 2016). In South African TR research, Ebersöhn (2012, 2013, 2019) has identified social-emotional competence as an enabling factor for TR by suggesting that social-
emotional competence in Afrocentric culture is a critical aspect in enabling resilience through the cultural mechanism of “flocking.”
The need to feel belongingness and connectedness with others stems from self- determination theory and has been identified as an essential psychological need in human flourishing (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Keyes (2002) operationalises flourishing as the presence of mental health (as opposed to the absence thereof), characterised by symptoms of positive feelings/functioning. The literature indicates that social support processes buffer sympathetic responses to acute stress in adults by releasing Oxytocin (Taylor et al., 2002). Oxytocin appears to inhibit cortisol secretion in humans and down-regulate responses to stress. “The formation of enduring bonds may play an important role in structuring adaptive responses to stressors, since the mechanisms that arose to facilitate their development likely evolved in environments that presented numerous survival challenges” (Olff et al., 2013, p. 1884). Our need for safe ties and our vulnerability to the ups and downs of our relationships persists throughout adulthood. Unlike troubled adult relationships, which are linked to higher stress levels and weakened immune systems, caring relationships are linked to improved physical health, including heart and immunological function and stress tolerance (Cozolino, 2006).