In this book, we understand the multiple causes of school bullying in terms of the interaction of risk factors operating at four different levels thought to contribute to aggressive behaviour, that is, individual, interpersonal, community and society. This idea is illustrated in Figure 1.1 and is based on the World Health Organization’s (WHO 1999, 2002) model of how to understand violence.
The first level of the model focuses on the biological and personal history characteristics of the individual that might contribute to the development of bullying behaviour or victimization. For example, early work carried out by Olweus (1980, 1997) with a sample of adolescents (n= 51) revealed the importance of a number of factors in the development of an aggressive reaction pattern including the child’s temperament. A child with a ‘hot-headed’ temperament as opposed to a child with a quieter disposition was more likely to develop into an aggressive youngster. Moreover, Olweus (1978, cited in Olweus 1997) found that, in general, typical victims were more anxious and insecure than other pupils. This, combined with low levels of self-esteem and feelings of shame, stupidity and unattractiveness, led Olweus (1997: 176) to label this type of victimpassive/submissivestating that their behaviour and attitude were ‘a signal to others that they are insecure and worthless individuals who will not retaliate if they are attacked or insulted’. On the other hand, provocative victims were characterized by a combination of both anxious and aggressive reaction patterns; they could also be regarded as lacking in concentration, suffering from hyperactivity, and displaying irritating behaviour (Olweus 1997).
The second level of the model concentrates on how interpersonal relationships, such as those with peers and family, have the potential to increase the risk for victimization and perpetration of violence in terms of shaping an individual’s behaviour. For example, peer friendships can act either as a protective factor against 18 NEW PERSPECTIVES ON BULLYING
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victimization or as a risk factor for engaging in bullying of others. Pellegrini et al.’s (1999) study with a sample of elementary schoolchildren explored the relationship between the occurrence of victimization and bullying with group affiliation. Their results suggested that having friends and being liked by one’s peers acted as protective factors against victimization. On the other hand, research into aggressive behaviour and social networks with 10- and 13-year-olds suggested that aggressive children tended to affiliate with aggressive peers thereby providing mutual support for aggressive behaviours towards others (Cairns et al. 1988). In terms of the family context, in their study of bullying and parenting styles with 238 11 to 14-year-olds, Baldry and Farrington (2000) found that bullies were more likely than non-bullies were to have authoritarian, high punitive and low supportive parents who disagreed with each other. Olweus (1980, 1997) identified a number of other factors in the development of an aggressive reaction pattern in adolescent boys. These included a negative emotional attitude characterized by a lack of warmth and involvement by the primary caregiver during the early years; permissiveness on the part of the primary caregiver for aggressive behaviour by the child; and the use of power-assertive child-rearing methods such as physical punishment and violent emotional outbursts.
Olweus (1997: 179) summarizes these findings stating, ‘too little love and care and too much “freedom” in childhood are conditions that contribute strongly in the development of an aggressive reaction pattern’. (For further discussion see Chapter 4.) The third level of the model examines the community contexts in which interpersonal relationships occur, in this case schools and neighbourhoods, and seeks to identify those settings that are associated with an increased risk for violent behaviour, either as a victim or as a perpetrator. Risk factors at this level may include high levels of residential mobility, heterogeneity, high population density, high levels of unemployment, and the local presence of gangs, guns and drug-dealing activity.
Thus, specific characteristics of a neighbourhood, such as violent behaviour, weapon- carrying and gang feuds on the streets can permeate school communities to support violent attitudes and behaviours. For instance, a study that addressed possible cross-cultural differences in children’s moral appraisals in relation to the task of putting themselves into the role of the bully in a bullying scenario found that children from southern Italy attributed higher attitudes of moral disengagement (i.e.
pride and indifference) to themselves in comparison to the Spanish participants (Menesini, Sanchez et al. 2003). These authors suggest that specific characteristics of southern Italy, such as, high unemployment, the strong presence of organized crime,
Wider
Society Community Interpersonal Individual
Figure 1.1 Ecological model for understanding school bullying Source:adapted from WHO (2002).
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which is almost accepted as a normal event in everyday life, and ‘Mafia-like feelings’
which often pervade school communities, people’s habits and behaviours, can easily support attitudes of moral disengagement.
The fourth level of the ecological model looks at the wider societal factors that influence rates of violence. These include prevailing social and cultural norms that support violence as an acceptable way to resolve conflicts, norms that give priority to parental rights over child welfare, norms that entrench male dominance over women and children, norms that support the use of excessive force by police against citizens, and norms that support political conflict. For instance, it has been suggested that schools tend to perpetuate typically male values, which are in opposition to the development of empathic responses to others (Askew 1989; Carter 2002). As an example, based on a four-year action research project in an all boys’ comprehensive, Carter (2002) examined the dynamics of classroom relationships, perceptions of rights and constructions of male identities. Based on her findings she argued that attitudes and behaviours (e.g. aggressive interplay, low-level verbal and emotional harassment, overt racism, open peer criticism) which explicitly espoused competition and masculinity were prevalent and reinforced by implicit practices and subtle encouragement (e.g. minimal help for pupils experiencing problems). Furthermore, there seemed to be a reluctance among the staff to intervene in conflicts (e.g. in the corridors), thereby compounding assumptions of acceptability.
Other societal factors, such as the health, educational, economic and social policies that maintain high levels of economic or social inequality between groups in society, are also included at this level. As an example, a nationwide study carried out in the Republic of Ireland found that in both primary and secondary schools designated as ‘disadvantaged’ (achieved on the basis of socio-economic and educa- tional indicators such as unemployment levels, housing, medical card holders, and information on basic literacy and numeracy skills), significantly more pupils reported that they had bullied others than did pupils from ‘advantaged’ schools (O’Moore et al. 1997).
The absence of such risk factors will help to protect children and young people against involvement in crime, drug abuse and antisocial behaviour. In addition, there are a number of protective factors that may help to protect children and young people from bullying, especially those from high-risk backgrounds. Protective factors refer to ‘factors that have been consistently associated with good outcomes for children growing up in circumstances where they are, otherwise, heavily exposed to risk’ (France and Utting 2005: 80). Such factors are summarized in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1. Protective factors for bullying (taken from Beinart et al. 2002; Farrington 1996; Youth Justice Board 2005).
Individual Characteristics Female gender
Resilient temperament A sense of self-efficacy
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A positive, outgoing disposition High intelligence
Interpersonal
A strong sense of attachment with one or both parents, characterized by a stable, warm and affectionate relationship
Parents who maintain a strong interest in their children’s education
Opportunities for consultation, shared social activities and positive involve- ment in family and school life
Parents and teachers who provide effective supervision, clear rules and consist- ent discipline
Parents, teachers and peers who hold pro-social attitudes and model positive social behaviour
Recognition and due praise within the family and the school
Community
Opportunities to feel positively involved in the life of the school and the local community
Parents, teachers and community leaders who lead by example and hold clearly stated expectations regarding behaviour
Encouragement for all children and young people to fulfil their potential
Wider Society
Healthy social attitudes towards anti-social and criminal behaviour
Learning points
+ While there is widespread agreement within the research community that bullying is characterized by three key features, that is, intentionality, repetition and an imbalance of power between perpetrator and victim, teachers and pupils hold much broader definitions.
+ School bullying takes different forms, including physical, verbal, relational and cyber. However, both staff and pupils are more likely to view physical bullying as more serious and harmful than other forms of bullying.
+ Large-scale studies suggest that school bullying is a daily reality for many children and young people.
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+ A number of individual differences, such as race, religion or culture, disability, sexual orientation and gender might be used as reasons for bullying others.
+ Bullying can be understood in terms of an interaction of risk factors operating at four different levels, that is, individual characteristics, interper- sonal relationships, community contexts and wider society.
+ Research suggests that both trainee teachers and inservice teachers would like more training to understand, identify and address school bullying.
Resources
Department for Children, Schools and Families (DCSF) (2007)Safe to Learn: Embedding Anti-bullying Work in Schools. London: DCSF.
DCSF (2008) Bullying Involving Children with Special Educational Needs and Disabilities: Safe to learn: Embedding Anti-bullying Work in Schools. London: DCSF.
DCSF (2007) Cyberbullying: Safe to Learn: Embedding Anti-bullying Work in Schools.
London: DCSF.
DCSF (2007) Homophobic Bullying: Safe to Learn: Embedding Anti-bullying Work in Schools. London: DCSF.
Spell it out: Tackling homophobia in our schools. London: Stonewall. DVD and teachers’ resource. (www.stonewall.org.uk).
Department for Education and Skills (2006). Bullying Around Racism, Religion and Culture. London: DfES.
Web sites
Digizen offers information and advice on recognizing and addressing cyber bullying, including classroom resources and a downloadable film called ‘Let’s Fight it Together’
(www.digizen.org).
EACH provides training on the legalities concerning sexual orientation and strives to challenge homophobia through education (www.eachaction.org.uk).
Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Trans History Month, an annual event every February (www.lgbthistorymonth.org.uk).
MENCAP is the UK’s leading learning disability charity working with people with a learning disability and their families and carers (www.mencap.org.uk).
Schools Out works for equality in education for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transpeo- ple (www.schools-out.org.uk).
Stonewall is an organization which aims to promote a safe learning environment for all by challenging homophobia and homophobic bullying in schools (www.stonewal- l.org.uk).
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WOMANKIND aims to raise awareness and transform attitudes to stop violence against women (www.womankind.org.uk).
Young Voice is a registered charity working on youth participation and engagement, focusing on bullying (www.young-voice.org).
YWCA England and Wales is the leading charity working with young women facing poverty, discrimination or abuse, including those that have been bullied at school or faced violence at home (www.ywca.org.uk).
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